Emerging themes in heterotrimeric G-protein signaling in plants

SymRK Regulates G-Protein Signaling During Nodulation in Soybean (Glycine max) by Modifying RGS Phosphorylation and Activity

Molecular interspecies dialogue between leguminous plants and nitrogen-fixing rhizobia results in the development of symbiotic root nodules. This is initiated by several nodulation-related receptors present on the surface of root hair epidermal cells. We have shown previously that specific subunits of heterotrimeric G-proteins and their associated regulator of G-protein signaling (RGS) proteins act as molecular links between the receptors and downstream components during nodule formation in soybeans. Nod factor receptor 1 (NFR1) interacts with and phosphorylates RGS proteins to regulate the G-protein cycle. Symbiosis receptor-like kinases (SymRK) phosphorylate Gα to make it inactive and unavailable for Gβγ. We now show that like NFR1, SymRK also interacts with the RGS proteins to phosphorylate them. Phosphorylated RGS has higher activity for accelerating guanosine triphosphate (GTP) hydrolysis by Gα, which favors conversion of active Gα to its inactive form. Phosphorylation of RGS proteins is physiologically relevant, as overexpression of a phospho-mimic version of the RGS protein enhances nodule formation in soybean. These results reveal an intricate fine-tuning of the G-protein signaling during nodulation, where a negative regulator (Gα) is effectively deactivated by RGS due to the concerted efforts of several receptor proteins to ensure adequate nodulation. [Formula: see text] Copyright © 2024 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license.

Heterotrimeric Gα-subunit regulates flower and fruit development in CLAVATA signaling pathway in cucumber

Flowers and fruits are the reproductive organs in plants and play essential roles in natural beauty and the human diet. CLAVATA (CLV) signaling has been well characterized as regulating floral organ development by modulating shoot apical meristem (SAM) size; however, the signaling molecules downstream of the CLV pathway remain largely unknown in crops. Here, we found that functional disruption of CsCLV3 peptide and its receptor CsCLV1 both resulted in flowers with extra organs and stumpy fruits in cucumber. A heterotrimeric G protein α-subunit (CsGPA1) was shown to interact with CsCLV1. Csgpa1 mutant plants derived from gene editing displayed significantly increased floral organ numbers and shorter and wider fruits, a phenotype resembling that of Csclv mutants in cucumber. Moreover, the SAM size was enlarged and the longitudinal cell size of fruit was decreased in Csgpa1 mutants. The expression of the classical stem cell regulator WUSCHEL (WUS) was elevated in the SAM, while the expression of the fruit length stimulator CRABS CLAW (CRC) was reduced in the fruit of Csgpa1 mutants. Therefore, the Gα-subunit CsGPA1 protein interacts with CsCLV1 to inhibit floral organ numbers but promote fruit elongation, via repressing CsWUS expression and activating CsCRC transcription in cucumber. Our findings identified a new player in the CLV signaling pathway during flower and fruit development in dicots, increasing the number of target genes for precise manipulation of fruit shape during crop breeding.

Moving beyond the arabidopsis-centric view of G-protein signaling in plants

Heterotrimeric G-protein-mediated signaling is a key mechanism to transduce a multitude of endogenous and environmental signals in diverse organisms. The scope and expectations of plant G-protein research were set by pioneering work in metazoans. Given the similarity of the core constituents, G-protein-signaling mechanisms were presumed to be universally conserved. However, because of the enormous diversity of survival strategies and endless forms among eukaryotes, the signal, its interpretation, and responses vary even among different plant groups. Earlier G-protein research in arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) has emphasized its divergence from Metazoa. Here, we compare recent evidence from diverse plant lineages with the available arabidopsis G-protein model and discuss the conserved and novel protein components, signaling mechanisms, and response regulation.

Nitrate-responsive transcriptome analysis of rice RGA1 mutant reveals the role of G-protein alpha subunit in negative regulation of nitrogen-sensitivity and use efficiency

