Risk factors for calf mortality in large Swedish dairy herds

Evaluation of a data-driven youngstock rearing quality system in Dutch dairy herds (2019-2022)

In recent years, the Netherlands exhibited an increased focus on improving youngstock rearing. Several data-driven tools were developed to assess and benchmark calf rearing practices based on key indicators, stimulate farmers to improve their youngstock rearing and reduce calf mortality. KalfOK is such a data-driven tool in which a farm-level overview with 15 indicators of youngstock rearing quality is communicated to participating farmers. In this study we assessed which farm characteristics are associated with A) a continuously high or low KalfOK score and B) frequent usage of KalfOK. Data from KalfOK and the identification and registration system were available for all participating herds over a period between 2019 and 2022 (Dataset A). Additionally, a sample of 324 dairy farmers, randomly selected from the entire Dutch dairy population (Dataset B), participated in a voluntary survey. Multivariable (logistic) regression models were used to A) identify differences in characteristics between farms with a continuously high- and farms with a continuously low KalfOK score and B) assess which farm characteristics were associated with frequent use of the KalfOK report. The results of analysis A showed multiple factors associated with having a low or high KalfOK score, including replacement rate, closed farming system, limited growth in herd size and the region where a farm was located. Sociological factors might also partly explain the difference between high and low scoring farms. Analysis B showed that approximately half of the surveyed farmers indicated that they do not frequently use their KalfOK overview in their calf rearing management. The KalfOK score of farmers who regularly use their KalfOK report was higher - and consequently better - compared to the KalfOK score of farmers who sometimes or never use KalfOK. Additionally, farmers using a milk robot and those discussing KalfOK regularly with their veterinarian, used KalfOK more often. Thirty four percent of the surveyed farmers made adjustments to their youngstock rearing management since the start of participation. The study's insights into patterns in KalfOK utilization and associations with farm characteristics provide valuable information for ongoing efforts to enhance calf rearing practices via the use of KalfOK. It is important to consider what is needed to convince farmers that do not use the KalfOK tool to frequently start using their KalfOK report. Future research incorporating sociological aspects can provide a more comprehensive understanding of other dynamics influencing calf rearing and contribute valuable insights for enhancing the effectiveness of programs like KalfOK in promoting calf health and welfare.

Beliefs, mindset and personality of farm managers working in large commercial dairy herds: Association with calf on-farm mortality

This study aimed to describe the attitudes and personalities of farm managers (FMs) in large Estonian dairy herds and analyse the potential associations with calf mortality. The study included FMs from 114 free-stall farms with at least 100 cows. Each participant completed a questionnaire that comprised questions about the respondent and various statements to reveal their attitudes towards calves, calf mortality, and farming in general. A 7-point Likert scale was used to record the responses. The data on the number of live births and deaths and animal movement data were gathered from farm records and the Estonian Agricultural Registers and Information Board. The yearly calf mortality risk (%) during the first 21 days (YAG) and mortality rate between 22-90 days of age (OAG) adjusted for the animal time-at-risk were then calculated for each herd. Univariate negative binomial regression analysis was used to identify associations between calf mortality risk/rate, and the studied statements and variables with a p-value < 0.25 were included in a k-modes clustering analysis. The mean calf mortality risk was determined to be 5.9 % (range 0.0-26.8 %) during the first 21 days and mean calf mortality rate was 1.8 (range 0.0-9.2) deaths per 100 calf-months during 22-90 days of age. In both age group analyses, two FMs´ clusters formed based on 17 pre-selected statements. The FMs of the high-mortality cluster were found to be dissatisfied with the calf mortality levels. In the YAG analysis, FMs from high-mortality cluster gave lower priority to the issue of calf mortality, placed high importance on the influence of workers on calf mortality, and were more satisfied with the staff's performance compared to FMs of the cluster of herds with lower calf mortality. They were additionally less satisfied with their own performance and felt less recognized by the farm staff. They were also more inclined to try new products and practices on the farm and demonstrated greater empathy towards cattle. In the OAG analysis, the FMs from the higher-mortality cluster viewed reducing calf mortality more costly, had a less ambitious and target-driven management style, and rated their self-performance lower. This study determined that FMs working in herds with high calf mortality were dissatisfied and did not prioritize addressing calf mortality compared to managers working in farms with lower calf mortality. FMs' attitudes and management styles were associated with calf mortality, while the respondents' personality traits had little influence.

Calf mortality in Turkish dairy farms: Economic impact, regional disparities, and farm-level drivers

This study investigates the economic burden of calf mortality in Turkish dairy farms and its impact on the national economy. We gathered research data by directly surveying dairy farms in seven provinces, each representing a distinct region of Turkiye. By conducting these surveys, we captured data on various aspects of calf mortality, including losses among non-pregnant cows aged two and older, pregnant cows, and those experiencing complications during birth, as well as losses within the 0-6 month age bracket. These figures were then amalgamated to establish the overall calf loss rate. Using a fractional probit model, we examined the empirical relationship between total calf loss rates and the socio-demographic characteristics of farm operators and their establishments. Our findings revealed that approximately 82 % of farms experienced some degree of calf loss, with the calf loss rate among dairy cattle farming accounting for nearly 20 %. Notably, regional disparities emerged as a key observation, alongside the identification of certain socio-demographic farm characteristics that proved statistically significant. Specifically, factors such as the prevalence of local cattle breeds, the proportion of crossbred bulls, as well as the numbers of heifers and calves, stood out as influential. Further scrutiny, fortified by ANOVA tests and relationships between the number of cows and total calf loss rate, underscored pronounced geographical disparities in post-estimation calf loss rates. Meanwhile, correlation heatmaps illuminated noteworthy relationships between specific cattle traits and the extent of calf losses. These findings not only underscore the severity of the issue but also highlight the urgency of preventive measures. In light of these insights, we offer pertinent policy recommendations to stakeholders and policymakers aimed at mitigating this considerable economic burden effectively.

Characterization of the preweaned Holstein calf fecal microbiota prior to, during, and following resolution of uncomplicated gastrointestinal disease

Little is known about shifts in the fecal microbiome of dairy calves preceding and following the incidence of gastrointestinal disease. The objective of this cohort study was to describe the fecal microbiome of preweaned dairy calves before, during, and after gastrointestinal disease. A total of 111 Holstein dairy calves were enrolled on 2 dairies (D1 and D2) and followed until 5 weeks old. Health assessments were performed weekly and fecal samples were collected every other week. Of the 111 calves, 12 calves from D1 and 12 calves from D2 were retrospectively defined as healthy, and 7 calves from D1 and 11 calves from D2 were defined as diarrheic. Samples from these calves were sequenced targeting the 16S rRNA gene and compared based on health status within age groups and farms: healthy (0-1 week old) vs. pre-diarrheic (0-1 week old), healthy (2-3 weeks old) vs. diarrheic (2-3 weeks old), and healthy (4-5 weeks old) vs. post-diarrheic (4-5 weeks old) calves. Healthy and diarrheic samples clustered together based on age rather than health status on both farms. Based on linear discriminant analysis, a few species were identified to be differently enriched when comparing health status within age groups and farm. Among them, Bifidobacterium sp. was differently enriched in pre-diarrheic calves at D1 (0-1 week old) whereas healthy calves of the same age group and farm showed a higher abundance of Escherichia coli. Bifidobacterium sp. was identified as a biomarker of fecal samples from healthy calves (2-3 weeks old) on D1 when compared with diarrheic calves of the same age group and farm. Feces from diarrheic calves on D2 (2-3 weeks old) were characterized by taxa from Peptostreptococcus and Anaerovibrio genera whereas fecal samples of age-matched healthy calves were characterized by Collinsella aerofaciens and Bifidobacterium longum. After resolution of uncomplicated diarrhea (4-5 weeks old), Collinsella aerofaciens was more abundant in D2 calves whereas Bacteriodes uniformis was more abundant in D1 calves. Taken together, these findings suggest that the age of the preweaned calf is the major driver of changes to fecal microbiome composition and diversity even in the face of uncomplicated gastrointestinal disease.

Development of a "Rapid-Crypto Colorimetric LAMP Test" to Detect Cryptosporidiosis in Feces of Newborns Calves

BACKGROUND

Cryptosporidiosis is a disease that causes major intestinal damage in humans and animals. The causative agents of the disease are Cryptosporidium species. In newborn calves, diarrhea can lead to death, resulting in significant economic losses for the farms. Therefore, accurate, rapid, and cost-effective diagnosis of the disease is very important.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

In this study, a novel colorimetric loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) test named "Rapid-Crypto Colorimetric LAMP test" targeting Cryptosporidium spp. 18S rRNA gene was developed to detect cryptosporidiosis in the feces of newborn calves. The analytical sensitivity of the test was determined by plasmid controls. Clinical sensitivity was determined using the feces of 127 calves collected from farms in İzmir and Manisa provinces. All of the samples were also investigated with Real-Time PCR targeting the Cryptosporidium spp. COWP gene. Cross-reactivity was tested using the DNA of other parasites and bacteria.

RESULTS

According to the results, the analytical sensitivity of the "Rapid-Crypto Colorimetric LAMP test" was found as 1 copy plasmid/reaction. When the results were compared with the Real-Time PCR test, the sensitivity of the "Rapid-Crypto Colorimetric LAMP test" was 100% and the specificity was 97.4%. The test did not cross-react with other parasites and bacteria.   CONCLUSION: The "Rapid-Crypto Colorimetric LAMP test" developed in this study provides an advantage in the diagnosis of Cryptosporidium spp. in calf stool samples since it can be applied in basic laboratories or in the field, does not require experienced personnel, and has high sensitivity. Moreover, diagnosis can be made with the naked eye without using any device.

