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Ramos-Medina L, Rosas-Vidal LE, Patel S. Pharmacological diacylglycerol lipase inhibition impairs contextual fear extinction in mice. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2024; 241:569-584. [PMID: 38182791 PMCID: PMC10884152 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-023-06523-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2023] [Accepted: 12/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/07/2024]
Abstract
Acquisition and extinction of associative fear memories are critical for guiding adaptive behavioral responses to environmental threats, and dysregulation of these processes is thought to represent important neurobehavioral substrates of trauma and stress-related disorders including posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Endogenous cannabinoid (eCB) signaling has been heavily implicated in the extinction of aversive fear memories and we have recently shown that pharmacological inhibition of 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) synthesis, a major eCB regulating synaptic suppression, impairs fear extinction in an auditory cue conditioning paradigm. Despite these data, the role of 2-AG signaling in contextual fear conditioning is not well understood. Here, we show that systemic pharmacological blockade of diacylglycerol lipase, the rate-limiting enzyme catalyzing in the synthesis of 2-AG, enhances contextual fear learning and impairs within-session extinction. In sham-conditioned mice, 2-AG synthesis inhibition causes a small increase in unconditioned freezing behavior. No effects of 2-AG synthesis inhibition were noted in the Elevated Plus Maze in mice tested after fear extinction. These data provide support for 2-AG signaling in the suppression of contextual fear learning and the expression of within-session extinction of contextual fear memories.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Luis E Rosas-Vidal
- Northwestern Center for Psychiatric Neuroscience, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA
| | - Sachin Patel
- Northwestern Center for Psychiatric Neuroscience, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, 60611, USA.
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2
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Jayan D, Timmer-Murillo S, Fitzgerald JM, Hillard CJ, de Roon-Cassini TA. Endocannabinoids, cortisol, and development of post-traumatic psychopathological trajectories. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 2023; 85:199-206. [PMID: 37956620 PMCID: PMC10843734 DOI: 10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2023.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2023] [Revised: 11/01/2023] [Accepted: 11/01/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Our prior published work using the 2-factor model of PTSD identified four subgroups of trauma survivors on average 6 months following trauma: Resilient, Dysphoria, High Comorbid, and Severe Comorbid. Some findings indicate that low and high cortisol responses may increase risk for the development of PTSD and depression respectively, yet ways in which cortisol interacts with other physiological systems to enhance risk is unclear. This study examined the role of circulating eCBs in the development of previously identified psychopathological trajectories that is differentiated by cortisol in traumatically injured adults (N = 169). METHODS Circulating concentrations of eCBs, 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) and N-arachidonoylethanolamine (AEA) were measured during post-injury hospitalization and on average 6 months following trauma. Differences in 2-AG and AEA among the subgroups were tested using multivariate ANCOVA. RESULTS Dysphoria (with highest cortisol levels) and High Comorbid subgroups exhibited higher post-injury AEA compared to the Resilient group. Dysphoria subgroup showed a significant decline in AEA by 6 months compared to Resilient and High Comorbid subgroups. CONCLUSION Change in AEA over time in individuals with high post-injury cortisol may serve as a buffer against risk for severe psychopathology. Assessing AEA and cortisol levels concurrently across time may serve as indicators of risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Devi Jayan
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Chicago, 5841 S Maryland Ave, Chicago, IL 60637, United States of America
| | - Sydney Timmer-Murillo
- Departments of Trauma & Acute Care Surgery, Psychiatry & Behavioral Medicine, 8701 Watertown Plank Rd, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA.
| | - Jacklynn M Fitzgerald
- Department of Psychology, Marquette University, 317 Cramer Hall, Milwaukee 53233, USA.
| | - Cecilia J Hillard
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical College of Wisconsin, 8701 Watertown Plank Rd., Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA.
| | - Terri A de Roon-Cassini
- Departments of Trauma & Acute Care Surgery, Psychiatry & Behavioral Medicine, 8701 Watertown Plank Rd, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA; Institute for Health & Equity, Comprehensive Injury Center, Medical College of Wisconsin, 8701 Watertown Plank Rd, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA.
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3
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Walther A, Kirschbaum C, Wehrli S, Rothe N, Penz M, Wekenborg M, Gao W. Depressive symptoms are negatively associated with hair N-arachidonoylethanolamine (anandamide) levels: A cross-lagged panel analysis of four annual assessment waves examining hair endocannabinoids and cortisol. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2023; 121:110658. [PMID: 36252885 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2022.110658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2021] [Revised: 10/10/2022] [Accepted: 10/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The endocannabinoid system (ECS) is increasingly being recognized as key regulatory system coupled with the glucocorticoid system implicated in the pathophysiology of major depressive disorder (MDD). However, prior studies examining the ECS in MDD have been inconclusive, of small sample size or of cross-sectional nature limiting interpretation of causal inferences or time-dependent effects. METHODS In a prospective community-based cohort study including 128 individuals (women: 108), depressive symptoms (PHQ-9) as well as hair cortisol and endocannabinoids were measured annually over four years (T1-T4). Cortisol, N-arachidonoylethanolamine (AEA), and 2-arachidonoyl-sn-glycerol/1-arachidonoyl-sn-glycerol (2-AG/1-AG) were extracted from 3 cm hair segments reflecting cumulative concentrations of the last three months prior sampling. RESULTS Cross-sectional group comparisons at baseline revealed reduced AEA and cortisol levels in the group with a positive MDD screening compared to individuals with low depressive symptomatology (both p < .05). Cross-lagged panel models showed that AEA levels at T2 were negatively associated with depressive symptoms at T3 (p < .05). Also, depressive symptoms at T3 were negatively associated with AEA levels at T4 (p < .01). The direction of association was reversed for 2-AG/1-AG, as 2-AG/1-AG levels at T1 were positively associated with depressive symptoms at T2 (p < .01). CONCLUSIONS While cross-sectional analyses suggest higher depressive symptomatology to be associated with reduced AEA and cortisol release, longitudinal analyses reveal that primarily AEA levels are negatively associated with depressive symptoms. These longitudinal associations elucidate time-dependent relationships between depressive symptomatology and the ECS and further highlight AEA as potential treatment target in MDD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Walther
- Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland; Biopsychology, TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | | | - Susanne Wehrli
- Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland; Biopsychology, TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany; Child and Adolescent Health Psychology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | - Marlene Penz
- Institute for Education and Psychology, Johannes Kepler University Linz, Linz, Austria
| | | | - Wei Gao
- Biopsychology, TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany.