KEY MESSAGE

Nitrate-responsive transcriptomic, phenotypic and physiological analyses of rice RGA1 mutant revealed many novel RGA1-regulated genes/processes/traits related to nitrogen use efficiency, and provided robust genetic evidence of RGA1-regulation of NUE. Nitrogen (N) use efficiency (NUE) is important for sustainable agriculture. G-protein signalling was implicated in N-response/NUE in rice, but needed firm genetic characterization of the role of alpha subunit (RGA1). The knock-out mutant of RGA1 in japonica rice exhibited lesser nitrate-dose sensitivity than the wild type (WT), in yield and NUE. We, therefore, investigated its genomewide nitrate-response relative to WT. It revealed 3416 differentially expressed genes (DEGs), including 719 associated with development, grain yield and phenotypic traits for NUE. The upregulated DEGs were related to photosynthesis, chlorophyll, tetrapyrrole and porphyrin biosynthesis, while the downregulated DEGs belonged to cellular protein metabolism and transport, small GTPase signalling, cell redox homeostasis, etc. We validated 26 nitrate-responsive DEGs across functional categories by RT-qPCR. Physiological validation of nitrate-response in the mutant and the WT at 1.5 and 15 mM doses revealed higher chlorophyll and stomatal length but decreased stomatal density, conductance and transpiration. The consequent increase in photosynthesis and water use efficiency may have contributed to better yield and NUE in the mutant, whereas the WT was N-dose sensitive. The mutant was not as N-dose-responsive as the WT in shoot/root growth, productive tillers and heading date, but equally responsive as WT in total N and protein content. The RGA1 mutant was less impacted by higher N-dose or salt stress in terms of yield, protein content, photosynthetic performance, relative water content, water use efficiency and catalase activity. PPI network analyses revealed known NUE-related proteins as RGA1 interactors. Therefore, RGA1 negatively regulates N-dose sensitivity and NUE in rice.

An emerging role of heterotrimeric G-proteins in nodulation and nitrogen sensing

MAIN CONCLUSION

A comprehensive understanding of nitrogen signaling cascades involving heterotrimeric G-proteins and their putative receptors can assist in the production of nitrogen-efficient plants. Plants are immobile in nature, so they must endure abiotic stresses including nutrient stress. Plant development and agricultural productivity are frequently constrained by the restricted availability of nitrogen in the soil. Non-legume plants acquire nitrogen from the soil through root membrane-bound transporters. In depleted soil nitrogen conditions, legumes are naturally conditioned to fix atmospheric nitrogen with the aid of nodulation elicited by nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Moreover, apart from the symbiotic nitrogen fixation process, nitrogen uptake from the soil can also be a significant secondary source to satisfy the nitrogen requirements of legumes. Heterotrimeric G-proteins function as molecular switches to help plant cells relay diverse stimuli emanating from external stress conditions. They are comprised of Gα, Gβ and Gγ subunits, which cooperate with several downstream effectors to regulate multiple plant signaling events. In the present review, we concentrate on signaling mechanisms that regulate plant nitrogen nutrition. Our review highlights the potential of heterotrimeric G-proteins, together with their putative receptors, to assist the legume root nodule symbiosis (RNS) cascade, particularly during calcium spiking and nodulation. Additionally, the functions of heterotrimeric G-proteins in nitrogen acquisition by plant roots as well as in improving nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) have also been discussed. Future research oriented towards heterotrimeric G-proteins through genome editing tools can be a game changer in the enhancement of the nitrogen fixation process. This will foster the precise manipulation and production of plants to ensure global food security in an era of climate change by enhancing crop productivity and minimizing reliance on external inputs.

Tomato Systemin induces resistance against Plectosphaerella cucumerina in Arabidopsis through the induction of phenolic compounds and priming of tryptophan derivatives

Phytocytokines are endogenous danger peptides that are actively released after a pest or pathogen attack, triggering an amplification of plant immune responses. Here, we found that Systemin, a peptide from tomato, has a substantial impact at the molecular level in Arabidopsis plants that leads to induced resistance against Plectosphaerella cucumerina. Using transcriptional and metabolomics approaches, and loss-of-function mutants to analyse the molecular mechanisms underlying induced resistance against the necrotroph, we decipher the enhanced molecular responses in Systemin-treated plants following infection. Some protein complexes involved in the response to other damage signals, including the BAK1-BIK1 protein complex and heterotrimeric G proteins, as well as MPK activation, were among the early signalling events triggered by Systemin in Arabidopsis upon infection. Non-targeted analysis of the late responses underlying Systemin-Induced Resistance¹ (Sys-IR) showed that phenolic and indolic compounds were the most representative groups in the Systemin metabolic fingerprint. Lack of flavonoids resulted in the impairment of Sys-IR. On the other hand, some indolic compounds showed a priming profile and were also essential for functional Sys-IR. Evidence presented here shows that plants can sense heterologous peptides from other species as danger signals driving the participation of common protein cascades activated in the PTI and promoting enhanced resistance against necrotrophic fungus.