Death-and-culling rates of calves and associated economic losses in the first month of life on dairy farms in eastern Hokkaido, Japan

The objective of this study was to analyze death and culling (DC) of calves during the first month of life and associated economic losses on dairy farms in eastern Hokkaido, Japan. The DC in the first month of life of 4411 Holstein and Wagyu crossbred calves born in the year 2019-2020 on 39 dairy farms milking Holsteins was investigated. Based on a target DC rate of 6.75%, farms were classified into two groups, those with high DC rates (HDC, 11.68%, n = 18) and those with low DC rates (LDC, 2.67%, n = 21), and analyzed for DC factors (breed, sex, parity of dams, and housing type of dams) and diseases causing DC, their loss estimates, and replenishment of DC calves (birth rate, purchase of heifers, and housing type of dams). Comparisons between groups were made using the Kaplan-Meier method, the Mann-Whitney U test, and chi-square test. The DC rate of Holsteins was significantly higher (P < 0.001) for HDC farms than for LDC ones. But, the DC rate of Wagyu crossbreds was not different between the groups, which suggested hybrid vigor. The DC rates for digestive diseases were significantly higher (P < 0.01) in the HDC farms, except for congenital diseases and deaths of unknown cause. The overall loss estimates of DC per calf-month for all farms was 8892, JPY/calf-months, 14,726 for HDC farms, and 4065 for LDC farms. The loss estimates of items with significant differences in DC rates were significantly higher (P < 0.05) in the HDC farms, with higher loss estimates for Holsteins and digestive diseases being the most common characteristics of HDC farms. In binomial logistic regression analysis with "HDC farms or not" as the response variable and replenishment of DC calves as the explanatory variable, HDC was significantly more likely (OR: 1.10, P < 0.05) on farms with a higher birth proportion of Holsteins, and HDC farms supplemented the DC calves by increasing the birth proportion of Holsteins.

Calf morbidity, mortality, and management practices in dairy farms in Jimma City, Southwestern Ethiopia

BACKGROUND

This research aims to determine the incidence of calf morbidity, mortality and its potential predisposing factors in the first six months of life. Morbidity and mortality of dairy calves are persistent problems for dairy farmers worldwide. For effective control and prevention programs on calf health, it is imperative to estimate the extent of calf morbidity and mortality, and associated risk factors. Although few studies have investigated the epidemiology of calf morbidity and mortality in Ethiopia, comprehensive information is scarce in this area.

METHODS

Data were collected through a cross-sectional survey and longitudinal follow-up on purposively selected dairy farms. A longitudinal study was conducted on 235 calves from birth to 6 months of age. Survival analysis methods using the Kaplan-Meier (K-M) method, and mixed effect Cox proportional hazard regression were employed to compute the life-to-event data on morbidity and mortality.

RESULTS

From the 235 calves studied, 53 morbidity and 15 mortality events were recorded. This gives an overall morbidity and mortality incidence rate of 55 per 100-calf 6-months at risk (risk rate of 42.07%) and 14 per 100-calf 6-months at risk (risk rate of 12.97%), respectively. Diarrhea (13.84%) followed by pneumonia (8.97%) were the most common diseases that occurred in calves, respectively. Similarly, diarrhea (33.3%) and pneumonia (26.7%) were the leading causes of death. Dam parity (p < 0.001) and pen cleaning (p < 0.001) were significant predictors of calf morbidity. Dam parity (p = 0.007), calving status (p = 0.005), pen cleaning (p = 0.04), and floor type (p = 0.001) of houses were significantly associated with mortality. The hazard of diarrhea was significantly associated with sex (p = 0.003), first colostrum feeding time (p = 0.028), pen cleaning (p = 0.010), and breeding method (p = 0.013).

CONCLUSION

The rates of morbidity and mortality reported in the study were higher than the economically acceptable, also affecting the welfare of the animals. The risk factors found need due attention in the management practices of dairy calves in Ethiopia.

An observational study of ear-tagged calf mortality (1 to 100 days) on Irish dairy farms and associations between biosecurity practices and calf mortality on farms participating in a Johne's disease control program

Postnatal mortality among replacement stock has a detrimental effect on the social, economic, and environmental sustainability of dairy production. Calf mortality rates vary between countries and show differences in temporal trends; most, however, are characterized by high levels of between-farm variability. Explaining this variation can be difficult because herd-level information on management practices relevant to calf health is often not available. The Irish Johne's Control Programme (IJCP) contains a substantial on-farm monitoring program called the Veterinary Risk Assessment and Management Plan (VRAMP). Although this risk assessment is largely focused on factors relevant to the transmission of paratuberculosis, many of its principles are good practice biocontainment policies that are also advocated for the protection of calf health. The objectives of this study were (1) to quantify mortality in ear-tagged Irish dairy calves between 2016 and 2020 using both survival and risk approaches, (2) to determine risk factors for 100-d cumulative mortality hazard in ear-tagged Irish dairy calves between 2016 and 2020, (3) to determine whether 100-d cumulative mortality hazard was higher in ear-tagged calves within herds registered in the IJCP versus those that were not registered in the IJCP and whether there were differences between these cohorts over time, and (4) within IJCP herds, to determine whether VRAMP score or changes in VRAMP score were associated with 100-d cumulative mortality hazard. Excluding perinatal mortality, the overall 100-d cumulative mortality hazard was 4.1%. Calf mortality was consistently underestimated using risk approaches that did not account for calf censoring. Cox proportional hazards models showed that cumulative mortality hazard was greater in male calves; particularly, calves born to Jersey breed dams and those with a beef breed sire. Mortality hazard increased with increasing herd size, was highest in calves born in herds that contract-reared heifers, and lowest in those born in mixed dairy-beef enterprises. Mortality hazard decreased over time with the mortality hazard in 2020 being 0.83 times that of 2016. Mortality hazard was higher in IJCP-registered herds than nonregistered herds (hazard ratio 1.06, 95% CI 1.01-1.12), likely reflecting differences in herds that enrolled in the national program. However, we detected a significant interaction between IJCP status (enrolled vs. not enrolled) and year (hazard ratio 0.96, 95% CI 0.92-1.00), indicating that the decrease in mortality hazard between 2016 and 2020 was greater in IJCP herds versus non-IJCP herds. Finally, increasing VRAMP scores (indicating higher risk for paratuberculosis transmission) were positively associated with increased calf mortality hazard. Postnatal calf mortality rates in Irish dairy herds declined between 2016 and 2020. Our study suggests that implementation of recommended biocontainment practices to control paratuberculosis in IJCP herds was associated with a reduction in calf mortality hazard.

Welfare of calves

This Scientific Opinion addresses a European Commission request on the welfare of calves as part of the Farm to Fork strategy. EFSA was asked to provide a description of common husbandry systems and related welfare consequences, as well as measures to prevent or mitigate the hazards leading to them. In addition, recommendations on three specific issues were requested: welfare of calves reared for white veal (space, group housing, requirements of iron and fibre); risk of limited cow–calf contact; and animal‐based measures (ABMs) to monitor on‐farm welfare in slaughterhouses. The methodology developed by EFSA to address similar requests was followed. Fifteen highly relevant welfare consequences were identified, with respiratory disorders, inability to perform exploratory or foraging behaviour, gastroenteric disorders and group stress being the most frequent across husbandry systems. Recommendations to improve the welfare of calves include increasing space allowance, keeping calves in stable groups from an early age, ensuring good colostrum management and increasing the amounts of milk fed to dairy calves. In addition, calves should be provided with deformable lying surfaces, water via an open surface and long‐cut roughage in racks. Regarding specific recommendations for veal systems, calves should be kept in small groups (2–7 animals) within the first week of life, provided with ~ 20 m²/calf and fed on average 1 kg neutral detergent fibre (NDF) per day, preferably using long‐cut hay. Recommendations on cow–calf contact include keeping the calf with the dam for a minimum of 1 day post‐partum. Longer contact should progressively be implemented, but research is needed to guide this implementation in practice. The ABMs body condition, carcass condemnations, abomasal lesions, lung lesions, carcass colour and bursa swelling may be collected in slaughterhouses to monitor on‐farm welfare but should be complemented with behavioural ABMs collected on farm.

Dynamic changes in intestinal microbiota and metabolite composition of pre-weaned beef calves

Gut microbes and their metabolites are essential for maintaining host health and production. The intestinal microflora of pre-weaned calves gradually tends to mature with growth and development and has high plasticity, but few studies have explored the dynamic changes of intestinal microbiota and metabolites in pre-weaned beef calves. In this study, we tracked the dynamics of faecal microbiota in 13 new-born calves by 16S rRNA gene sequencing and analysed changes in faecal amino acid levels using metabolomics. Calves were divided into the relatively high average daily gain group (HA) and the relatively low average daily gain group (LA) for comparison. The results demonstrated that the alpha diversity of the faecal microbiota increased with calf growth and development. The abundance of Porphyromonadaceae bacterium DJF B175 increased in the HA group, while that of Lactobacillus reuteri decreased. The results of the LEfSe analysis showed that the microbiota of faeces of HA calves at eight weeks of age was enriched with P. bacterium DJF B175, while Escherichia coli and L. reuteri were enriched in the microbiota of faeces of LA calves. Besides, the total amino acid concentration decreased significantly in the eighth week compared with that in the first week (P < 0.05). Overall, even under the same management conditions, microorganisms and their metabolites interact to play different dynamic regulatory roles. Our results provide new insights into changes in the gut microbiota and metabolites of pre-weaned calves.

Longitudinal study of calf morbidity and mortality and the associated risk factors on urban and peri-urban dairy farms in southern Ethiopia

BACKGROUND

Calf morbidity and mortality are among the leading causes of economic losses on dairy farms around the world. Poor calf management practices exacerbate the problem in developing countries like Ethiopia. This prospective, longitudinal study was conducted on 70 selected dairy farms in southern Ethiopia with the aim of estimating calf morbidity and mortality rates, identifying the associated risk factors and determining whether the mortality rate is above economically tolerable levels. For this purpose, a total of 274 calves on 70 farms were followed up every two weeks from birth to six months of age for major clinical health problems and deaths.