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4
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Le Roy B, Martin-Krumm C, Pinol N, Dutheil F, Trousselard M. Human challenges to adaptation to extreme professional environments: A systematic review. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2023; 146:105054. [PMID: 36682426 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2022] [Revised: 01/16/2023] [Accepted: 01/17/2023] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
NASA is planning human exploration of the Moon, while preparations are underway for human missions to Mars, and deeper into the solar system. These missions will expose space travelers to unusual conditions, which they will have to adapt to. Similar conditions are found in several analogous environments on Earth, and studies can provide an initial understanding of the challenges for human adaptation. Such environments can be marked by an extreme climate, danger, limited facilities and supplies, isolation from loved ones, or mandatory interaction with others. They are rarely encountered by most human beings, and mainly concern certain professions in limited missions. This systematic review focuses on professional extreme environments and captures data from papers published since 2005. Our findings provide an insight into their physiological, biological, cognitive, and behavioral impacts for better understand how humans adapt or not to them. This study provides a framework for studying adaptation, which is particularly important in light of upcoming longer space expeditions to more distant destinations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Le Roy
- Stress Neurophysiology Unit, French Armed Forces Biomedical Research Institute, Brétigny-sur-Orge Cedex, France; CNES, Paris, France; APEMAC/EPSAM, EA 4360 Metz Cedex, France.
| | - Charles Martin-Krumm
- Stress Neurophysiology Unit, French Armed Forces Biomedical Research Institute, Brétigny-sur-Orge Cedex, France; APEMAC/EPSAM, EA 4360 Metz Cedex, France; École de Psychologues Praticiens, Catholic Institute of Paris, EA Religion, Culture et société, Paris, France
| | - Nathalie Pinol
- Université Clermont Auvergne, Health Library, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Frédéric Dutheil
- University Hospital of Clermont-Ferrand, CHU Clermont-Ferrand, Occupational and Environmental Medicine, WittyFit, F 63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France; Université Clermont Auvergne, CNRS, LaPSCo, Physiological and Psychosocial Stress, 34 Avenue Carnot, 63 037 Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Marion Trousselard
- Stress Neurophysiology Unit, French Armed Forces Biomedical Research Institute, Brétigny-sur-Orge Cedex, France; APEMAC/EPSAM, EA 4360 Metz Cedex, France; French Military Health Service Academy, Paris, France
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5
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Lookfong NA, Raup-Konsavage WM, Silberman Y. Potential Utility of Cannabidiol in Stress-Related Disorders. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res 2022; 8:230-240. [PMID: 36409719 PMCID: PMC10061337 DOI: 10.1089/can.2022.0130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: The endocannabinoid (eCB) system plays an important role in homeostatic regulation of anxiety and stress responses; however, the eCB system can be disrupted following traumatic stressors. Additionally, traumatic or chronic stressors that occur during adulthood or early life can cause long-lasting disturbances in the eCB system. These alterations interfere with hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis function and may be involved in lifelong increased fear and anxiety behaviors as well as increased risk for development of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Methods: This review focuses on the implications of trauma and significant stressors on eCB functionality and neural pathways, both in adolescence and into adulthood, as well as the current state of testing for CBD efficacy in treating pediatric and adult patients suffering from stress-induced eCB dysregulation. Articles were searched via Pubmed and included studies examining eCB modulation of stress-related disorders in both clinical settings and preclinical models. Conclusion: Given the potential for lifelong alterations in eCB signaling that can mediate stress responsiveness, consideration of pharmaceutical or nutraceutical agents that impact eCB targets may improve clinical outcomes in stress-related disorders. However, caution may be warranted in utilization of medicinal cannabinoid products that contain delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol due to pronounced euphorigenic effects and potential to exacerbate stress-related behaviors. Other cannabinoid products, such as cannabidiol (CBD), have shown promise in reducing stress-related behaviors in pre-clinical models. Overall, pre-clinical evidence supports CBD as a potential treatment for stress or anxiety disorders resulting from previously stressful events, particularly by reducing fearful behavior and promoting extinction of contextual fear memories, which are hallmarks of PTSD. However, very limited clinical research has been conducted examining the potential effectiveness of CBD in this regard and should be examined further.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole A. Lookfong
- Department of Neural and Behavioral Sciences, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania, USA
| | | | - Yuval Silberman
- Department of Neural and Behavioral Sciences, Penn State College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania, USA
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Hou F, Zhou X, Zhou S, Liu H, Huang YE, Yuan M, Zhu J, Cao X, Jiang W. DNA Methylation Dynamics Associated with Long-term Isolation of Simulated Space Travel. iScience 2022; 25:104493. [PMID: 35712082 PMCID: PMC9194130 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2022.104493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2022] [Revised: 04/13/2022] [Accepted: 05/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Long-term isolation is one of the risk factors that astronauts will encounter in spaceflight. At present, few researches have explored DNA methylation dynamics during long-term isolation. In this study, using time series DNA methylation data from “Mars-500” mission, we conducted a multi-step analysis to investigate the characteristics and dynamic patterns of DNA methylation as well as their functional insights during long-term isolation. The results showed that genome-wide methylation changes were minimal. In the six identified DNA methylation dynamic patterns, most of significantly fluctuating CpG sites could be returned to the baseline in post-isolation, and the remaining sites persistently decreased during isolation. Next, functional enrichment analysis of genes with each pattern revealed strong functional specificity. Some patterns were also significantly associated with nervous system diseases, digestive system diseases and cancers. In conclusion, the DNA methylation dynamics during long-term isolation have great functional significance, and might be helpful for protection of astronaut health. Six dynamic patterns of DNA methylation were identified during long-term isolation Most of significantly fluctuating methylation sites recovered in post-isolation Six patterns showed strong functional specificity Genes with decreased methylation levels might be associated with tumor
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Affiliation(s)
- Fei Hou
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing 211106, China
| | - Xu Zhou
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing 211106, China
| | - Shunheng Zhou
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing 211106, China
| | - Haizhou Liu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing 211106, China
| | - Yu-e Huang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing 211106, China
| | - Mengqin Yuan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing 211106, China
| | - Jicun Zhu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing 211106, China
| | - Xinyu Cao
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing 211106, China
| | - Wei Jiang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing 211106, China
- Corresponding author
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7
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Silveira KM, Wegener G, Joca SRL. Targeting 2-arachidonoylglycerol signalling in the neurobiology and treatment of depression. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol 2021; 129:3-14. [PMID: 33905617 DOI: 10.1111/bcpt.13595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2021] [Revised: 04/14/2021] [Accepted: 04/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) is an atypical neurotransmitter synthesized on demand in response to a wide range of stimuli, including exposure to stress. Through the activation of cannabinoid receptors, 2-AG can interfere with excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission in different brain regions and modulate behavioural, endocrine and emotional components of the stress response. Exposure to chronic or intense unpredictable stress predisposes to maladaptive behaviour and is one of the main risk factors involved in developing mood disorders, such as major depressive disorder (MDD). In this review, we describe the molecular mechanisms involved in 2-AG signalling in the brain of healthy and stressed animals and discuss how such mechanisms could modulate stress adaptation and susceptibility to depression. Furthermore, we review preclinical evidence indicating that the pharmacological modulation of 2-AG signalling stands as a potential new therapeutic target in treating MDD. Particular emphasis is given to the pharmacological augmentation of 2-AG levels by monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) inhibitors and the modulation of CB2 receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kennia M Silveira
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirao Preto (FCFRP), University of Sao Paulo (USP), Ribeirao Preto, Brazil.,Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Gregers Wegener
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Sâmia R L Joca
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirao Preto (FCFRP), University of Sao Paulo (USP), Ribeirao Preto, Brazil.,Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.,Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
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8
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Behringer V, Krumbholz A, Stevens JMG, Keiler AM, Zierau O, Hohmann G. Exploring the Utility of Hair Endocannabinoids for Monitoring Homeostasis in Bonobos. Physiol Biochem Zool 2021; 94:83-98. [PMID: 33434116 DOI: 10.1086/712658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
AbstractQuantifying physiological challenges has gained increasing importance in evolutionary biology, behavioral physiology, and conservation. One matrix that is particularly useful for obtaining long-term records of physiological changes in mammals is hair. Potential markers are components of the endocannabinoid (EC) system, which regulates homeostasis of the brain as well as the endocrine and immune systems. Here, we present results from the first study to measure ECs (anandamide [AEA], 2-archidonyl glycerol [2-AG]) and EC-like compounds (N-palmitoylethanolamine [PEA], N-oleoylethanolamine [OEA], N-stearoylethanolamine [SEA]) in the hair of a nonhuman primate. We found that AEA, SEA, PEA, and OEA can be reliably measured in hair samples. When comparing the measurements of hair from different body parts, we found that variations of some analytes suggest that hair location is likely to affect results. For changes in health status, measurements of ECs and EC-like compounds reflected differences at both intra- and interindividual levels. We concluded that the EC system potentially provides novel tools to assess well-being, health status, and metabolic stress-not only in the hair of humans but also in that of domestic and wild animals. Measuring changes in ECs and EC-like compounds may improve the long-term monitoring of health status in captive and wild primates and may serve as a useful measure in animal welfare programs.