Stomatal closure induced by hydrogen-rich water is dependent on GPA1 in Arabidopsis thaliana

Hydrogen (H₂) is a new signaling molecule that regulates stomatal closure via stimulating the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitric oxide (NO) in Arabidopsis thaliana. GPA1 is the sole heterotrimeric G protein canonical α subunit found in Arabidopsis genome and functions in stomatal closure. Here, we estimated a possible role of Arabidopsis GPA1 in hydrogen-rich water (HRW)-induced stomatal closure. Our data indicated that HRW induced significant stomatal closure as well as the generation of ROS and NO in the Col-0 guard cells. However, the production of ROS and NO and stomatal closure induced by HRW were absent in the gpa1-4 mutant lacking the expression of AtGPA1. By contrast, overexpression of AtGPA1 in gpa1-4 (AtGPA1-HA/gpa1-4) restored stomatal closure and the generation of NO and ROS in the presence of HRW. Taken together, our results suggest that GPA1 is necessary for HRW-induced stomatal closure in Arabidopsis.

FFGA1 Protein Is Essential for Regulating Vegetative Growth, Cell Wall Integrity, and Protection against Stress in Flammunina filiformis

Flammulina filiformis is a popular mushroom which has been regarded as a potential model fungus for mycelium growth, fruiting body development, and stress response studies. Based on a genome-wide search, four genes encoding heterotrimeric G protein α subunits were identified in F. filiformis. The data of conserved domain analysis showed that these genes contain only one subgroup I of Gα subunit (Gαi), similar to many other fungi. To explore the function of Gαi, FfGa1 over-expression (OE) and RNA interference (RNAi) strains were generated using the Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation (ATMT) approach. RNAi strains showed remarkably reduced growth on PDA medium and sensitivity to cell wall-perturbing agents, with maximum growth inhibition, but showed better growth in response to hypertonic stress-causing agents, while OE strains exhibited more resistance to thermal stress and mycoparasite Trichoderma as compared to the wild-type and RNAi strains. Taken together, our results indicated that FfGa1 positively regulates hyphal extension, and is crucial for the maintenance of cell wall integrity and protection against biotic and abiotic (hypertonic and thermal) stress.

SymRK-dependent phosphorylation of Gα protein and its role in signaling during soybean (Glycine max) nodulation

Heterotrimeric G proteins, comprised of Gα, Gβ and Gγ subunits, influence signaling in most eukaryotes. In metazoans, G proteins are activated by G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR)-mediated GDP to GTP exchange on Gα; however, the role(s) of GPCRs in regulating plant G-protein signaling remains equivocal. Mounting evidence suggests the involvement of receptor-like kinases (RLKs) in regulating plant G-protein signaling, but their mechanistic details remain scarce. We have previously shown that during Glycine max (soybean) nodulation, the nod factor receptor 1 (NFR1) interacts with G-protein components and indirectly affects signaling. We explored the direct regulation of G-protein signaling by RLKs using protein-protein interactions, receptor-mediated in vitro phosphorylations and the effects of such phosphorylations on soybean nodule formation. Results presented in this study demonstrate a direct, phosphorylation-based regulation of Gα by symbiosis receptor kinase (SymRK). SymRKs interact with and phosphorylate Gα at multiple residues in vitro, including two in its active site, which abolishes GTP binding. Additionally, phospho-mimetic Gα fails to interact with Gβγ, potentially allowing for constitutive signaling by the freed Gβγ. These results uncover an unusual mechanism of G-protein cycle regulation in plants where the receptor-mediated phosphorylation of Gα not only affects its activity but also influences the availability of its signaling partners, thereby exerting a two-pronged check on signaling.

The Role of Heterotrimeric G-Protein Beta Subunits During Nodulation in Medicago truncatula Gaertn and Pisum sativum L

Heterotrimeric G-proteins regulate plant growth and development as master regulators of signaling pathways. In legumes with indeterminate nodules (e.g., Medicago truncatula and Pisum sativum), the role of heterotrimeric G-proteins in symbiosis development has not been investigated extensively. Here, the involvement of heterotrimeric G-proteins in M. truncatula and P. sativum nodulation was evaluated. A genome-based search for G-protein subunit-coding genes revealed that M. truncatula and P. sativum harbored only one gene each for encoding the canonical heterotrimeric G-protein beta subunits, MtG beta 1 and PsG beta 1, respectively. RNAi-based suppression of MtGbeta1 and PsGbeta1 significantly decreased the number of nodules formed, suggesting the involvement of G-protein beta subunits in symbiosis in both legumes. Analysis of composite M. truncatula plants carrying the pMtGbeta1:GUS construct showed β-glucuronidase (GUS) staining in developing nodule primordia and young nodules, consistent with data on the role of G-proteins in controlling organ development and cell proliferation. In mature nodules, GUS staining was the most intense in the meristem and invasion zone (II), while it was less prominent in the apical part of the nitrogen-fixing zone (III). Thus, MtG beta 1 may be involved in the maintenance of meristem development and regulation of the infection process during symbiosis. Protein-protein interaction studies using co-immunoprecipitation revealed the possible composition of G-protein complexes and interaction of G-protein subunits with phospholipase C (PLC), suggesting a cross-talk between G-protein- and PLC-mediated signaling pathways in these legumes. Our findings provide direct evidence regarding the role of MtG beta 1 and PsG beta 1 in symbiosis development regulation.