RESULTS

The study found a morbidity rate of 13.2 cases and a mortality rate of 3.8 cases per 100 calf-months at risk in the study calves. The cumulative incidence of morbidity and mortality was also found to be 40.29% and 12.85%, respectively. Diarrhea was the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in calves, accounting for 71.3% and 62.1% of all morbidity and mortality, respectively. In a multivariable Cox regression analysis, the risk of morbidity was significantly (p = 0.022) higher in calves born to dystocia-affected dams (HR = 2.4) and on farms where dairy farming is the farmers' secondary source of income (HR = 1.7). However, the risk of morbidity was significantly (p < 0.001) lower in calves older than three months (HR = 0.22), female calves (HR = 0.57), calves raised by farmers who had completed secondary school (HR = 0.26) or college education (HR = 0.30). Similarly, calves aged over three months (HR = 0.14), calves separated from their dams only after ingestion of colostrum (HR = 0.40) and calves owned by farmers who completed secondary school (HR = 0.08) or college education (HR = 0.13) all had lower mortality rates than other groups. On the other hand, calves born to cows with dystocia were 5.2 times more likely to die.

CONCLUSION

The study concluded that calf morbidity and mortality rates in the study area are higher than economically tolerable levels and therefore it is recommended to raise awareness among farmers to improve calf management practices.

Genetic parameters of colostrum and calf serum antibodies in Swedish dairy cattle

Background

A sufficient IgG content in the colostrum is essential for the newborn calf, as it provides passive immunity which substantially affects the probability of survival during rearing. Failure of passive transfer (FPT) occurs when a calf does not absorb enough antibodies from the colostrum and is defined by an IgG concentration in calf serum lower than 10 g/L. Apart from delayed access to colostrum, FPT can be due to a low production of IgG in the mother or poor IgG absorption by the calf. The aim of this study was to estimate the genetic background of antibody levels and indicator traits for antibodies in the colostrum and calf serum, and their correlation with milk production.

Results

Colostrum data were available for 1340 dairy cows with at least one calving and calf serum data were available for 886 calves from these cows. Indicator traits for antibody concentrations were estimated using refractometry (a digital Brix refractometer for colostrum and an optical refractometer for serum), and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) were used to determine the levels of total IgG and natural antibodies (NAb) of various antibody isotypes in the colostrum and calf serum. Colostrum traits had heritabilities ranging from 0.16 to 0.31 with repeatabilities ranging from 0.21 to 0.55. Brix percentages had positive genetic correlations with all colostrum antibody traits including total IgG (0.68). Calf serum antibody concentrations had heritabilities ranging from 0.25 to 0.59, with a significant maternal effect accounting for 17 to 27% of the variance. When later in life calves produced their first lactation, the lactation average somatic cell score was found to be negatively correlated with NAb levels in calf serum.

Conclusions

Our results suggest that antibody levels in the colostrum and calf serum can be increased by means of selection.

Calf care workers' attitudes and personality and their association with calf mortality in large-scale dairy farms

Although calf mortality is a multifactorial problem, little is known about the attitudes and personalities of calf care workers (CCWs) and their association with calf mortality. This study aimed to describe the attitudes, satisfaction, and personality of CCWs in large Estonian dairy herds and to analyze their associations with herd calf mortality. A questionnaire registering CCWs' attitudes toward their work and calf mortality, personality characteristics, satisfaction and importance of different job-related factors was developed. In total, completed questionnaire data of 161 CCWs from 108 large (>100 cows) Estonian dairy farms were analyzed. Herd-level yearly calf mortality risk (MR) was calculated. Cluster analysis and variance partitioning analysis were applied to reveal the explanatory capacity of CCWs' attitudes and personalities on calf mortality. The mean yearly herd-level calf MR was 5.4% during the first 21 days of life and 2.7% during 22-90 days of life. Although good calf health and low calf mortality was important for CCWs, dead calves were often seen as inevitable. CCWs were generally doubtful regarding their capacity and available knowledge to influence calf mortality. In high-mortality herds, CCWs were dissatisfied with the calf health situation and farm working equipment and felt that the situation was out of their control. Despite striving, they had less faith that farmworkers could affect the outcomes, such as calf mortality. CCWs' personality domains explained <5% of the variance in the herd's calf MR, whereas their attitudes and satisfaction explained 20% of the variability in calf MR. The current study revealed the importance of the attitudes and satisfaction of CCWs on calf mortality and highlighted the need to allocate proficient assistance to herds with high calf mortality to mitigate calf health problems and the resulting consequences for CCWs.

Effects of Milk Replacer-Based Lactobacillus on Growth and Gut Development of Yaks' Calves: a Gut Microbiome and Metabolic Study

The gut microbiota and its metabolic activities are crucial for maintaining host homoeostasis and health, of which the role of probiotics has indeed been emphasized. The current study delves into the performance of probiotics as a beneficial managemental strategy, which further highlights their impact on growth performance, serologic investigation, gut microbiota, and metabolic profiling in yaks' calves. A field experiment was employed consisting of 2 by 3 factorial controls, including two development stages, namely, 21 and 42 days (about one and a half month), with three different feeding treatments. Results showed a positive impact of probiotic supplements on growth performance by approximately 3.16 kg (P < 0.01) compared with the blank control. Moreover, they had the potential to improve serum antioxidants and biochemical properties. We found that microorganisms that threaten health were enriched in the gut of the blank control with the depletion of beneficial bacteria, although all yaks were healthy. Additionally, the gut was colonized by a microbial succession that assembled into a more mature microbiome, driven by the probiotics strategy. The gut metabolic profiling was also changed significantly after the probiotic strategy, i.e., the concentrations of metabolites and the metabolic pattern, including enrichments in protein digestion and absorption, vitamin digestion and absorption, and biosynthesis of secondary metabolites. In summary, probiotics promoted gut microbiota/metabolites, developing precise interventions and achieving physiological benefits based on intestinal microecology. Hence, it is important to understand probiotic dietary changes to the gut microbiome, metabolome, and the host phenotype. IMPORTANCE The host microbiome is a composite of the trillion microorganisms colonizing host bodies. It can be impacted by various factors, including diet, environmental conditions, and physical activities. The yaks' calves have a pre-existing imbalance in the intestinal microbiota with an inadequate feeding strategy, resulting in poor growth performance, diarrhea, and other intestinal diseases. Hence, targeting gut microbiota might provide a new effective feeding strategy for enhancing performance and maintaining a healthy intestinal environment. Based on the current findings, milk replacer-based Lactobacillus feeding may improve growth performance and health in yaks' calves.

Colostrum Management: Keys to Optimizing Output and Uptake of Immunoglobulin G

Colostrum is essential for the health and wellbeing of dairy cattle. This review provides insight into different means of augmenting or enhancing colostrum quality including colostrum feeding, dry cow management, prepartum cow diets, freezing, pasteurization, colostrum additives, and colostrum replacers. Other components in colostrum such as maternal cells and their importance are discussed. New research is needed regarding the components in colostrum (bioactive peptides and growth factors) and their effects on the neonate. Colostrum replacers and a prediction equation to estimate colostrum quality are reviewed.

Effects of Pathogenic Escherichia coli Infection on the Flora Composition, Function, and Content of Short-Chain Fatty Acids in Calf Feces

Calf diarrhea caused by pathogenic Escherichia coli is a major cause of death in calves, with a mortality rate of over 50%. It is crucial to understand the pathogenesis and development of calf diarrhea for its prevention and treatment. We aimed to study the effect of pathogenic E. coli on the flora composition, function, and short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) content of calf feces using a calf diarrhea model. Sixty-four newborn Holstein calves (40-43 kg) were divided into a normal group (NG; n = 32) and a test group (TG; n = 32). At the beginning of the experiment, the TG were orally administered pathogenic E. coli O1 (2.5 × 1011 CFU/mL, 100 mL) to establish a calf diarrhea model, and the NG were orally administered the same amount of physiological saline solution. The calves of the two groups were subjected to the same feeding and management. Fresh feces samples were collected at different time points and subjected to 16S rRNA high-throughput sequencing and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry to determine the fecal microbial composition and SCFA content. Pathogenic E. coli O1 significantly altered microbiotas composition in the feces of calves, increasing the relative abundance of Proteobacteria and decreasing that of Firmicutes. It also led to a significant increase in the relative abundance of Escherichia-Shigella and a decrease in Lactobacillus, as well as significantly decreased SCFA content. Therefore, we postulate that pathogenic E. coli induces calf diarrhea by causing intestinal florae imbalance and reducing the content of SCFA.

Management of calves in commercial dairy farms in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, Germany and its impact on calf mortality and prevalence of rotavirus and Cryptosporidium parvum infections in pre-weaned calves

In a cross-sectional study, impact of management in dairy farms on calf mortality rates and prevalence of rotavirus and Cryptosporidium parvum in feces of calves was investigated. Sixty-two commercial dairy herds in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, Germany, were stratified selected in 2019. We performed in-person interviews and fecal specimens in samples of all-female calves of age 7 up to 21 days. Management data were documented on farm level. A Multiscreen Ag-ELISA was performed to determine rotavirus and Cryptosporidium parvum. Associations between two calf mortality rates, detection of C. parvum and rotavirus, and predictors were examined with GLM models. In farms with routine vaccination against respiratory diseases, 31-days mortality rate was 4.2% +/-1.26 compared to 7.6% +/-0.97 (p = 0.040) on non-vaccinating farms. Six-months mortality was lower in farms that continued feeding milk to calves during periods of diarrhea compared to farms that did not (6.9% +/-0.8 vs. 12.4% +/-2.3). In case of a routine shifting of calves from the calving box into calf boxes less C. parvum was detected compared to an individual moving of calves (33.3% +/-2.6 vs. 19.6% +/-5.3; p = 0.024). Our model confirms a positive association between occurrence of aqueous feces and frequency of detection of C. parvum (45.4% +/-23.6 vs. 21.4% +/-18.7; p < 0.001). Frequency of detection of rotavirus was lower in farms that reported a defined amount of applicated colostrum per calf than in farms that presented a range of colostrum instead of a defined amount. This study indicates the potential for mitigation of risk factors for mortality in calves.