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9
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Kang M, Bohorquez-Montoya L, McAuliffe T, Claesges SA, Blair NO, Sauber G, Reynolds CF, Hillard CJ, Goveas JS. Loneliness, Circulating Endocannabinoid Concentrations, and Grief Trajectories in Bereaved Older Adults: A Longitudinal Study. Front Psychiatry 2021; 12:783187. [PMID: 34955928 PMCID: PMC8692767 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.783187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2021] [Accepted: 11/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Loneliness is one of the most distressing grief symptoms and is associated with adverse mental health in bereaved older adults. The endocannabinoid signaling (ECS) system is stress-responsive and circulating endocannabinoid (eCB) concentrations are elevated following bereavement. This study examined the association between loneliness and circulating eCB concentrations in grieving older adults and explored the role of eCBs on the association between baseline loneliness and grief symptom trajectories. Methods: A total of 64 adults [grief with high loneliness: n = 18; grief with low loneliness: n = 26; and healthy comparison (HC): n = 20] completed baseline clinical assessments for the UCLA loneliness scale. In grief participants, longitudinal clinical assessments, including the Inventory of Complicated Grief and 17-item Hamilton Depression Rating scales, were collected over 6 months. Baseline circulating eCB [N-arachidonoylethanolamine (AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG)] concentrations were quantified in the serum using isotope dilution, liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry; cortisol concentrations were measured in the same samples using radioimmunoassay. Results: Circulating AEA concentrations were higher in severely lonely grieving elders than in HC group; cortisol concentrations were not different among the groups. Cross-sectionally, loneliness scores were positively associated with AEA concentrations in grievers; this finding was not significant after accounting for depressive symptom severity. Grieving individuals who endorsed high loneliness and had higher 2-AG concentrations at baseline showed faster grief symptom resolution. Conclusions: These novel findings suggest that in lonely, bereaved elders, increased circulating eCBs, a reflection of an efficient ECS system, are associated with better adaptation to bereavement. Circulating eCBs as potential moderators and mediators of the loneliness-grief trajectory associations should be investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minhi Kang
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, United States
| | - Luisa Bohorquez-Montoya
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, United States
| | - Timothy McAuliffe
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, United States
| | - Stacy A Claesges
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, United States
| | - Nutta-On Blair
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, United States
| | - Garrett Sauber
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, United States.,Neuroscience Research Center, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, United States
| | - Charles F Reynolds
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Cecilia J Hillard
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, United States.,Neuroscience Research Center, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, United States
| | - Joseph S Goveas
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Medicine, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, United States.,Institute for Health and Equity, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI, United States
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Effect of gut microbiota on depressive-like behaviors in mice is mediated by the endocannabinoid system. Nat Commun 2020; 11:6363. [PMID: 33311466 PMCID: PMC7732982 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-19931-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 182] [Impact Index Per Article: 45.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2019] [Accepted: 11/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Depression is the leading cause of disability worldwide. Recent observations have revealed an association between mood disorders and alterations of the intestinal microbiota. Here, using unpredictable chronic mild stress (UCMS) as a mouse model of depression, we show that UCMS mice display phenotypic alterations, which could be transferred from UCMS donors to naïve recipient mice by fecal microbiota transplantation. The cellular and behavioral alterations observed in recipient mice were accompanied by a decrease in the endocannabinoid (eCB) signaling due to lower peripheral levels of fatty acid precursors of eCB ligands. The adverse effects of UCMS-transferred microbiota were alleviated by selectively enhancing the central eCB or by complementation with a strain of the Lactobacilli genus. Our findings provide a mechanistic scenario for how chronic stress, diet and gut microbiota generate a pathological feed-forward loop that contributes to despair behavior via the central eCB system.
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11
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Zajkowska Z, Borsini A, Nikkheslat N, Russell A, Romano GF, Tomassi S, Hepgul N, Forton D, Agarwal K, Hotopf M, Mondelli V, Zunszain P, Pariante CM. Differential effect of interferon-alpha treatment on AEA and 2-AG levels. Brain Behav Immun 2020; 90:248-258. [PMID: 32860939 PMCID: PMC7575143 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2020.08.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2020] [Revised: 07/14/2020] [Accepted: 08/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The endocannabinoid (eCB) system is one of the key players in immunoregulation, and reduced activity of the eCB system has been linked with depressive-like behaviours in animal studies and depression in clinical samples. There is a well-established link between immune activation and depression, such as following the administration of the pro-inflammatory cytokine, interferon-α (IFN-α), used to treat hepatitis C viral (HCV) infection. However, the role of peripheral endocannabinoids (eCBs), anandamide (AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), following immunotherapy with IFN-α and in IFN-α -induced depression, have not been examined yet. In this study, we investigated whether circulating AEA and 2-AG were modified by treatment with IFN-α and whether they were involved in the development of IFN-α-induced depression. We also explored whether circulating eCBs were associated with peripheral cytokines during and after IFN-α treatment. We measured serum concentrations of AEA and 2-AG using High Performance Liquid Chromatography with Tandem Mass Spectrometry, and serum concentrations of cytokines using Meso Scale Discovery electrochemiluminescence V-PLEX assay, in 70 patients with HCV infection and 41 healthy subjects. We assessed HCV patients at baseline, IFN-α-treatment weeks (TW) 4 and 24, end of treatment (END) and at six months follow-up (FU). We assessed depression using M.I.N.I. International Neuropsychiatric Interview. We found a different pattern of change in peripheral AEA and 2-AG during and after IFN-α treatment. Whilst 2-AG increased earlier in immunotherapy (TW4), remained elevated throughout treatment, and reduced at six months follow-up (FU), AEA increased later in treatment (TW24) and remained elevated six months post-treatment. We also found that baseline levels of AEA were lower in HCV patients compared with healthy controls, whereas there were no differences in 2-AG levels. Interestingly, AEA, but not 2-AG, was significantly, negatively correlated with interleukin (IL)-2 and IL-17a at six months follow-up. We did not find any difference in both eCBs between patients with and without IFN-α-induced depression, at any time point. Our findings suggest that AEA and 2-AG are involved in different stages of immunoregulation following IFN-α treatment, where AEA might be involved in chronic inflammation. Lack of association between peripheral eCBs and IFN-α-induced depression suggests that different biological mechanisms may underpin inflammation-induced depression compared with classic "psychiatric" depression, or that any changes in the eCB system in depression may not be captured by peripheral AEA and 2-AG.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zuzanna Zajkowska
- Department of Psychological Medicine, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, Kings College London, UK.