Melatonin functions in priming of stomatal immunity in Panax notoginseng and Arabidopsis thaliana

Melatonin (MT) plays important roles in plant disease response, but the mechanisms are largely unknown. Here, we show that MT functions in stomatal immunity in Panax notoginseng and Arabidopsis thaliana. Biochemical analyses showed that MT-induced stomatal closure plays a prominent role in preventing invasion of bacteria Pseudomonas syringe pv. tomato (Pst) DC3000 via activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and NADPH oxidase-mediated reactive oxygen species production in P. notoginseng. The first putative phytomelatonin receptor 1 (PMTR1) is a plasma membrane protein required for perceiving MT signaling in stomatal closure and activation of MAPK. Biochemical and genetic tests found PMTR1 is essential for flg22- and MT-induced MAPK activation in a heterotrimeric GTP-binding protein Gα subunit GPA1-independent manner. GPA1 functions in the same genetic pathways of FLS2/BAK1 (Flagellin Sensing 2/Brassinosteroid Insensitive 1-associated kinase 1)- as well as PMTR1-mediated flg22 and MT signaling in stomatal closure. The stomata in pmtr1 are insensitive to MT and flg22, but the application of MT induces stomatal closure and reduces the bacterial growth in fls2 and bak1 plants, indicating that PMTR1 might be a downstream signaling component in FLS2- and BAK1-mediated stomatal immunity. In summary, our results (i) demonstrate that phytomelatonin functions in the priming of stomatal immunity and (ii) provide insights into the phytomelatonin signaling transduction pathway.

A Sugarcane G-Protein-Coupled Receptor, ShGPCR1, Confers Tolerance to Multiple Abiotic Stresses

Sugarcane (Saccharum spp.) is a prominent source of sugar and serves as bioenergy/biomass feedstock globally. Multiple biotic and abiotic stresses, including drought, salinity, and cold, adversely affect sugarcane yield. G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are components of G-protein-mediated signaling affecting plant growth, development, and stress responses. Here, we identified a GPCR-like protein (ShGPCR1) from sugarcane and energy cane (Saccharum spp. hybrids) and characterized its function in conferring tolerance to multiple abiotic stresses. ShGPCR1 protein sequence contained nine predicted transmembrane (TM) domains connected by four extracellular and four intracellular loops, which could interact with various ligands and heterotrimeric G proteins in the cells. ShGPCR1 sequence displayed other signature features of a GPCR, such as a putative guanidine triphosphate (GTP)-binding domain, as well as multiple myristoylation and protein phosphorylation sites, presumably important for its biochemical function. Expression of ShGPCR1 was upregulated by drought, salinity, and cold stresses. Subcellular imaging and calcium (Ca²⁺) measurements revealed that ShGPCR1 predominantly localized to the plasma membrane and enhanced intracellular Ca²⁺ levels in response to GTP, respectively. Furthermore, constitutive overexpression of ShGPCR1 in sugarcane conferred tolerance to the three stressors. The stress-tolerance phenotype of the transgenic lines corresponded with activation of multiple drought-, salinity-, and cold-stress marker genes, such as Saccharum spp. LATE EMBRYOGENESIS ABUNDANT, DEHYDRIN, DROUGHT RESPONSIVE 4, GALACTINOL SYNTHASE, ETHYLENE RESPONSIVE FACTOR 3, SALT OVERLY SENSITIVE 1, VACUOLAR Na+/H+ ANTIPORTER 1, NAM/ATAF1/2/CUC2, COLD RESPONSIVE FACTOR 2, and ALCOHOL DEHYDROGENASE 3. We suggest that ShGPCR1 plays a key role in conferring tolerance to multiple abiotic stresses, and the engineered lines may be useful to enhance sugarcane production in marginal environments with fewer resources.