Integrated 16S rDNA Gene Sequencing and Untargeted Metabolomics Analyses to Investigate the Gut Microbial Composition and Plasma Metabolic Phenotype in Calves With Dampness-Heat Diarrhea

Dampness-heat diarrhea (DHD), a common syndrome in Chinese dairy farms, is mainly resulted from digestive system disorders, and accompanied with metabolic disorders in some cases. However, the underlying mechanisms in the intestinal microbiome and plasma metabolome in calves with DHD remain unclear. In order to investigate the pathogenesis of DHD in calves, multi-omics techniques including the 16S rDNA gene sequencing and metabolomics were used to analyze gut microbial compositions and plasma metabolic changes in calves. The results indicated that DHD had a significant effect on the intestinal microbial compositions in calves, which was confirmed by changes in microbial population and distribution. A total of 14 genera were changed, including Escherichia-Shigella, Bacteroides, and Fournierella, in calves with DHD (P < 0.05). Functional analysis based on the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) annotations indicated that 11 metabolic functions (level 2) were significantly enriched in DHD cases. The untargeted metabolomics analysis showed that 440 metabolites including bilineurin, phosphatidylcholine, and glutamate were significantly different between two groups (VIP > 1 and P < 0.05), and they were related to 67 signal pathways. Eight signal pathways including alpha-linolenic acid, linoleic acid, and glycerophospholipid metabolism were significantly enriched (P < 0.05), which may be potential biomarkers of plasma in calves with DHD. Further, 107 pairs of intestinal microbiota-plasma metabolite correlations were determined, e.g., Escherichia-Shigella was significantly associated with changes of sulfamethazine, butyrylcarnitine, and 14 other metabolites, which reflected that metabolic activity was influenced by the microbiome. These microbiota-metabolite pairs might have a relationship with DHD in calves. In conclusion, the findings revealed that DHD had effect on intestinal microbial compositions and plasma metabolome in calves, and the altered metabolic pathways and microorganisms might serve as diagnostic markers and potential therapeutic targets for DHD in calves.

Dairy calf and replacement heifer mortality on a single intensively managed dairy farm in Jordan: A 3-year-long study (2016-2018)

Background

Pre-weaning dairy calf and replacement heifer mortality represents significant economic loss, limits genetic improvement and growth of the herd, and indicates poor management and animal welfare status on the farm.

Aim

Currently, the rates and causes of the dairy calf and replacement heifer mortality in Jordan are not known. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine the incidence rates and causes of mortality of pre-weaning calves and replacement heifers in Jordan. In addition, the age and seasonal distribution of mortality are determined in the study.

Methods

Data extracted from the farm management record software over 3 years (January 2016-December 2018) were used in this study. Calf-specific data included the day and month of birth and sex. Health-related data included age at death, necropsy findings, laboratory findings if available, and the presumptive diagnosis. Descriptive analysis was performed to determine the 3-year overall mortality rate as well as the yearly mortality rate in pre-weaning calves and replacement heifers using excel spreadsheets of Microsoft Word 10.

Results

Only female calves (n = 724) born alive during the study period were used in the analysis. The overall calf mortality rate was 8.9% with a yearly rate ranging between 5.9% and 12%. The majority of deaths occurred in calves less than 50 days of age with an average age of 17 days. There was a seasonal pattern for calf mortality with the majority of deaths occurring during the colder months of the year (December, January, February, and March). The highest number of pre-weaning calves died because of enterotoxemia (39%) and pneumonia (30%). Other causes of calf mortality were abomasal ulcer (8%), enteritis (6%), septicemic salmonellosis (5%), meningitis (4%), rumen drinkers (3%), aspiration pneumonia (3%), septic arthritis (1%), and omphalitis (1%). The overall 3-year heifer mortality rate was 4%. The average age of dead heifers was 8 months (range 3-23 months). The highest number of heifers died because of neurologic disease (37%) and enterotoxemia (33%). Other causes of heifer mortality were abomasal ulcer (11%), enteric salmonellosis (7%), chronic rumen tympany (7%), and chronic pneumonia (4%).

Conclusion

Data presented in this study are essential to construct and implement effective preventative health programs and improve farm management practices to reduce calf and heifer losses.

The influence of haemolysis on the determination of vitamin E in cattle

The study deals with the influence of haemolysis on the results of vitamin E determination in plasma (serum) in cattle. Although nowadays specific High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) techniques are used almost exclusively for the determination of vitamin E, this indicator is also influenced by haemolysis. This occurs in the pre-analytical phase due to the fact that iron contained in haemoglobin is able to catalyze peroxidation reactions. Subsequently, changes occur mainly in polyunsaturated fatty acids in the lipoprotein components of serum/plasma. The vitamin E present inhibits this process, as a result of which its concentration is reduced. The experiment was performed by preparing model samples with a defined degree of haemolysis by adding haemolysate to the centrifuged plasma in the range of ca 0–12 g/l, i.e. mild to severe haemolysis. After 4 h of incubation at room temperature, the vitamin E concentration was determined by the HPLC method. Haemolysis was found to reduce the test result; mild one (approximately up to 2 g/l) non-significantly, medium and severe haemolysis by up to tens of percent, which warrants repeated sampling. False reductions in results will not endanger the patient’s health, but economic losses may occur due to unnecessary check-ups and increased vitamin E supplementation.

Incidence of morbidity and mortality in calves from birth to six months of age and associated risk factors on dairy farms in Hawassa city, southern Ethiopia

Calf morbidity and mortality are major causes of economic losses on dairy farms worldwide, with a far greater impact in developing countries such as Ethiopia. A prospective longitudinal study on dairy farms in the city of Hawassa was conducted between August 2018 and July 2019, to estimate the cumulative incidence of calf morbidity and mortality and to identify the associated risk factors. For this purpose, 221 calves from 20 farms were examined every 15 days from birth to the age of six months. We used the Kaplan Meier (K-M) method, log rank test, and Cox proportional hazards regression to analyze the data. Of the calves examined, 48.4% (n = 107) had various clinically visible health problems, while 19.5% (n = 43) died from various causes. Using the K-M method, the cumulative incidence of all-cause morbidity at the end of the sixth month of life was 50.12% (95% CI: 43.58%–57.05%), while the cumulative incidence of all-cause mortality was 20.04% (95% CI: 12.56%–26.06%). The most commonly diagnosed disease syndrome was diarrhea (64.5%), followed by pneumonia (15%), septicemia (6.5%), joint disease (4.7%), conjunctivitis (3.7%), umbilical infections (2, 8%) and other unknown causes (11.2%). Diarrhea was also the leading cause of death (46.5%). The other causes of calf mortality were pneumonia (16.3%), septicemia (7%), and unknown diseases (30.2%). In the K-M hazard analysis, the greatest risk of calf morbidity and mortality was observed during the first month of life and then the risk decreased significantly as the calves grew. Of the 21 potential risk factors studied, the multivariable Cox proportional hazards regression model showed that time calves ingested their first colostrum, calving difficulty, and calving season were the three predictors that were significantly associated with a higher risk of morbidity and mortality. A higher risk of morbidity was observed in calves that had ingested their first colostrum six hours after birth (HR = 1.9; P = 0.003), had calving difficulties (HR = 2.96; P < 0.001) and were born in the rainy season (HR = 1.64; P = 0.017) compared to calves that had consumed colostrum immediately after birth, had no difficulties at birth and were born in the dry season. The same three factors have been identified to influence calf mortality. The mortality risk was 2.73 (P = 0.002), 4.62 (P < 0.001) and 2.74 (P = 0.002) times higher in calves that had difficulty calving, ingested their first colostrum meal six hours after birth and were born in the rainy season, respectively. In general, the calf morbidity and mortality rates identified in this study were beyond economically justifiable limits and calls for educating farmers to raise awareness of some easy-to-fix issues such as colostrum feeding.

Evaluation of the optimal strong ion difference concentration of an oral electrolyte and buffering solution for the treatment of neonatal calf diarrhea

An observational study was conducted to comparatively assess the efficacy of three different oral rehydration and buffering solutions, differentiated by their strong ion difference (SID) concentration, for treatment of neonatal calves with naturally acquired diarrhea. The SID concentrations tested were 100 mM, 170 mM and 230 mM for treatments SID₁₀₀, SID₁₇₀ and SID₂₃₀, respectively. Clinical assessment and blood gas analysis were completed for 18 diarrheic calves once pre- and twice post- (6 and 24 hr after) oral administration with one of the three treatments. A repeated measure mixed model approach was used to analyze (a) the within-group efficacy of each treatment over time and (b) the between-group comparison at each timepoint. SID₂₃₀ treatment resulted in a significant increase in blood pH, HCO₃⁻, BE, SID and Na⁺ at 6 and 24 hr after treatment, and a significant decrease in AG and K⁺ by 24 hr after treatment. There were no significant changes in any of the blood gas parameters after treatment with SID₁₀₀ and SID₁₇₀. SID₂₃₀ treatment also resulted in blood gas parameter changes that were significantly different to the other two groups. These results suggest that the optimum SID concentration for the treatment of calves with diarrhea is likely to be higher than current recommendations.

Stakeholder Perceptions of Disease Management for Dairy Calves: "It's Just Little Things That Make Such a Big Difference"

Calf morbidity and mortality rates are often high in dairy herds, raising animal welfare concerns and negatively affecting farm economic efficiency and future performance. Disease prevention is critical to maintain calves in good health, but interventions are dependent upon the persons conducting them. This paper explores the perceptions of farmers, farm workers, veterinarians, and other advisors on the management of calfhood disease on dairy farms in England. Participants were recruited using purposive and "snowball" sampling, resulting in 40 in-depth, semi-structured interviews-26 with dairy farmers and 14 with advisors. Interviews were recorded, transcribed, and thematically coded. Three major themes were derived on the basis of interview data: disease occurrence and treatments, management of calf environment, and the role of stockmanship and perceived control. Respiratory and gastrointestinal diseases in calves were those reported to be most problematic on dairy farms. Limited time and financial resources caused some farmers and advisors to experience a perceived inability to control calf health without antimicrobial treatments. Overall, the findings emphasise the importance of human influences on calf health and disease in the context of influencing the interactions among the host, pathogens, and the environment. Further research should investigate what "attention to detail" means within different farm contexts and practices, as this was believed to be important in the promotion of better husbandry standards and health. We recommend the use of supportive knowledge exchange processes, including facilitation, to empower farmers to promote continuous improvement in calf health.