| | - Alessandra Borsini
- Department of Psychological Medicine, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, Kings College London, UK
| | - Naghmeh Nikkheslat
- Department of Psychological Medicine, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, Kings College London, UK
| | - Alice Russell
- Department of Psychological Medicine, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, Kings College London, UK
| | - Graziella F Romano
- Department of Psychological Medicine, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, Kings College London, UK
| | - Simona Tomassi
- Department of Psychological Medicine, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, Kings College London, UK
| | - Nilay Hepgul
- Department of Psychological Medicine, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, Kings College London, UK
| | - Daniel Forton
- Department of Gastroenterology & Hepatology, St George's University of London, UK
| | - Kosh Agarwal
- Institute of Liver Studies, King's College Hospital, UK
| | - Matthew Hotopf
- Department of Psychological Medicine, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, Kings College London, UK; National Institute for Health Research (NIHR), Mental Health Biomedical Research Centre at South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust and King's College London, UK
| | - Valeria Mondelli
- Department of Psychological Medicine, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, Kings College London, UK; National Institute for Health Research (NIHR), Mental Health Biomedical Research Centre at South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust and King's College London, UK
| | - Patricia Zunszain
- Department of Psychological Medicine, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, Kings College London, UK
| | - Carmine M Pariante
- Department of Psychological Medicine, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, Kings College London, UK; National Institute for Health Research (NIHR), Mental Health Biomedical Research Centre at South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust and King's College London, UK
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Bedse G, Hill MN, Patel S. 2-Arachidonoylglycerol Modulation of Anxiety and Stress Adaptation: From Grass Roots to Novel Therapeutics. Biol Psychiatry 2020; 88:520-530. [PMID: 32197779 PMCID: PMC7486996 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2020.01.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2019] [Revised: 10/31/2019] [Accepted: 01/18/2020] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Over the past decade there has been a surge of interest in the development of endocannabinoid-based therapeutic approaches for the treatment of diverse neuropsychiatric conditions. Although initial preclinical and clinical development efforts focused on pharmacological inhibition of fatty acid amide hydrolase to elevate levels of the endocannabinoid anandamide, more recent efforts have focused on inhibition of monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) to enhance signaling of the most abundant and efficacious endocannabinoid ligand, 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG). We review the biochemistry and physiology of 2-AG signaling and preclinical evidence supporting a role for this system in the regulation of anxiety-related outcomes and stress adaptation. We review preclinical evidence supporting MAGL inhibition for the treatment of affective, trauma-related, and stress-related disorders; describe the current state of MAGL inhibitor drug development; and discuss biological factors that could affect MAGL inhibitor efficacy. Issues related to the clinical advancement of MAGL inhibitors are also discussed. We are cautiously optimistic, as the field of MAGL inhibitor development transitions from preclinical to clinical and theoretical to practical, that pharmacological 2-AG augmentation could represent a mechanistically novel therapeutic approach for the treatment of affective and stress-related neuropsychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gaurav Bedse
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee; Department of Vanderbilt Center for Addiction Research, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Mathew N Hill
- Department of Cell Biology, Hotchkiss Brain Institute and Mathison Center for Mental Health Research and Education, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada; Department of Anatomy and Psychiatry, Hotchkiss Brain Institute and Mathison Center for Mental Health Research and Education, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Sachin Patel
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee; Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee; Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee; Department of Vanderbilt Center for Addiction Research, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee.
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Voegel CD, Baumgartner MR, Kraemer T, Wüst S, Binz TM. Simultaneous quantification of steroid hormones and endocannabinoids (ECs) in human hair using an automated supported liquid extraction (SLE) and LC-MS/MS - Insights into EC baseline values and correlation to steroid concentrations. Talanta 2020; 222:121499. [PMID: 33167212 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2020.121499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2020] [Revised: 07/31/2020] [Accepted: 08/01/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Endogenous steroid hormones and endocannabinoids (ECs) are important regulators in the stress response of the human body. For the measurement of chronic stress, hair analysis has been established as method of choice for long-term and retrospective determination of endogenous stress markers. A sensitive liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method for the quantification of five steroid hormones (cortisone, cortisol, androstenedione, testosterone, progesterone) and four endocannabinoids (anandamide, palmitoylethanolamide, 2-arachidonylglycerol, oleoylethanolamide) in hair was developed and validated. The hair samples were extracted with methanol and cleaned up with a fully automated supported liquid extraction (SLE) before analysis. Special attention was paid to the difficulties accompanying the quantification of endogenous analytes in hair. Five different strategies for endogenous compound quantification in hair (surrogate analyte, standard addition, background correction, stripped matrix and solvent calibration) were tested and compared. As a result, the approach of the surrogate analyte was used for the quantification of steroid hormones whereas background correction was used for endocannabinoids. The measurement of 58 samples from healthy young adults allowed insights into endocannabinoid ranges in hair and the correlation to steroid hormones. No significant differences in steroid and EC concentration levels of male and female in hair were found, except for testosterone (p < 0.001) and androstenedione (p < 0.0001). Cortisol to cortisone and testosterone to androstenedione concentrations were significantly and positively correlated. There were significant intercorrelations between endocannabinoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clarissa Daniela Voegel
- Center for Forensic Hair Analytics, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Markus R Baumgartner
- Center for Forensic Hair Analytics, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Kraemer
- Department of Forensic Pharmacology and Toxicology, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Stefan Wüst
- Institute of Psychology, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Tina Maria Binz
- Center for Forensic Hair Analytics, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
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14
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Cerebrospinal fluid endocannabinoid levels in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. Neuropsychopharmacology 2020; 45:1323-1329. [PMID: 32272483 PMCID: PMC7297729 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-020-0671-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2019] [Revised: 03/25/2020] [Accepted: 03/30/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Gilles de la Tourette syndrome (TS) is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by the presence of motor and vocal tics as well as psychiatric comorbidities such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), depression, and anxiety. The underlying cause of the disease is still unknown, but several lines of evidence suggest a paramount role of the dopaminergic system. Based on the clinical observation that cannabis-based medicine including cannabis and delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC, dronabinol) may improve TS, alternatively, an involvement of the endocannabinoid system (ECS) has been suggested. In this study we measured cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) levels of the two most important endocannabinoids "N"-arachidonoylethanolamine (AEA, anandamide) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), the endocannabinoid-like molecule palmitoyl ethanolamide (PEA), and the lipid arachidonic acid (AA) in a sample of adult patients with TS (n = 20) compared with controls (n = 19) using liquid-liquid lipid extraction and simultaneous quantification by liquid chromatography multiple reaction monitoring (LC/MRM). CSF levels of AEA (p = 0.0018), 2-AG (p = 0.0003), PEA (p = 0.02), and AA (p < 0.0001) were significantly increased in TS compared with controls. Levels of 2-AG correlated with the severity of comorbid ADHD (p < 0.01). This is the first study, demonstrating alterations in the ECS suggesting an involvement of this system in the pathophysiology of TS. It can be speculated that elevated endocannabinoid levels either represent secondary changes in order to compensate for alterations in other neurotransmitter systems such as the dopaminergic system, are simply an epiphenomenon or, alternatively, represent the primary cause of TS.