Fine mapping and candidate gene analysis of the up locus determining fruit orientation in pepper (Capsicum spp.)

The up locus determining fruit orientation was fine-mapped into a region with a physical length of ~169.51 kb on chromosome P12 in pepper. Capana12g000958, encoding a developmentally regulated G protein 2, was proposed as the strongest candidate via sequence comparison and expression analysis. Fruit orientation is an important horticultural and domesticated trait, which is controlled by a single semi-dominant gene (up) in pepper. However, the gene underlying up locus has not yet been identified. In this study, the previously detected major QTL UP12.1 was firstly verified using a backcross population (n = 225) stem from the cross of BB3 (C. annuum) and its wild relative Chiltepin (C. annuum var. glabriusculum) using BB3 as the recurrent parent. Then, a large BC₁F₂ population (n = 1827) was used for recombinant screening to delimit the up locus into an interval with ~ 169.51 kb in length. Sequence comparison and expression analysis suggested that Capana12g000958, encoding a developmentally regulated G protein 2, was the most likely candidate gene for the up locus. There is no difference within the coding sequences of Capana12g000958 between BB3 and Chiltepin, while a SNP in the upstream of Capana12g000958 showed a complete correlation with the fruit orientation among a panel of 40 diverse pepper inbred lines. These findings will form a basis for gene isolation and reveal of genetic mechanism underlying the fruit orientation domestication in pepper.

A complex interplay of Gβ and Gγ proteins regulates plant growth and defence traits in the allotetraploid Brassica juncea

Gene expression analysis coupled with in-planta studies showed that specific Gβγ combination regulates plant growth and defence traits in the allotetraploid Brassica juncea. Plant heterotrimeric G-proteins regulate a wide range of responses despite their limited repertoire of core components. The roles and functional interactions between different G-protein subunits are quite perplexing, which get further complicated with polyploidy. Here, we show that the allotetraploid Brassica juncea comprises multiple homologs of G-protein genes, encoding six BjuGβ and ten highly divergent BjuGγ subunit proteins, later being classified into type-A1, type-A2 and type-C Gγ proteins. The encoded BjuGβ and BjuGγ proteins shared close evolutionary relationship and have retained distinct spatio-temporal expression patterns during plant developmental stages and in response to the necrotrophic pathogen, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. RNAi based suppression of BjuGβ and BjuGγ genes suggested functional overlap and selectivity of BjuGβs with three distinct BjuGγ type subunits, to regulate plant height (BjuGβγA2 and BjuGβγC), seed weight (BjuGβGγA1 and BjuGβGγC), silique size (BjuGβGγC) and pathogen response (BjuGβGγA1 and BjuGβGγC). Further, the triplicated BjuGβ genes, formed due to Brassica specific whole-genome-triplication event, showed differential involvement during pathogen response, wherein overexpression of BjuGβ2 displayed higher resistance to Sclerotinia infection. Taken together, our study demonstrates that multiple BjuGβ and BjuGγ proteins have retained distinct spatio-temporal expression and functional selectivity to regulate specific plant growth and defence traits in the oilseed B. juncea.

Fine Mapping and Candidate Gene Identification for the CapUp Locus Controlling Fruit Orientation in Pepper (Capsicum spp.)

The orientation of fruits is a distinguishing morphological feature of pepper (Capsicum spp.) varieties. The pendent (downward curved) growth of the fruit stalks, known as pedicels, is highly correlated with fruit weight and pedicel length. A previous genetic analysis revealed that the pendent fruit orientation is governed by a dominant gene, and incomplete inheritance is also observed in some Capsicum accessions. To identify and localize this gene, a single quantitative trait locus (QTL) analysis was performed on one F₂ and two recombinant inbred line (RIL) populations, and a genome-wide association study (GWAS) was performed using a core collection. Common QTL regions associated with fruit orientation were detected on chromosome 12. A total of 187,966 SNPs were identified in a genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS) for GWAS analysis of 196 Capsicum annuum, 25 Capsicum baccatum, 21 Capsicum chinense, and 14 Capsicum frutescens accessions, representing the germplasm collection of South Korea. The results of these analyses enabled us to narrow down the CapUp region of interest to 200-250 Mbp on chromosome 12. Seven candidate genes were found to be located between two markers that were completely cosegregated with the fruit orientation phenotype. The findings and markers developed in this study will be helpful for additional understanding of pepper fruit development and breeding for fruit orientation.