Microencapsulated and Lyophilized Lactobacillus acidophilus Improved Gut Health and Immune Status of Preruminant Calves

The present study was conducted to study the effect of microencapsulated, lyophilized, or fermented milk using Lactobacillus acidophilus NCDC15 as a probiotic to improve gut health, growth, nutrient utilization, and immunity status of young crossbred calves. The viable culture of L. acidophilus was used for preparation of different probiotic forms/products. To compare the efficacy of probiotic products, twenty crossbred calves (3-day old) were divided into four groups (n = 5), control (C), fed only milk and basal diet, and treatment groups, supplemented with microencapsulated, fermented, and lyophilized probiotic at 10⁸ colony-forming units, respectively. Probiotic-supplemented groups showed reduction in faecal score, faecal pH, and ammonia concentration as compared to control indicating decreased diarrheal incidence. There was an increase (P < 0.05) in the concentration of faecal lactate and butyrate in the probiotic-supplemented groups. The faecal count (log10 (CFU)/g of fresh faeces) of lactobacilli and bifidobacteria was higher (P < 0.05), whereas faecal coliforms and clostridia count were reduced (P < 0.001) in all the probiotic fed groups as compared to control. The cell-mediated immunity was improved (P < 0.05) in the microencapsulated and fermented probiotic groups. However, there was no effect on the nutrient utilization, average daily gain, and blood biochemical profile. Therefore, it is concluded that the fermented, microencapsulated and lyophilized probiotic products were superior in improving the gut health in terms of its microbiota and metabolites and cell-mediated immunity response in calves, irrespective of form of probiotic. The increased population of Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium decreased the colonization of the gut by pathogens such as Escherichia coli and Clostridium by exclusion and production of organic acids in the intestine. This decreased the diarrhoeal incidence (1.3 vs 1.8) and days in diarrhoea (3.9 vs 5.8) in calves in probiotic fed groups as compared to control.

The effect of parenteral application of vitamin A, vitamin E, and β-carotene to pregnant cows on selected indices in their calves

The aim of the study was to determine the effect of parenteral application of vitamin preparations containing vitamins A, E, and β-carotene to pregnant cows (10–14 days before calving) on vitamin concentrations, haematological indices and the total antioxidant status (TAS) in their calves. Thirty cows were divided into 3 groups – control, the experimental group 1 (vitamins A, E), and experimental group 2 (β-carotene). Blood sampling in calves was performed immediately after birth, 2 h after receiving colostrum, 24 h after birth and 5–7 days after birth. The calves received the first 4 doses of colostrum from their mothers. The highest concentration of vitamin E was observed 5–7 days after birth in group 1 compared to the control (P < 0.05) and group 2 (P < 0.01). The concentration of β-carotene was the highest in group 2 (2 and 24 h after receiving colostrum) compared to group 1 (P < 0.01). The TAS was the highest in group 1 compared to the control (P < 0.05, P < 0.001) and group 2 (P < 0.01). A significant increase in haemoglobin (P < 0.01, P < 0.05) and haematocrit (P < 0.05, P < 0.01) was recorded in group 1 and group 2, respectively, compared to the control, as well as in the red blood cell count (P < 0.05) in group 2 compared to the control. The highest total protein was observed in the control group in all samplings. Parenteral application of vitamins to pregnant cows most likely had an effect on the concentrations of vitamins, TAS and haematological indices in their calves.

Effect of β-carotene supplementation to prepartum Holstein cows on colostrum quality and calf performance

β-Carotene, a pro-vitamin A carotenoid, acts as an antioxidant, able to scavenge free radicals to prevent oxidative damage. It has also been shown to increase rumen microbial production in vitro. When supplemented prepartum, β-carotene increased colostral fat and protein concentrations. The objective of this experiment was to evaluate the effects of supplementing 700 mg/d β-carotene (BC) daily for 4 wk prepartum on cow performance, colostrum, and performance in subsequent calves. Eighteen multiparous Holstein cows housed in a tiestall barn were blocked by expected calving date and randomly assigned to treatments at 4 wk prepartum. Blood samples were collected 3 times a week for analysis of nonesterified fatty acids, ketones, β-carotene, and IgG. Urine samples were also collected 3 times a week for analysis of creatinine and purine derivatives. Colostrum was collected within 90 min after parturition. Calves were removed from their dams before suckling, weighed within 30 min of birth, and received 4 L of maternal colostrum. Blood samples were collected from calves before colostrum administration (0 h) and at 24 h via jugular venipuncture for analysis of IgG concentration and apparent efficiency of IgG absorption. The 18 calves born were blocked based on treatments of dams. All calves were fed 449 g/d dry matter of milk replacer (20% crude protein, 20% fat) and an 18% crude protein textured starter and water ad libitum at 2 d of age until weaning at 42 d. There were no differences in any blood parameters of cows during the prepartum period. Supplemental BC increased the solids content of colostrum compared with control (22.89% control; 27.75% BC). Calves born from control fed cows had greater efficiency of IgG absorption than those born from BC supplemented cows (52.16% control; 39.50%, BC). Calves born from BC fed cows had greater feed efficiency (average daily gain/dry matter intake) compared with those born from control supplemented cows (0.33 for control; 0.44 for BC). These data indicate that although supplementing β-carotene to cows in the prepartum period negatively affects apparent efficiency of IgG absorption, it improved feed efficiency in calves.

Prevalence and performance effects of neonatal disease in Thoroughbred and Standardbred foals in South-Eastern Australia

BACKGROUND

There is little information on foal mortality and the epidemiology of diseases in the neonatal period in Australian equine breeding enterprises.

METHODOLOGY

This was a prospective cohort study of 1219 foals on 15 breeding farms in south-eastern Australia to identify the proportion of foals recognised on farm as abnormal at birth or within the first 48 h postpartum, determine the prevalence and risk factors for neonatal disease and assess the subsequent performance of foals in the study population.

RESULTS

Overall, 27 foals died within 6 weeks of birth in the study population (2.2%), 142 foals (11.6%) were reported as abnormal at birth, and 304 (25.3%) were regarded as abnormal in the first 48 h postpartum. Non-septic orthopaedic disease (NSOD) was the most common abnormality recognised. Premature foals and foals born after dystocia or abnormal parturition were more likely to have clinical abnormalities recognised, but the intensity of nursing care did not predict outcome. Prophylactic administration of antimicrobial drugs was associated with increased mortality and septic disease. Maternal periparturient problems, foal gender, abnormality at birth and the presence of septic disease or neonatal maladjustment were associated with decreased performance outcomes, whereas measures to assess and augment passive immune transfer were associated with improved athletic performance.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

Information in the current study is important for the treatment and management decisions on farm and to identify industry welfare and production priorities. Although the incidence of all outcome variables was variable, factors recognised on farm in the peri-parturient period were predictive of subsequent athletic performance.

Implementation of management recommendations in unweaned dairy calves in western Germany and associated challenges

To improve the welfare of livestock, it is important to assess management practices on farms and to identify areas where current scientific recommendations are rarely implemented. Differences in the implementation of recommendations might be explained by the individual farm as well as the characteristics of survey respondents and their attitude toward animal welfare. Hence, the aim of this study was to assess dairy calf management practices, compare them with current scientific recommendations, and to explore factors that influence implementation of the recommended management practices. A 1.5-h interview was performed with stockpersons on 42 dairy farms (mean herd size ± SD = 149.9 ± 16.6 cows) distributed across western Germany in 2018 to 2019. We observed that the management of unweaned calves varied greatly from farm to farm in aspects such as milk-feeding protocols; timing of grouping and disbudding; and access to water, roughage, and concentrate. Major deviations from management recommendations were (1) cleaning calving pen only by removal of bedding without a following disinfection before restocking on 23.8% farms, cleaning of teat buckets without detergents and disinfection (23.8 and 11.9% of farms, respectively), and failure to disinfect navels (29.3% of farms); (2) separating calf and dam after only 5 to 8 h postpartum for calving at night in 97.6% farms and unchecked colostrum quality by 23.8% of survey respondents; (3) feeding waste milk by 72.4% of the farms surveyed; and (4) removing supernumerary teats and disbudding without local anesthesia (90 and 80% farms surveyed, respectively). The number of implemented recommendations on the farms surveyed correlated with who was responsible for calf rearing, and whether prioritizing animal welfare was considered important by the respondents. This study indicated that limitations of individual housing systems, time management, the stockperson's knowledge, and the stockperson's ability to relate to animals posed challenges in implementation of the recommendations. Further research on challenges in calf management and how to overcome them would be helpful to improve calves' welfare in current husbandry systems.

Longitudinal health outcomes for enteric pathogens in preweaned calves on Ohio dairy farms

Calf gastrointestinal disease remains one of the main causes of productivity and economic losses on dairy operations. The majority of pre-weaned calf mortality is attributed to diarrhea or other digestive problems. Five enteric pathogens are commonly associated with diarrhea in dairy calves, including bovine rotavirus, bovine coronavirus, Escherichia coli, Salmonella spp., and Cryptosporidium parvum. Pathogen-associated differences in health outcomes and case fatality rates have not been well-characterized. Additionally, updated prevalence estimates may reflect important changes in the epidemiology of the pathogens on dairy farms. For this cohort study, fecal samples were collected from 276 clinically ill calves across 5 central Ohio dairy farms on the first day of diarrheal diagnosis. Genomic techniques, including reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and droplet digital polymerase chain reaction (ddPCR) were used to test for the presence of the five enteric pathogens. A Poisson regression model was used to estimate the relative risk of mortality, and a survival analysis with a Cox regression model was used to analyze time to return to a healthy clinical status by pathogen. Rotavirus was the most frequently identified at 68.1 % (188/276), followed by F5 (K99)⁺E. coli at 42.5 % (114/268), C. parvum at 28.4 % (66/232), coronavirus at 5.8 % (16/276), and Salmonella had the lowest prevalence at 3.7 % (10/268). Risk of mortality tended to be higher for calves infected with Salmonella (RR = 3.83; 95 %CI: 0.93, 16.02, p = 0.062); however, the time to return to a healthy clinical status was not different for different pathogens. Only farm was a significant predictor of time to return to health (p = 0.017); the within-farm median duration of signs substantially varied between 2 and 7 days. The results suggest that the prevalence and distribution of rotaviral infections is higher than reported in prior studies. With the exception of infections caused by Salmonella spp., pathogen diagnosis on the first day of diarrhea was a poor predictor of the outcome and duration of disease. These results are critical to guide the implementation of prevention measures to detect, treat, and prevent calf diarrhea.