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15
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Sher L, Bierer LM, Flory J, Hill MN, Makotkine I, Yehuda R. Endogenous cannabinoid levels and suicidality in combat veterans. Psychiatry Res 2020; 287:112495. [PMID: 31375282 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2019.112495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2019] [Revised: 07/24/2019] [Accepted: 07/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Combat veterans are at elevated suicide risk. The goal of this study was to test the hypothesis that combat veterans who have made a suicide attempt post-deployment can be distinguished from combat veterans who have never made a suicide attempt based on differences in psychological and biological variables. For the latter, we focused on endogenous cannabinoids, neuroendocrine markers that are associated with stress. Demographic and clinical parameters of suicide attempters and non-attempters were assessed. Blood samples were assayed for anandamide (AEA), 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), and cortisol. Suicide attempters had higher Scale for Suicidal Ideation (SSI) scores in comparison to non-attempters. Controlling for gender, 2-AG levels were higher among suicide attempters in comparison to non-attempters. Cortisol levels positively correlated with 2-AG levels and negatively correlated with SSI scores among non-attempters but not among attempters. AEA levels negatively correlated with SSI scores among attempters but not among non-attempters. Our results indicate that there are psychological and biological differences between combat veterans with or without a history of suicidal attempt. Our findings also suggest that clinically observed differences between the groups may have a neurobiological basis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leo Sher
- James J. Peters Veterans' Administration Medical Center, Bronx, NY, USA; Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA.
| | - Linda M Bierer
- James J. Peters Veterans' Administration Medical Center, Bronx, NY, USA; Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Janine Flory
- James J. Peters Veterans' Administration Medical Center, Bronx, NY, USA; Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | | | - Iouri Makotkine
- James J. Peters Veterans' Administration Medical Center, Bronx, NY, USA; Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Rachel Yehuda
- James J. Peters Veterans' Administration Medical Center, Bronx, NY, USA; Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
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Macías-Triana L, Romero-Cordero K, Tatum-Kuri A, Vera-Barrón A, Millán-Aldaco D, Arankowsky-Sandoval G, Piomelli D, Murillo-Rodríguez E. Exposure to the cannabinoid agonist WIN 55, 212–2 in adolescent rats causes sleep alterations that persist until adulthood. Eur J Pharmacol 2020; 874:172911. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2020.172911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2019] [Revised: 12/10/2019] [Accepted: 01/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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17
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Welcome MO, Mastorakis NE. Stress-induced blood brain barrier disruption: Molecular mechanisms and signaling pathways. Pharmacol Res 2020; 157:104769. [PMID: 32275963 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2020.104769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2019] [Revised: 03/09/2020] [Accepted: 03/19/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Stress is a nonspecific response to a threat or noxious stimuli with resultant damaging consequences. Stress is believed to be an underlying process that can trigger central nervous system disorders such as depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder. Though the pathophysiological basis is not completely understood, data have consistently shown a pivotal role of inflammatory mediators and hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activation in stress induced disorders. Indeed emerging experimental evidences indicate a concurrent activation of inflammatory signaling pathways and not only the HPA axis, but also, peripheral and central renin-angiotensin system (RAS). Furthermore, recent experimental data indicate that the HPA and RAS are coupled to the signaling of a range of central neuro-transmitter, -mediator and -peptide molecules that are also regulated, at least in part, by inflammatory signaling cascades and vice versa. More recently, experimental evidences suggest a critical role of stress in disruption of the blood brain barrier (BBB), a neurovascular unit that regulates the movement of substances and blood-borne immune cells into the brain parenchyma, and prevents peripheral injury to the brain substance. However, the mechanisms underlying stress-induced BBB disruption are not exactly known. In this review, we summarize studies conducted on the effects of stress on the BBB and integrate recent data that suggest possible molecular mechanisms and signaling pathways underlying stress-induced BBB disruption. Key molecular targets and pharmacological candidates for treatment of stress and related illnesses are also summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Menizibeya O Welcome
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, Nile University of Nigeria, Abuja, Nigeria.