Characterization of ZmCOLD1, novel GPCR-Type G Protein genes involved in cold stress from Zea mays L. and the evolution analysis with those from other species

Maize is one of the most vital staple crops worldwide. G proteins modulate plentiful signaling pathways, and G protein-coupled receptor-type G proteins (GPCRs) are highly conserved membrane proteins in plants. However, researches on maize G proteins and GPCRs are scarce. In this study, we identified three novel GPCR-Type G Protein (GTG) genes from chromosome 10 (Chr 10) in maize, designated as ZmCOLD1-10A, ZmCOLD1-10B and ZmCOLD1-10C. Their amino acid sequences had high similarity to TaCOLD1 from wheat and OsCOLD1 from rice. They contained the basic characteristics of GTG/COLD1 proteins, including GPCR-like topology, the conserved hydrophilic loop (HL) domain, DUF3735 (domain of unknown function 3735) domain, GTPase-activating domain, and ATP/GTP-binding domain. Subcellular localization analyses of ZmCOLD1 proteins suggested that ZmCOLD1 proteins localized on plasma membrane (PM) and endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Furthermore, amino acid sequence alignment verified the conservation of the key 187th amino acid T in maize and other wild maize-relative species. Evolutionary relationship among plants GTG/COLD1 proteins family displayed strong group-specificity. Expression analysis indicated that ZmCOLD1-10A was cold-induced and inhibited by light. Together, these results suggested that ZmCOLD1 genes had potential value to improve cold tolerance and to contribute crops growth and molecular breeding.

Heterotrimeric G-proteins mediated hormonal responses in plants

Phytohormones not only orchestrate intrinsic developmental programs from germination to senescence but also regulate environmental inputs through complex signalling pathways. Despite building an own signalling network, hormones mutually contribute several signalling systems, which are also essential for plant growth and development, defense, and responses to abiotic stresses. One of such important signalling cascades is G-proteins, which act as critical regulators of a wide range of fundamental cellular processes by transducing receptor signals to the intracellular environment. G proteins are composed of α, β, and γ subunits, and the molecular switching between active and inactive conformation of Gα controls the signalling cycle. The active GTP bound Gα and freed Gβγ have both independent and tightly coordinated roles in the regulation of effector molecules, thereby modulating multiple responses, including hormonal responses. Therefore, an interplay of hormones with G-proteins fine-tunes multiple biological processes of plants; however, their molecular mechanisms are largely unknown. Functional characterization of hormone biosynthesis, perception, and signalling components, as well as identification of few effector molecules of G-proteins and their interaction networks, reduces the complexity of the hormonal signalling networks related to G-proteins. In this review, we highlight a valuable insight into the mechanisms of how the G-protein signalling cascades connect with hormonal responses to regulate increased developmental flexibility as well as remarkable plasticity of plants.

Oligomerization of A. thaliana Heterotrimeric G Protein Subunits AGB1 and AGG2 In Vitro

Plant heterotrimeric G proteins are a major group of signaling molecules involved in regulation of critical processes including stress adaptation, seed size, grain quality and immune responses. Despite an abundance of in situ functional studies; purification of the individual subunits of the plant heterotrimer for biophysical and structural characterization and for studies on their interactions are lacking. In this study cloning of the genes encoding the β subunit AGB1 of A. thaliana and its γ-subunits AGG1 and AGG2 using different E. coli expression vectors and screening of expression in several strains are reported. AGB1 could be expressed albeit at very low levels and in all cases it was accompanied by overexpression of E. coli chaperone proteins. AGG1 could only be detected in inclusion body fractions, whereas AGG2 was obtained in soluble fractions and was purified. Purified AGB1 and AGG2 subunits were shown to dimerize in vitro. Further characterization of AGG2 by small angle X-ray scattering measurements and by dynamic light scattering revealed that AGG2 formed homodimers with extended shape in solution. These results are also consistent with those from circular dichroism spectroscopy which yielded 39.4% helical and 50% random coil content for AGG2. This is the first study showing heterologous expression of a plant heterotrimeric G protein β subunit individually and presenting its interaction with a plant γ-subunit in vitro. Results also show that the AGG2 subunit has a disordered structure, which would account for its role in diverse interactions for establishing selectivity in signal propagation.