Monitoring selected behaviors of calves by use of an ear-attached accelerometer for detecting early indicators of diarrhea

One of the most important diseases in calves worldwide is neonatal calf diarrhea (NCD), which impairs calf welfare and leads to economic losses. The aim of this study was to test whether the activity patterns of calves can be used as early indicators to identify animals at risk for suffering from NCD, compared with physical examination. We monitored 310 healthy female Holstein-Friesian calves on a commercial dairy farm immediately after birth, equipped them with an ear tag-based accelerometer (Smartbow, Smartbow GmbH), and conducted daily physical examinations during the first 28 d of life. The Smartbow system captured acceleration data indicative of standing and lying periods and activity levels (active and inactive), shown as minutes per hour. We categorized calves as diarrheic if they showed fecal scores of ≥3 on a 4-point scale on at least 2 consecutive days. Incidence of diarrhea was 50.7% (n = 148). A mixed logistic regression model showed that lying [odds ratio (OR) = 1.19], inactive (OR = 1.14), and active (OR = 0.92) times, 1 d before clinical identification of diarrhea (d -1), were associated with the odds of diarrhea occurring on the subsequent day. Receiver operating characteristics curve showed that lying time at d -1 was a fair predictor for diarrhea on the subsequent day (area under curve = 0.69). Average lying time on d -1 was 64.8 min longer in diarrheic calves compared with their controls. Median lying and inactive times decreased, and active time increased with age over the study period. The 24-h pattern of behavior indices based on the output of the Smartbow system followed periods of resting and active times, and showed that between 2200 h and 0600 h, calves spent the greatest percentage of time lying and inactive. These results showed that the accelerometer system has the potential to detect early indicators associated with NCD. In future studies, additional data for the development and testing of calf- and event-specific algorithms (e.g., for detecting milk intake, playing behavior) should be collected, which might further improve the early detection of diarrhea in calves.

Effects of β-Mannanase and Bacteriophage Supplementation on Health and Growth Performance of Holstein Calves

Simple Summary

For sustainable animal agriculture, we need to find ways to increase growth efficiency without using feed antibiotics. Bacteriophages, which are only harmful to specific bacterial strains, have been suggested as a feed additive replacing antibiotics. β-mannanase, which degrades mannan, is known to promote nutrient digestibility, animal growth, or both, thus improving feed efficiency. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of dietary supplementation with bacteriophage and β-mannanase on health and growth performance in calves. We assigned 36 pre-weaning male Holstein calves to one of four treatments with a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement: no supplementation, 0.1% β-mannanase, 0.1% bacteriophage, and both 0.1% bacteriophage and 0.1% β-mannanase supplementation in a starter on a dry matter basis. Compared to unsupplemented, the bacteriophage supplemented group showed a tendency to improve the survival rate without growth promotion. Supplementation of β-mannanase, on the other hand, increased the starter intake and the weekly body weight (BW) gain and tended to increase the final BW. Our study indicated that bacteriophage supplementation has a positive effect on survival rate, while β-mannanase supplementation improves growth performance in calves.

Abstract

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of dietary supplementation with bacteriophage and β-mannanase on health and growth performance in calves. Thirty-six pre-weaning male Holstein calves were randomly allocated to one of four dietary treatments with a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement: no supplementation, 0.1% β-mannanase, 0.1% bacteriophage, and both 0.1% bacteriophage and 0.1% β-mannanase supplementation in a starter on a dry matter basis. The experiment lasted from 2 weeks before weaning to 8 weeks after weaning. Twenty-two calves survived to the end of the experiment. No interaction was observed between the two different feed additives. The bacteriophage supplementation tended to increase the odds ratio of survival (p = 0.09). The number of Escherichia coli in feces significantly decreased by bacteriophage supplementation one week after weaning. β-mannanase supplementation increased the concentrate intake (p < 0.01) and tended to increase the final BW (p = 0.08). Analysis of repeated measures indicated β-mannanase supplementation increased weekly body weight gain (p = 0.018). We conclude that bacteriophage supplementation may have a positive effect on calf survival rate, while β-mannanase supplementation may increase the growth rate and starter intake by calves just before and after weaning.

Hygiene management in newborn individually housed dairy calves focusing on housing and feeding practices

In calf rearing, the first weeks of life are critical and associated with the highest mortality due to enteric and respiratory diseases. A well-implemented hygiene management can help to protect calves' health preventively by reducing the load of pathogenic bacteria and interrupting infection chains. The aim of this study was to identify deficiencies in hygiene management of individually housed dairy calves by surveying current practice and examining feeding and housing equipment with different hygiene indicators. On 11 farms, different locations in 2 pens or hutches for individual calf rearing prepared for restocking and 2 feeding buckets per farm, including the inner and outer surfaces of artificial teats, were visually scored for cleanliness and sampled with swabs (housing equipment: n = 167; feeding equipment: n = 120). The sanitation of floors was tested with sock samples (n = 41). A total of 328 samples were analyzed for adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and protein residues, aerobic total viable count (TVC), total coliform count (TCC), Escherichia coli, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing bacteria (ESBL), and Salmonella spp. After evaluation of these results, the farmers were informed about the findings and trained on improvement in hygiene management personally. The sampling was repeated after 1 year to detect possible changes in hygiene management. The highest bacterial loads (TVC, TCC, and E. coli) were observed in feeding equipment, especially the inner teat of milk feeding buckets. Environmental samples, primarily the sidewalls and back walls of tested pens and hutches, exhibited the lowest bacterial counts and ATP and protein residues. All samples were negative for MRSA and Salmonella spp. In 10.5% of all samples, ESBL was detected, and in 6.8%, ESBL E. coli was detected, predominately in sock samples, followed by feeding equipment samples. Training in hygiene management showed only limited effects. In conclusion, there is still great potential to improve the implementation of hygiene measures in individual calf housing. In particular, more attention should be paid to the cleaning of feeding buckets and artificial teats, as this is a simple means of interrupting the possible spread of pathogens among calves.

A cross-sectional study of associations between herd-level calf mortality rates, compliance with legislation on calf welfare, and milk feeding management in Norwegian dairy herds

Our aim was to investigate the associations between management factors, compliance with current legislation, and herd-level calf mortality. In a national calf welfare audit, veterinary inspectors from the Norwegian Food Safety Authority assessed compliance with current legislation on calf welfare (n = 912 herds). Nine criteria were assessed and rated as satisfactory (1) or not satisfactory (0): housing, natural behavior, single pens, colostrum feeding, feeding, water, surveillance, illness/injuries, and <5% mortality rate. In addition, a short questionnaire on milk feeding management for 3-wk-old calves was distributed to all national calf welfare audit herds, and data on mortality and disease recordings were obtained from the Norwegian Dairy Herd Recording System (NDHRS). A herd welfare compliance score (WCS) for each farm was constructed, summarizing the results for the individual criteria. Most herds had a high WCS (median 9.0, range 2-9). Fifty-six percent of the national calf welfare audit herds (508/912) responded to the questionnaire. We performed a cross-sectional study using a data set from 431 herds with available data on recorded disease and mortality events from the NDHRS, recordings from the national calf welfare audit, and the questionnaire. A mixed-effects negative binomial model with Norwegian Food Safety Authority district as the random effect was fitted to the data. Of the 416 herds with available data on calf mortality, 108 (25.9%) reported no mortality in 2016, and the median 6-mo mortality rate was 0.064 (interquartile range 0-0.11) dead calves per 6 calf-months at risk, based on NDHRS recordings. Calf mortality rates were higher in herds whose calves did not have free access to water (incidence rate ratio 1.29; 95% confidence interval 1.02-1.64) and higher in herds that had reported calf disease events (incidence rate ratio 1.31; 95% confidence interval 1.09-1.54). Neither the WCS nor any of the calf milk feeding management factors were associated with mortality, but more than half of producers (59.6%) fed less milk than currently recommended for 3-wk-old calves (8 L/d first 3 to 4 wk). These results indicate that a lack of access to water was associated with higher calf mortality rates. Herds with registered calf disease events had a higher incidence rate ratio of mortality. This finding may be linked to suboptimal calf management, leading to more calf diseases and mortality; or it may be that veterinary consultancy occurs too late or only for the worst cases. There is room for improvement in Norwegian dairy calf management, and water should be provided to young calves.

Relation between non-infectious factors and neonatal calf health status in dairy herd

The aim of this research was to determine some non-infectious factors (sex of calf, calf birth weight, calving season and dam parity and dam body condition score at dry and calving) that can under control by breeders affecting calf health status (CHS) in neonatal period. A total of 517 calves (from delivery of calf until 28 days) and their dams (at dry and calving) were assessed according to study criteria. Relationship between CHS and dam parity (DP), body condition score at calving (BCS_C ), body condition score at dry (BCS_D ), sex of calf (SC), calf birth weight (CBW), and calving season (CS) was examined and connection between CHS and BCS_D , CS, and CBW was found important. Also, influences of DP, SC BCS_C , and BCS_D on CBW were examined and while effects of DP and SC on CBW were found important, effects of others were not. These results show that relation between CHS and CBW, CS, and BCS_D is important and CHS is higher in female calves or calves born to multiparous dams. As a conclusion, it can be said that planning the herd management practices according to these results will be beneficial for the healthier completion of the neonatal period.