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Wyatt RM, Fraser I, Welty N, Lord B, Wennerholm M, Sutton S, Ameriks MK, Dugovic C, Yun S, White A, Nguyen L, Koudriakova T, Tian G, Suarez J, Szewczuk L, Bonnette W, Ahn K, Ghosh B, Flores CM, Connolly PJ, Zhu B, Macielag MJ, Brandt MR, Chevalier K, Zhang SP, Lovenberg T, Bonaventure P. Pharmacologic Characterization of JNJ-42226314, [1-(4-Fluorophenyl)indol-5-yl]-[3-[4-(thiazole-2-carbonyl)piperazin-1-yl]azetidin-1-yl]methanone, a Reversible, Selective, and Potent Monoacylglycerol Lipase Inhibitor. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2019; 372:339-353. [PMID: 31818916 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.119.262139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2019] [Accepted: 12/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The serine hydrolase monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) is the rate-limiting enzyme responsible for the degradation of the endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) into arachidonic acid and glycerol. Inhibition of 2-AG degradation leads to elevation of 2-AG, the most abundant endogenous agonist of the cannabinoid receptors (CBs) CB1 and CB2. Activation of these receptors has demonstrated beneficial effects on mood, appetite, pain, and inflammation. Therefore, MAGL inhibitors have the potential to produce therapeutic effects in a vast array of complex human diseases. The present report describes the pharmacologic characterization of [1-(4-fluorophenyl)indol-5-yl]-[3-[4-(thiazole-2-carbonyl)piperazin-1-yl]azetidin-1-yl]methanone (JNJ-42226314), a reversible and highly selective MAGL inhibitor. JNJ-42226314 inhibits MAGL in a competitive mode with respect to the 2-AG substrate. In rodent brain, the compound time- and dose-dependently bound to MAGL, indirectly led to CB1 occupancy by raising 2-AG levels, and raised norepinephrine levels in cortex. In vivo, the compound exhibited antinociceptive efficacy in both the rat complete Freund's adjuvant-induced radiant heat hypersensitivity and chronic constriction injury-induced cold hypersensitivity models of inflammatory and neuropathic pain, respectively. Though 30 mg/kg induced hippocampal synaptic depression, altered sleep onset, and decreased electroencephalogram gamma power, 3 mg/kg still provided approximately 80% enzyme occupancy, significantly increased 2-AG and norepinephrine levels, and produced neuropathic antinociception without synaptic depression or decreased gamma power. Thus, it is anticipated that the profile exhibited by this compound will allow for precise modulation of 2-AG levels in vivo, supporting potential therapeutic application in several central nervous system disorders. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Potentiation of endocannabinoid signaling activity via inhibition of the serine hydrolase monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) is an appealing strategy in the development of treatments for several disorders, including ones related to mood, pain, and inflammation. [1-(4-Fluorophenyl)indol-5-yl]-[3-[4-(thiazole-2-carbonyl)piperazin-1-yl]azetidin-1-yl]methanone is presented in this report to be a novel, potent, selective, and reversible noncovalent MAGL inhibitor that demonstrates dose-dependent enhancement of the major endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoylglycerol as well as efficacy in models of neuropathic and inflammatory pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan M Wyatt
- Janssen Research & Development, LLC, San Diego, California
| | - Ian Fraser
- Janssen Research & Development, LLC, San Diego, California
| | - Natalie Welty
- Janssen Research & Development, LLC, San Diego, California
| | - Brian Lord
- Janssen Research & Development, LLC, San Diego, California
| | | | - Steven Sutton
- Janssen Research & Development, LLC, San Diego, California
| | | | | | - Sujin Yun
- Janssen Research & Development, LLC, San Diego, California
| | - Allison White
- Janssen Research & Development, LLC, San Diego, California
| | - Leslie Nguyen
- Janssen Research & Development, LLC, San Diego, California
| | | | - Gaochao Tian
- Janssen Research & Development, LLC, San Diego, California
| | - Javier Suarez
- Janssen Research & Development, LLC, San Diego, California
| | | | | | - Kay Ahn
- Janssen Research & Development, LLC, San Diego, California
| | - Brahma Ghosh
- Janssen Research & Development, LLC, San Diego, California
| | | | | | - Bin Zhu
- Janssen Research & Development, LLC, San Diego, California
| | | | | | | | - Sui-Po Zhang
- Janssen Research & Development, LLC, San Diego, California
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19
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Grimsey NL, Savinainen JR, Attili B, Ahamed M. Regulating membrane lipid levels at the synapse by small-molecule inhibitors of monoacylglycerol lipase: new developments in therapeutic and PET imaging applications. Drug Discov Today 2019; 25:330-343. [PMID: 31622747 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2019.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2019] [Revised: 09/17/2019] [Accepted: 10/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) is a major endocannabinoid hydrolyzing enzyme and can be regulated to control endogenous lipid levels in the brain. This review highlights the pharmacological roles and in vivo PET imaging of MAGL in brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natasha L Grimsey
- Department of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacology, and Centre for Brain Research, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Juha R Savinainen
- Institute of Biomedicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Eastern Finland, Finland
| | - Bala Attili
- Department of Radiology, The University of Cambridge, UK
| | - Muneer Ahamed
- ARC Centre for Innovation in Biomedical Imaging Technology, Centre for Advanced Imaging, The University of Queensland, Australia.
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Bassir Nia A, Bender R, Harpaz-Rotem I. Endocannabinoid System Alterations in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Review of Developmental and Accumulative Effects of Trauma. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019; 3. [PMID: 31660473 PMCID: PMC6816276 DOI: 10.1177/2470547019864096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The role of the endocannabinoid system in stress-related psychiatric symptoms has
been investigated in many animal and human studies. Although most of these
studies consistently report long-lasting effects of prolonged stress and trauma
on the endocannabinoid system, the nature and direction of these changes are
controversial. We reviewed the available preclinical and clinical studies
investigating the endocannabinoid system alterations long after chronic stress
and trauma. We propose that the effects of prolonged stress or trauma on the
endocannabinoid system are different based on the developmental age of subjects
at the time of experiencing the trauma and its repetitiveness and accumulative
effects. The current literature consistently demonstrates decreased levels of
endocannabinoid ligands and receptors if the trauma occurs in childhood, whereas
decreased levels of endocannabinoid ligands and increased levels of cannabinoid
receptors are reported when trauma has happened in adulthood. It is important to
note that these changes are region-specific in the brain and also there are
important sex differences, which are beyond the scope of this review.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ricci Bender
- Yale School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
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Hemisphere-dependent endocannabinoid system activity in prefrontal cortex and hippocampus of the Flinders Sensitive Line rodent model of depression. Neurochem Int 2019; 125:7-15. [PMID: 30716357 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2019.01.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2018] [Revised: 01/24/2019] [Accepted: 01/27/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Altered endocannabinoid (eCB) signalling is suggested as an important contributor to the pathophysiology of depression. To further elucidate this, we conducted a study using a genetic rat model of depression, the Flinders Sensitive Line (FSL), and their controls, the Flinders Resistant Line (FRL) rats. Plasma, right and left prefrontal cortex, and hippocampus were isolated from FSL and FRL rats. We analyzed each region for the eCB anandamide (AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) levels by liquid chromatography/multiple reaction monitoring (LC/MRM), mRNA and protein levels of the cannabinoid type 1 receptor (CB1R), fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) and monoacyl glycerol lipase (MAGL) by real time qPCR and Western blotting. Content of 2-AG was lower in the left side of the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex in FSL rats compared to FRL rats. Inversely, levels of AEA were higher in right hippocampus than in left hippocampus. In plasma, AEA levels were increased and 2-AG decreased. Cannabinoid receptor 1 (Cnr1), Faah and Magl mRNA levels were prominently decreased in right prefrontal cortex of FSL rats as compared to FRL rats. Protein expression of CB1R and FAAH were decreased in left hippocampus. In summary, our data suggest a decreased eCB signalling in the FSL rats, which could contribute to the depressive-like behaviour. Interestingly, the altered eCB system activity appear to be hemisphere-specific in the limbic regions. Our study support the existing literature and showed altered eCB system activity in this particular animal model of depression.