Plant G-protein signaling cascade and host defense

The heterotrimeric guanine-nucleotide-binding proteins (G-proteins) play a crucial role in signal transduction and regulate plant responses against biotic and abiotic stresses. Necrotrophic pathogens trigger Gα subunit and, in contrast, sometimes Gβγ dimers. Beneficial microbes play a vital role in the activation of heterotrimeric G-proteins in plants against biotrophic and necrotrophic pathogens. The subunits of G-protein (α, β, and γ) are activated differentially against different kinds of pathogens which in turn regulates the entry of the pathogen in a plant cell. Defense mediated by G-proteins in plants imparts resistance against several pathogens. Activation of different G-protein subunits depends on the mode of nutrition of the pathogen. The current review discussed the role of the three subunits against various pathogens. It appeared to be specific in the individual host-pathogen system as well as the role of effectors in the induction of G-proteins. We also discussed the G-protein-mediated production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), including H₂O₂, activation of NADPH oxidases, hypersensitive response (HR), phospholipases, and ion channels in response to microorganisms.

Plant receptor-like kinase signaling through heterotrimeric G-proteins

Heterotrimeric G-proteins regulate multiple aspects of plant growth, development, and response to biotic and abiotic stresses. While the core components of heterotrimeric G-proteins and their basic biochemistry are similar in plants and metazoans, key differences exist in their regulatory mechanisms. In particular, the activation mechanisms of plant G-proteins appear diverse and may include both canonical and novel modes. Classical G-protein-coupled receptor-like proteins exist in plants and interact with Gα proteins, but their ability to activate Gα by facilitating GDP to GTP exchange has not been demonstrated. Conversely, there is genetic and functional evidence that plant G-proteins interact with the highly prevalent receptor-like kinases (RLKs) and are phosphorylated by them. This suggests the exciting scenario that in plants the G-proteins integrate RLK-dependent signal perception at the plasma membrane with downstream effectors. Because RLKs are active kinases, it is also likely that the activity of plant G-proteins is regulated via phosphorylation/dephosphorylation rather than GTP-GDP exchange as in metazoans. This review discusses our current knowledge of the possible RLK-dependent regulatory mechanisms of plant G-protein signaling in the context of several biological systems and outlines the diversity that might exist in such regulation.

Phenylalanine roles in the seed-to-seedling stage: Not just an amino acid

Phenylalanine is an aromatic amino acid that provides the carbon skeleton for the phenylpropanoid pathway, making many diverse chemicals used for structure, defense, and yet undiscovered functions. The identification of the arogenate dehydratase (ADT) enzymes in the genetic model Arabidopsis thaliana provided a platform to explore the roles of phenylalanine in all stages of life: germination, in the seed-to-seedling transition stage, organelle function, and in generation of defense mechanisms, enabling further studies in other plants. From the literature, data indicate that phenylalanine produced by ADT may have direct roles in organellar and tissue development. Recent studies implicate ADTs in cell division and protection from Reactive Oxygen Species, and in signaling and growth. Research in phenylalanine and subsequent phenylpropanoids also point to a role of phenylalanine as a purveyor of C and N nutrients. The understanding of phenylalanine action in plant cells is enhanced by recent research on phenylalanine in animal cells.

Involvement of a G Protein Regulatory Circuit in Alternative Oxidase Production in Neurospora crassa

The Neurospora crassa nuclear aod-1 gene encodes an alternative oxidase that functions in mitochondria. The enzyme provides a branch from the standard electron transport chain by transferring electrons directly from ubiquinol to oxygen. In standard laboratory strains, aod-1 is transcribed at very low levels under normal growth conditions. However, if the standard electron transport chain is disrupted, aod-1 mRNA expression is induced and the AOD1 protein is produced. We previously identified a strain of N. crassa, that produces high levels of aod-1 transcript under non-inducing conditions. Here we have crossed this strain to a standard lab strain and determined the genomic sequences of the parents and several progeny. Analysis of the sequence data and the levels of aod-1 mRNA in uninduced cultures revealed that a frameshift mutation in the flbA gene results in the high uninduced expression of aod-1 The flbA gene encodes a regulator of G protein signaling that decreases the activity of the Gα subunit of heterotrimeric G proteins. Our data suggest that strains with a functional flbA gene prevent uninduced expression of aod-1 by inactivating a G protein signaling pathway, and that this pathway is activated in cells grown under conditions that induce aod-1 Induced cells with a deletion of the gene encoding the Gα protein still have a partial increase in aod-1 mRNA levels, suggesting a second pathway for inducing transcription of the gene in N. crassa We also present evidence that a translational control mechanism prevents production of AOD1 protein in uninduced cultures.

Control of grain size by G protein signaling in rice

Heterotrimeric G proteins are involved in multiple cellular processes in eukaryotes by sensing and transducing various signals. G protein signaling in plants is quite different from that in animals, and the mechanisms of plant G protein signaling are still largely unknown. Several recent studies have provided new insights into the mechanisms of G protein signaling in rice grain size and yield control. In this review, we summarize recent advances on the function of G proteins in rice grain size control and discuss the potential genetic and molecular mechanisms of plant G protein signaling.