Changes in fluid and acid-base status of diarrheic calves on different oral rehydration regimens

The administration of oral rehydration solutions (ORS) is an effective method to treat dehydration and acidosis in calves suffering from diarrhea. The ORS can be prepared in water or milk. The aim of the present study was to elucidate how fluid and acid-base balance change after feeding milk compared with ORS prepared in water or milk to diarrheic calves. Calves (n = 30) with naturally acquired diarrhea were sequentially assigned in a 2:1 ratio to the following pretreatments: milk and water-ORS (pretreatment 1; n = 20 calves) or milk-ORS (pretreatment 2; n = 10 calves), respectively. The assignment was done on the day of diarrhea diagnosis. On d 3 ± 1 following assignment to pretreatment group, and after a fasting period of 9 h, diarrheic calves were subjected to the following treatments: 2 L of milk (pretreatment 1; n = 10 calves), water-ORS (pretreatment 1; n = 10 calves), or milk-ORS (pretreatment 2; n = 10 calves). Blood samples were taken before and at several time points until 6 h after feeding. Plasma protein, osmolality, and electrolytes were determined and a blood gas analysis was performed. Change in plasma volume was calculated according to plasma protein, and water intake during the experimental period was recorded. Plasma volume was increased 30 min after feeding water-ORS or milk but the increase was less pronounced after feeding milk compared with water-ORS. After feeding milk-ORS, no significant increase in plasma volume could be detected. Because of the pretreatment, plasma osmolality was higher in calves fed milk-ORS, but no change in plasma osmolality after feeding was detected. No difference in water consumption between the treatment groups was noted within the observed 6-h period. The pH was increased after feeding milk-ORS, whereas water-ORS and milk-feeding did not increase pH in blood. Pretreatment with milk-ORS resulted in higher baseline d-lactate concentration, but feeding milk-ORS reduced d-lactate values after feeding. In calves with diarrhea, plasma volume increased more quickly and to a greater extent after feeding water-ORS; thus, we recommend treating diarrheic calves with water-ORS before supplying milk. Nevertheless, diarrheic calves need milk to fulfill their energy needs. The administration of ORS in milk combined with free water access is more advisable than feeding milk exclusively because milk has no alkalinizing ability and contains less sodium. However, the effects of milk-ORS feeding on d-lactate levels in diarrheic calves need further elucidation.

Factors associated with calf mortality and poor growth of dairy heifer calves in northeast Germany

A cross-sectional study was conducted on fifty German dairy farms to identify risk factors for high mortality and poor growth in calves. Between 2012 and 2014, farm visits took place and a questionnaire on farm management practices was completed by in-person interview. In addition, heart girth measurements of calves around weaning were performed to estimate average daily weight gain. Furthermore, blood and faecel samples of calves were collected and a score addressing calf welfare was determined. The epidemiological associations between risk factors and high mortality and poor growth were estimated using two regression models. The factors significantly associated with high calf mortality (> 5%) were a high rate of calves with failure of passive transfer (> 25%) and the metaphylactic use of halofuginone lactate. A small amount of concentrates consumed around weaning, relocating calves more than twice until weaning and a low incidence risk of milk fever (< 5%) were found to be significantly associated with poor growth (median: 675 grams). Although the fifty farms cannot be considered as a representative sample for North-East Germany, the results indicate that the farm management has a big impact on growth and survival of dairy calves and needs to be addressed more thoroughly when raising the future dairy cow.

Relationship between the values of blood parameters and physical status in Korean native calves with diarrhea

Dehydration, electrolyte disturbance, and acid-base imbalance are the most significant consequences of diarrhea in calves. We aimed to determine blood gas, hematological, electrolyte, and biochemical values and investigate the relationship between the physical status and blood parameters in Korean native calves (KNCs) with diarrhea. One hundred eighty KNCs with diarrhea (age < 75 days) were investigated. Blood samples were collected from the external jugular vein and analyzed using a portable clinical blood gas analyzer. The measured parameters were statistically compared according to the status of physical activity, dehydration, or prognosis. The mean values of parameters in the Calves with diarrhea showed metabolic acidosis, hyponatremia, and azotemia. The mean values of potassium, chloride, hematocrit, and hemoglobin were in the upper limit of their reference ranges. More than 75% of the calves had metabolic acidosis caused by bicarbonate loss, and 63.6% had high blood urea nitrogen (BUN) values. Moreover, BUN showed the highest correlation with the physical activity status and dehydration. pH, base excess of the extracellular fluid (BE), anion gap, potassium, hematocrit, bicarbonate, and hemoglobin were closely correlated with physical deterioration and dehydration (p < 0.001). BUN, pH, BE, and anion gap were closely correlated with physical deterioration and dehydration. These correlations between clinical symptoms and blood gas parameters can be clinically relevant in predicting the status of parameters according to clinical symptoms.

A survey of management practices that influence calf welfare and an estimation of the annual calf mortality risk in pastured dairy herds in Uruguay

Despite the importance of dairy farming in Uruguay, little information on dairy systems in this country is available in the scientific literature, and management practices that influence calf welfare at the herd level have not been explored. The aims of this study were to (1) describe the prepartum and calf-rearing systems, as well as the management practices that may influence calf welfare in pastured dairy herds in Uruguay, (2) estimate the annual calf mortality risk from birth to weaning, and (3) identify the primary clinical disease syndromes shown by the calves before death. A survey comprising a farm visit and a questionnaire was conducted on 225 randomly selected dairies with >30 milking cows, in 3 strata (31-99, 100-299, and ≥300 milking cows) of 6 Uruguayan departments where dairies are concentrated. Retrospective information from July 2013 to June 2014 was collected. A descriptive analysis was performed and results were inferred into the national dairy cattle population. Several management practices that could contribute to poor calf welfare were identified in a large proportion of farms. The annual calf mortality risk (calves that died between birth and weaning/calves born death or alive × 100, n = 149 farms) was 15.2%. Age at weaning averaged 75 d. Farmers reported that the most common clinical syndromes were diarrhea and respiratory disease in 85.2% and 47.5% of the farms, respectively. There was no continuous veterinary advice in 61.3% of the farms, 20.0% lacked data records, 38.5% had poor drainage in the prepartum area with waterlogging after rainfall, 52.1% monitored the prepartum area ≤2 times per day during the calving season, 65.1% did not perform navel antisepsis on newborns, 62.3% separated the calves from their dams at >24 h postpartum, 95.2% did not have a colostrum management program, 72.4% did not rotate the calf-rearing areas, 59.0% did not disinfect the calf feeders, 85.7% did not have staff dedicated exclusively to calf rearing, and 39.8% did not separate sick from healthy calves. The average volume of milk or milk replacer offered per calf was 4.5 L/day. Several of the identified management practices that affect calf welfare in the prepartum and calf-rearing periods could explain the high mortality risk. An effort should be made to conduct extension work focusing on the dissemination of good management practices to improve calf welfare and reduce calf mortality in Uruguayan dairy farms.

Determining the predictive capability of a Clinical Assessment Scoring Chart to differentiate severity of the clinical consequences of neonatal calf diarrhea relative to gold-standard blood gas analysis

Neonatal calf diarrhea (NCD) is a major problem to calf health worldwide, in terms of both morbidity and mortality. A five-point ordinal scale clinical assessment scoring (CAS) chart was utilized to assess calves suffering from NCD-related clinical abnormalities (acidosis and dehydration) on commercial farms. The objective of this research was to determine the predictive capability of this CAS chart against gold standard blood gas parameters, designed to assist farmers in the accurate assessment of the clinical consequences of NCD. A total of 443 diarrheic and non-diarrheic calves were enrolled in the study. The CAS chart rated a calf’s health from no clinical signs to varying degrees of clinical severity on a 0 (clinically normal) to 4 (grave) scale, based on clinical indicators including calf demeanour, ear position, mobility, suckle reflex, desire-to-feed, and enophthalmos. Blood gas analysis was conducted for individual calves, consisting of pH, base excess, Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺, Cl⁻, glucose, total hemoglobin, bicarbonate, anion gap, and strong ion difference. Statistical evaluation was performed by comparison of the CAS score with blood gas profiles using ordinal logistic regression and a non-parametric estimation of the Receiver Operating Characteristics (ROC). The ROC analysis indicated that the CAS chart had acceptable specificity (>95%) with low sensitivity (<60%) in differentiating clinically normal from acidotic/dehydrated cases. Assessment of individual severity classes indicated that the chart can predict and differentiate both clinically normal and advanced cases from the other severity classes (peak estimations >80%) but had reduced accuracy in differentiating mild and moderate cases (peak estimations >50%). The chart, as presented, provides a simple tool to differentiate clinically normal from calves suffering the consequences of diarrhea, but fails to accurately differentiate severity for NCD related acidosis and dehydration. Further efforts are required to enhance the sensitivity and differential diagnostic value of this type of chart.

Herd-level risk factors for cow and calf on-farm mortality in Estonian dairy herds

BACKGROUND

On-farm mortality (unassisted death and euthanasia) is the unwanted loss of animals, and it comes with negative economic consequences. On-farm mortality rates reflect a herd's animal welfare status. The objective of this historical longitudinal single cohort study was to identify the associations between herd characteristics, animal housing conditions and management routines and within-herd calf and cow mortality rates in participating Estonian dairy herds. All farmers enrolled in the voluntary production recording system with a herd size of 20 or greater cow-years in 2015-2017 were contacted by mail or telephone between October 2017 and March 2018. The survey included questions about management routines and housing conditions of calves up to 3 months of age and of cows. In total, 214 completed questionnaires were returned, corresponding to a 63.3% response rate. The within-herd mortality rate of calves (aged 21-90 days) and cows (cattle over 24 months of age) in years 2017-2018 were calculated and used as outcome variables. Negative binomial and linear regression models were applied for risk factor analysis in calf and cow datasets, respectively.

RESULTS

The median within-herd mortality rate for calves aged 21 to 90 days was 0.15 per 100 calf-months (quartiles 0.00; 0.36). The median within-herd mortality rate for cattle over 24 months of age was 4.57 per 100 cow-years (quartiles 2.44; 6.86). Factors significantly associated with increased mortality of calves were larger herd size, higher proportion of stillbirths and abortions in a herd, prophylactic administration of vitamins to all calves and housing pre-weaned calves in single pens only compared with housing in both single and group pens. Also, farmers who attended more frequent trainings had higher calf mortality rates. Calving in a group pen or in a tie-stall compared with calving in multiple systems was associated with higher calf mortality rates. Higher cow mortality rates were present in herds that had a higher proportion of stillbirths and on farms where employees handled cows. Housing cows in free-stall barns, grazing cows and more frequent hoof trimming were protective for cow on-farm mortality.