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22
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Watkins BA. Endocannabinoids, exercise, pain, and a path to health with aging. Mol Aspects Med 2018; 64:68-78. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mam.2018.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2018] [Revised: 09/22/2018] [Accepted: 10/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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23
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Strewe C, Thieme D, Dangoisse C, Fiedel B, van den Berg F, Bauer H, Salam AP, Gössmann-Lang P, Campolongo P, Moser D, Quintens R, Moreels M, Baatout S, Kohlberg E, Schelling G, Choukèr A, Feuerecker M. Modulations of Neuroendocrine Stress Responses During Confinement in Antarctica and the Role of Hypobaric Hypoxia. Front Physiol 2018; 9:1647. [PMID: 30534078 PMCID: PMC6276713 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.01647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2018] [Accepted: 10/31/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The Antarctic continent is an environment of extreme conditions. Only few research stations exist that are occupied throughout the year. The German station Neumayer III and the French-Italian Concordia station are such research platforms and human outposts. The seasonal shifts of complete daylight (summer) to complete darkness (winter) as well as massive changes in outside temperatures (down to -80°C at Concordia) during winter result in complete confinement of the crews from the outside world. In addition, the crew at Concordia is subjected to hypobaric hypoxia of ∼650 hPa as the station is situated at high altitude (3,233 m). We studied three expedition crews at Neumayer III (sea level) (n = 16) and two at Concordia (high altitude) (n = 15) to determine the effects of hypobaric hypoxia on hormonal/metabolic stress parameters [endocannabinoids (ECs), catecholamines, and glucocorticoids] and evaluated the psychological stress over a period of 11 months including winter confinement. In the Neumayer III (sea level) crew, EC and n-acylethanolamide (NAE) concentrations increased significantly already at the beginning of the deployment (p < 0.001) whereas catecholamines and cortisol remained unaffected. Over the year, ECs and NAEs stayed elevated and fluctuated before slowly decreasing till the end of the deployment. The classical stress hormones showed small increases in the last third of deployment. By contrast, at Concordia (high altitude), norepinephrine concentrations increased significantly at the beginning (p < 0.001) which was paralleled by low EC levels. Prior to the second half of deployment, norepinephrine declined constantly to end on a low plateau level, whereas then the EC concentrations increased significantly in this second period during the overwintering (p < 0.001). Psychometric data showed no significant changes in the crews at either station. These findings demonstrate that exposition of healthy humans to the physically challenging extreme environment of Antarctica (i) has a distinct modulating effect on stress responses. Additionally, (ii) acute high altitude/hypobaric hypoxia at the beginning seem to trigger catecholamine release that downregulates the EC response. These results (iii) are not associated with psychological stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Strewe
- Laboratory of Translational Research "Stress and Immunity", Department of Anaesthesiology, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Detlef Thieme
- Institute of Doping Analysis and Sports Biochemistry, Dresden, Germany
| | | | - Barbara Fiedel
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | | | - Holger Bauer
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Alex P Salam
- IPEV/PNRA-ESA Antarctic Program, Brest, Antarctica
| | - Petra Gössmann-Lang
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Patrizia Campolongo
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Dominique Moser
- Laboratory of Translational Research "Stress and Immunity", Department of Anaesthesiology, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Roel Quintens
- Radiobiology Unit, Belgian Nuclear Research Centre (SCKCEN), Mol, Belgium
| | - Marjan Moreels
- Radiobiology Unit, Belgian Nuclear Research Centre (SCKCEN), Mol, Belgium
| | - Sarah Baatout
- Radiobiology Unit, Belgian Nuclear Research Centre (SCKCEN), Mol, Belgium.,Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Eberhard Kohlberg
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Gustav Schelling
- Laboratory of Translational Research "Stress and Immunity", Department of Anaesthesiology, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Alexander Choukèr
- Laboratory of Translational Research "Stress and Immunity", Department of Anaesthesiology, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Matthias Feuerecker
- Laboratory of Translational Research "Stress and Immunity", Department of Anaesthesiology, University Hospital, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
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The endocannabinoid system in mental disorders: Evidence from human brain studies. Biochem Pharmacol 2018; 157:97-107. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2018.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2018] [Accepted: 07/12/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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25
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Lemieux AM, Nakajima M, Saif-Ali R, Al-Habori M, Dokam A, al'Absi M. Anger, anxiety, and depressive affect as predictors of stress-induced cortisol production in khat and tobacco users. Addict Behav 2018; 82:195-201. [PMID: 29551550 DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2018.02.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2017] [Revised: 02/26/2018] [Accepted: 02/27/2018] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Glucocorticoid activity is disrupted in substance users including khat chewers who also use tobacco. Anger, dysphoria, and anxiety can mediate this relationship. The aim of this study was to contrast emotion dysregulation and substance use variables as predictors of post-stress cortisol output. MATERIALS AND METHODS Comparable numbers of males (n = 90) and females (n = 85) including controls, khat only, and concurrent khat and tobacco users participated in a stress study. Depressive affect, anxiety, anger, substance use patterns, and saliva samples were collected following a standardized laboratory stress manipulation. RESULTS Regression analysis showed that high depression and low anxiety was associated with high post-stress cortisol, but only in co-users of tobacco and khat. Males, but not females, showed a significant association between co-use of khat and tobacco and cortisol, which appears to be mediated by frequency of use. The link between anxiety and post-stress cortisol in the co-users remained significant after controlling for nicotine dependence and substance use frequency. CONCLUSION Anxiety predicted the neuroendocrine consequences of concurrent use of tobacco and khat above and beyond sex, nicotine dependence, anger, and substance use frequency. Sex differences, however, are related to differences in nicotine dependence.
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Circulating endocannabinoids and affect regulation in human subjects. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2018; 92:66-71. [PMID: 29627714 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2018.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2017] [Revised: 03/15/2018] [Accepted: 03/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The endocannabinoid (EC) system influences a wide variety of neurobiological processes including affect and emotionality as well as other neuropsychiatric functions. In this study we examined the relationship of circulating endocannabinoids [anandamide (AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG)] with affect and emotionality in 175 individuals with (n = 115) and without (n = 60) mood, anxiety, and/or personality disorders. Circulating AEA levels displayed a modest, though statistically significant, inverse relationship with a composite measure of affect regulation (β = - 0.264, p = 0.009), due to its relationship with affect intensity (β = - 0.225, p = 0.021) across all study participants. Neither AEA nor 2-AG level differed as a function of any syndromal/personality disorder and neither correlated significantly with state depression or state anxiety scores. These data suggest that circulating levels endocannabinoids may play a role in emotionality across individuals regardless of defined psychiatric disorder.
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Circulating Endocannabinoids: From Whence Do They Come and Where are They Going? Neuropsychopharmacology 2018; 43:155-172. [PMID: 28653665 PMCID: PMC5719092 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2017.130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 264] [Impact Index Per Article: 44.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2017] [Revised: 05/29/2017] [Accepted: 06/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The goal of this review is to summarize studies in which concentrations of circulating endocannabinoids in humans have been examined in relationship to physiological measurements and pathological status. The roles of endocannabinoids in the regulation of energy intake and storage have been well studied and the data obtained consistently support the hypothesis that endocannabinoid signaling is associated with increased consumption and storage of energy. Physical exercise mobilizes endocannabinoids, which could contribute to refilling of energy stores and also to the analgesic and mood-elevating effects of exercise. Circulating concentrations of 2-arachidonoylglycerol are very significantly circadian and dysregulated when sleep is disrupted. Other conditions under which circulating endocannabinoids are altered include inflammation and pain. A second important role for endocannabinoid signaling is to restore homeostasis following stress. Circulating endocannabinoids are stress-responsive and there is evidence that their concentrations are altered in disorders associated with excessive stress, including post-traumatic stress disorder. Although determination of circulating endocannabinoids can provide important information about the state of endocannabinoid signaling and thus allow for hypotheses to be defined and tested, the large number of physiological factors that contribute to their circulating concentrations makes it difficult to use them in isolation as a biomarker for a specific disorder.