Heterotrimeric G-Protein Signaling in Plants: Conserved and Novel Mechanisms

Heterotrimeric GTP-binding proteins are key regulators of a multitude of signaling pathways in all eukaryotes. Although the core G-protein components and their basic biochemistries are broadly conserved throughout evolution, the regulatory mechanisms of G proteins seem to have been rewired in plants to meet specific needs. These proteins are currently the focus of intense research in plants due to their involvement in many agronomically important traits, such as seed yield, organ size regulation, biotic and abiotic stress responses, symbiosis, and nitrogen use efficiency. The availability of massive sequence information from a variety of plant species, extensive biochemical data generated over decades, and impressive genetic resources for plant G proteins have made it possible to examine their role, unique properties, and novel regulation. This review focuses on some recent advances in our understanding of the mechanistic details of this critical signaling pathway to enable the precise manipulation and generation of plants to meet future needs.

Molecular Networks of Seed Size Control in Plants

The size of seeds affects not only evolutionary fitness but also grain yield of crops. Understanding the mechanisms controlling seed size has become an important research field in plant science. Seed size is determined by the integrated signals of maternal and zygotic tissues, which control the coordinated growth of the embryo, endosperm, and seed coat. Recent advances have identified several signaling pathways that control seed size through maternal tissues, including or involving the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway, G-protein signaling, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling, phytohormone perception and homeostasis, and some transcriptional regulators. Meanwhile, growth of the zygotic tissues is regulated in part by the HAIKU (IKU) pathway and phytohormones. This review provides a general overview of current findings in seed size control and discusses the emerging molecular mechanisms and regulatory networks found to be involved.

Heterotrimeric G protein signaling in plant immunity

In animals, heterotrimeric guanine nucleotide-binding proteins (G proteins) transduce signals perceived by numerous G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). However, no canonical GPCRs with guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) activity are present in plant genomes. Accumulated evidence indicates that, instead of GPCRs, the receptor-like kinases (RLKs) function upstream of G proteins in plants. Regulator of G protein signaling 1 (RGS1) functions to convert the GTP-bound Gα to the GDP-bound form through its GTPase-accelerating protein (GAP) activity. Because of the intrinsic differences in the biochemical properties between Arabidopsis and animal Gα, the actions of animal and Arabidopsis RGS1 result in contrasting outcomes in G signaling activation/deactivation. Animal RGSs accelerate the deactivation of the activated G signaling, whereas Arabidopsis RGS1 prevents the activation of G signaling in the resting state. Phosphorylation of Arabidopsis RGS1 triggered by ligand-RLK recognition results in the endocytosis or degradation of RGS1, leading to the separation of RGS1 from Gα and thus the derepression of G signaling. Here, we summarize the involvement of the G proteins in plant immunity, with a special focus on the molecular mechanism of G signaling activation/deactivation regulated by RLKs and RGS1. We also provide a brief perspective on the outstanding questions that need to be addressed to fully understand G signaling in plant immunity.

Dynamic Protein S-Acylation in Plants

Lipid modification is an important post-translational modification. S-acylation is unique among lipid modifications, as it is reversible and has thus attracted much attention. We summarize some proteins that have been shown experimentally to be S-acylated in plants. Two of these S-acylated proteins have been matched to the S-acyl transferase. More importantly, the first protein thioesterase with de-S-acylation activity has been identified in plants. This review shows that S-acylation is important for a variety of different functions in plants and that there are many unexplored aspects of S-acylation in plants.

Genetic and Systematic Approaches Toward G Protein-Coupled Abiotic Stress Signaling in Plants

Heterotrimeric G protein, composed of Gα, Gβ, and Gγ subunits, modulates plant adaptations to environmental stresses such as high salinity, drought, extreme temperatures and high light intensity. Most of these evidence were however derived solely from conventional genetics methods with which stress-associated phenotypes were compared between wild type and various G protein mutant plants. Recent advances in systematic approaches, mainly transcriptome and proteome, have contributed to in-depth understanding of molecular linkages between G proteins and environmental changes. Here, we update our knowledge on the roles of G proteins in abiotic stress responses. Furthermore, we highlight the current whole genome studies and integrated omics approach to better understand the fundamental G protein functions involved in abiotic stress responses. It is our purpose here to bridge the gap between molecular mechanisms in G protein science and stress biology and pave the way toward crop improvement researches in the future.