CONCLUSIONS

This study identified the importance of housing conditions for on-farm cow and calf mortality rates. Our study results suggest that providing good care might ensure better health and welfare of dairy cows and calves.

Colostrum-supplemented transition milk positively affects serum biochemical parameters, humoral immunity indicators and the growth performance of calves

The aim of this study was to determine the effect of colostrum-supplemented transition milk on the growth rate of newborn calves. Thirty-six day-old female Holstein calves with a birth weight of 43.4 ± 5.5 kg were randomly assigned to a treatment group and a control group. On day 1, all calves received one portion (3 kg) of colostrum within 2 h after birth. Between the second feeding and the age of 5 days, control calves received only transition milk that had been collected from dams shortly before feeding, and the treatment group received 1.5 kg of colostrum collected from dams on day 1 and 1.5 kg of transition milk from subsequent milkings. Monthly body weight and average daily gain were used to measure growth performance. Blood samples were collected from the jugular vein at multiple time points to evaluate the biochemical and immune status of calves. Colostrum-supplemented transition milk increased the concentrations of serum immunoglobulins, triacylglycerols, cholesterol and total protein. The activity of lactate-dehydrogenase and ceruloplasmin decreased, whereas lysozyme activity increased with time in the control group. It can be concluded that additional five days of colostrum feeding positively influences non-specific humoral immunity indicators and serum biochemical parameters in dairy calves.

Importance of colostrum IgG antibodies level for prevention of infection with Cryptosporidium parvum in neonatal dairy calves

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C. parvum is commonly associated with neonatal calf diarrhea in dairy cattle farms.

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Anti-C. parvum antibodies transferred through colostrum protect the newborn calves.

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Colostrum management is an important preventive measure against cryptosporidiosis.

Cryptosporidiosis is one of the most common zoonosis worldwide, causing intestinal infection to both humans and livestock. The purpose of this study was to assess whether the level of anti-C. parvum IgG antibodies transferred through colostrum from dams to newborn calves impacts the susceptibility to cryptosporidiosis. A number of 50 dams and their healthy newborns were included in the study. Colostrum samples were collected within 12 h after birth and anti-C. parvum IgG antibody levels were determined by single radial immunodiffusion. The health condition of the newborns was daily monitored, and fecal samples were collected at first diarrheic episode of a calf. In all dams, the anti-C. parvum IgG antibody concentration in colostrum varied between 570 and 4070 mg/dl; in dams who gave birth to calves with diarrhea and were C. parvum-positive, the antibody concentration in colostrum varied between 680 and 3680 mg/dl (Table 1). The point-biserial correlation showed a negative correlation between the levels of anti-C. parvum antibodies and manifestation of clinical cryptosporidiosis (r=-0.425). Our findings highlight the importance of IgG levels in colostrum received by neonatal calves during their first day of life for prevention of C. parvum infection.

Short communication: Replacement heifer mortality from weaning until second mating in seasonal-calving, pasture-based dairy herds in New Zealand

The primary aim of this prospective study was to determine the postnatal mortality risk of replacement dairy heifers from weaning until the start of their second mating period (∼27 mo of age) in seasonal-calving, pasture-based dairy herds. Data were analyzed from 24 farms from the Waikato (n = 15) and Canterbury (n = 9) regions of New Zealand. All animals included in the study had an identified weaning date. From this point onward, data on animals that were euthanized, died unassisted, were culled, or were sold were recorded by the farmer on the home farm or by the grazier, according to animal location, and validated using calving, mating, culling, and sold records in their herd improvement database (MINDApro LIC, Newstead, Hamilton, New Zealand). The mortality risk from weaning to the start of the second mating period was calculated by dividing the number of deaths by the total number of enrolled animals at weaning. Mortality rate was calculated by dividing the number of deaths over the study period by the total days at risk, and reported as the mortality rate per 100 cow years; this measure was also calculated as the mortality rate per farm. A total of 3,770 animals from 24 farms had data from weaning until the farm planned start of mating when animals were ∼27 mo old. The animal-level mortality incidence risk from weaning (∼13 wk of age) to the start of their second mating (∼27 mo old) was 2.7% (95% confidence interval: 2.2 to 3.3%; 102 deaths/3,770 animals). The median farm-level mortality incidence risk was 3.0%, with a range across farms from 0 to 7.9%. There was a total of 102 deaths over 2,429,362 cow days at risk, with the mean time at risk for the animals of 646 d. The animal-level mortality was 1.53 deaths (95% confidence interval 1.26 to 1.86) per 100 cow years from weaning to second mating start date. The range in farm-level mortality rate was 0 to 4.52 deaths per 100 cow years. The hazard of death did not change throughout the study period. The results from this study are difficult to compare with international studies due to differences in study timing and duration, reporting method (mortality risk vs. mortality rate), and concerns with data validation. However, to the best of our knowledge, the results from this study indicate that postweaning, postnatal mortality under the New Zealand seasonal-calving, pasture-based system is lower than most other reported studies.

Disinfection with hydrated lime may help manage cryptosporidiosis in calves

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Disinfection of calf pens with slaked lime delayed onset of diarrhea.

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Lime disinfection improved body condition in the calves.

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Lime disinfection did not affect diarrhea incidence or duration.

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Lime disinfection may help manage Cryptosporidium-associated diarrhea in problem herds.

Diarrhea is common in young calves and is often caused by Cryptosporidium parvum infection. The aim of this study was to investigate if disinfection of calf pens with hydrated lime would reduce contamination of C. parvum oocysts and improve calf health in herds with C. parvum associated diarrhea problems. Four dairy herds with ongoing C. parvum associated calf diarrhea problems each participated in the study over six to seven months. During the study period, all pens/huts for young calves were cleaned according to the usual farm routine before a new calf entered. Hydrated lime was then used to disinfect half of the pens/huts. Diarrhea incidence was recorded by the farmers and by veterinarians, who clinically examined the calves every second month. In total, 402 calves participated in the study. The farmers detected diarrhea in 214 (53%) calves, with similar proportions in calves kept in lime disinfected and control pens. Age at diarrhea onset was significantly higher in lime disinfected pens than in control pens, 9.0 days and 7.6 days, respectively. There was no difference between the groups regarding duration or severity index recorded by the farmers. The body condition score in 6–8 week old calves was significantly higher in calves that had been kept in lime disinfected pens during their first weeks of life, indicating that calves in disinfected pens/huts were less affected by their infections.

Faecal samples from 5 to 21 day old calves, were collected on four occasions at each farm (n = 95). Cryptosporidium positive samples were found at all samplings in all four herds. Cryptosporidium spp. was detected in 79 (83%) samples with no difference between lime disinfected and control pens. C. parvum was the dominant species. Two different C. parvum subtypes were found; IIaA16G1R1b in three herds and IIaA16G1R1b_variant in one herd. Only one subtype was found in each herd.

Disinfection of calf pens with slaked lime delayed onset of diarrhea and improved the body condition in the calves, but did not affect diarrhea incidence or duration. Although lime disinfection alone will not be sufficient to control Cryptosporidium associated diarrhea in herds with extensive calf diarrhea problems, these results suggest that it can be a valuable complement to other measures.

A long-term animal experiment indicating persistent infection of bovine coronavirus in cattle

A long-term animal experiment involving inoculation with bovine coronavirus (BCoV) was conducted to verify its persistent infection in cattle. Three colostrum-deprived Holstein calves were housed separately in individual rooms of a high-containment facility and inoculated with the BCoV strain Kumamoto/1/07. Until the end of the experiment (1,085, 700 and 280 days, respectively), viral RNAs were detected sporadically by RT-PCR and nested PCR from plasma, nasal discharge, and feces. Seroconversion and titer changes were validated by hemagglutination inhibition tests and neutralization tests. Among the samples, nasal discharge showed a higher viral positivity than feces, which seemed to be associated with positive detection in the plasma. These data demonstrate the existence of persistent infection of BCoV in the respiratory tissues of cattle.

α-Tocopherol and β-carotene concentrations in feed, colostrum, cow and calf serum in Swedish dairy herds with high or low calf mortality

BACKGROUND

A study of herd-level risk factors for calf mortality in large Swedish dairy herds showed low serum concentrations of α-tocopherol and β-carotene in 1-7 day old calves to be more common in high mortality herds. Therefore, we aimed to investigate if calf mortality risk at herd level is associated with concentrations of α-tocopherol and/or β-carotene at individual level in feed, colostrum, cow and calf serum, while controlling for herd level covariates. Inclusion criteria were affiliation to the Swedish official milk recording scheme, herd size of ≥ 120 milking cows/year, calf mortality risk (day 1-90) of at least 6% (high mortality; HM) or less than 1% (low mortality; LM) and located within one of two regions in southern Sweden. This cross-sectional study was performed in 2010 in 19 (n_HM = 9; n_LM = 10) dairy herds. Questionnaires were used to collect information about feed and routines for colostrum feeding. Feed (n = 57), colostrum (n = 162), cow serum (n = 189) and calf serum samples (n = 187) were collected and analysed for α-tocopherol and β-carotene. Other analyses e.g. total serum protein, fat content, and total solids in colostrum were also performed. Linear regression models with vitamin concentrations in feed, colostrum, cow and calf serum as outcome were performed.

RESULTS

Calves in HM herds had lower concentrations of α-tocopherol in serum than calves in LM herds, but the effect depended on total protein status in serum of the calf (P = 0.036). Calves from herds that fed transition milk for 3 days or more had higher α-tocopherol concentrations in serum than calves from herds feeding transition milk up to 2 days (P = 0.013). Fat percentage in colostrum was positively associated with α-tocopherol (P < 0.001) and β-carotene concentrations in colostrum (P < 0.001). A diet containing ≥ 20% (in kg dry matter) maize silage of the total ration was negatively associated with β-carotene concentration in cow serum (P = 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

High calf mortality risks were associated with lower concentrations of α-tocopherol in calf serum for calves with failure of passive transfer. Feeding transition milk longer was associated with higher concentrations of α-tocopherol in calf serum. In HM herds, evaluation of the calves' α-tocopherol status is recommended.