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Balsevich G, Petrie GN, Hill MN. Endocannabinoids: Effectors of glucocorticoid signaling. Front Neuroendocrinol 2017; 47:86-108. [PMID: 28739508 DOI: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2017.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2017] [Revised: 07/17/2017] [Accepted: 07/19/2017] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
For decades, there has been speculation regarding the interaction of cannabinoids with glucocorticoid systems. Given the functional redundancy between many of the physiological effects of glucocorticoids and cannabinoids, it was originally speculated that the biological mechanisms of cannabinoids were mediated by direct interactions with glucocorticoid systems. With the discovery of the endocannabinoid system, additional research demonstrated that it was actually the opposite; glucocorticoids recruit endocannabinoid signaling, and that the engagement of endocannabinoid signaling mediated many of the neurobiological and physiological effects of glucocorticoids. With the development of advances in pharmacology and genetics, significant advances in this area have been made, and it is now clear that functional interactions between these systems are critical for a wide array of physiological processes. The current review acts a comprehensive summary of the contemporary state of knowledge regarding the biological interactions between glucocorticoids and endocannabinoids, and their potential role in health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgia Balsevich
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Gavin N Petrie
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Matthew N Hill
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada; Mathison Centre for Mental Health Research and Education, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada; Departments of Cell Biology and Anatomy and Psychiatry, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada.
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Patel S, Hill MN, Cheer JF, Wotjak CT, Holmes A. The endocannabinoid system as a target for novel anxiolytic drugs. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2017; 76:56-66. [PMID: 28434588 PMCID: PMC5407316 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.12.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 152] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2016] [Revised: 11/22/2016] [Accepted: 12/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
The endocannabinoid (eCB) system has attracted attention for its role in various behavioral and brain functions, and as a therapeutic target in neuropsychiatric disease states, including anxiety disorders and other conditions resulting from dysfunctional responses to stress. In this mini-review, we highlight components of the eCB system that offer potential 'druggable' targets for new anxiolytic medications, emphasizing some of the less well-discussed options. We discuss how selectively amplifying eCBs recruitment by interfering with eCB-degradation, via fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) and monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL), has been linked to reductions in anxiety-like behaviors in rodents and variation in human anxiety symptoms. We also discuss a non-canonical route to regulate eCB degradation that involves interfering with cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). Next, we discuss approaches to targeting eCB receptor-signaling in ways that do not involve the cannabinoid receptor subtype 1 (CB1R); by targeting the CB2R subtype and the transient receptor potential vanilloid type 1 (TRPV1). Finally, we review evidence that cannabidiol (CBD), while representing a less specific pharmacological approach, may be another way to modulate eCBs and interacting neurotransmitter systems to alleviate anxiety. Taken together, these various approaches provide a range of plausible paths to developing novel compounds that could prove useful for treating trauma-related and anxiety disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sachin Patel
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, USA; Vanderbilt Brain Institute, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, USA; Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, USA; Vanderbilt Kennedy Center for Human Development, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, USA
| | - Mathew N Hill
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada; Mathison Centre for Mental Health Research and Education, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada; Departments of Cell Biology and Anatomy and Psychiatry, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Joseph F Cheer
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology and Department of Psychiatry, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Carsten T Wotjak
- Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Department of Stress Neurobiology & Neurogenetics, Munich, Germany
| | - Andrew Holmes
- Laboratory of Behavioral and Genomic Neuroscience, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
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Bennett MR, Arnold J, Hatton SN, Lagopoulos J. Regulation of fear extinction by long-term depression: The roles of endocannabinoids and brain derived neurotrophic factor. Behav Brain Res 2016; 319:148-164. [PMID: 27867101 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2016.11.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2016] [Revised: 11/10/2016] [Accepted: 11/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The extinction of a conditioned fear response is of great interest in the search for a means of ameliorating adverse neurobiological changes resulting from stress. The discovery that endocannibinoid (EC) levels are inversely related to the extent of such stress, and that the amygdala is a primary site mediating stress, suggests that ECs in this brain region might play a major role in extinction. Supporting this are the observations that the basolateral complex of the amygdala shows an increase in ECs only during extinction and that early clinical trials indicate that cannabinoid-like agents, when taken orally by patients suffering from post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), reduce insomnia and nightmares. In order to optimize the potential of these agents to ameliorate symptoms of PTSD four important questions need to be answered: first, what is the identity of the cells that release ECs in the amygdala during extinction; second, what are their sites of action; third, what roles do the ECs play in the alleviation of long- depression (LTD), a process central to extinction; and finally, to what extent does brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) facilitate the release of ECs? A review of the relevant literature is presented in an attempt to answer these questions. It is suggested that the principal cell involved in EC synthesis and release during extinction is the so-called excitatory extinction neuron in the basal nucleus of the amygdala. Furthermore that the main site of action of the ECs is the adjacent calcitonin gene-related peptide inhibitory interneurons, whose normal role of blocking the excitatory neurons is greatly diminished. The molecular pathways leading (during extinction trials) to the synthesis and release of ECs from synaptic spines of extinction neurons, that is potentiated by BDNF, are also delineated in this review. Finally, consideration is given to how the autocrine action of BDNF, linked to the release of ECs, can lead to the sustained release of these, so maintaining extinction over long times.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maxwell R Bennett
- The Brain and Mind Centre, University of Sydney, 94 Mallett Street, Camperdown, NSW, Australia.
| | - Jonathon Arnold
- The Brain and Mind Centre, University of Sydney, 94 Mallett Street, Camperdown, NSW, Australia
| | - Sean N Hatton
- The Brain and Mind Centre, University of Sydney, 94 Mallett Street, Camperdown, NSW, Australia
| | - Jim Lagopoulos
- The Brain and Mind Centre, University of Sydney, 94 Mallett Street, Camperdown, NSW, Australia; The Sunshine Coast Mind and Neuroscience, Thompson Institute, The University of the Sunshine Coast, QLD, Australia
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Pagel JI, Choukèr A. Effects of isolation and confinement on humans-implications for manned space explorations. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2016; 120:1449-57. [DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00928.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2015] [Accepted: 02/02/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Human psychology and physiology are significantly altered by isolation and confinement. In light of planned exploration class interplanetary missions, the related adverse effects on the human body need to be explored and defined as they have a large impact on a mission's success. Terrestrial space analogs offer an excellent controlled environment to study some of these stressors during a space mission in isolation without the complex environment of the International Space Station. Participants subjected to these space analog conditions can encounter typical symptoms ranging from neurocognitive changes, fatigue, misaligned circadian rhythm, sleep disorders, altered stress hormone levels, and immune modulatory changes. This review focuses on both the psychological and the physiological responses observed in participants of long-duration spaceflight analog studies, such as Mars500 or Antarctic winter-over. They provide important insight into similarities and differences encountered in each simulated setting. The identification of adverse effects from confinement allows not only the crew to better prepare for but also to design feasible countermeasures that will help support space travelers during exploration class missions in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- J. I. Pagel
- Stress and Immunology Laboratory, Department of Anesthesiology, Hospital of the University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - A. Choukèr
- Stress and Immunology Laboratory, Department of Anesthesiology, Hospital of the University of Munich, Munich, Germany
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