Chemical synthesis of polysaccharides and polysaccharide mimetics

The interaction of polyphenols-polysaccharides and their applications: A review

Polyphenols, as important secondary metabolites in nature, are widely distributed in vegetables, fruits, grains, and other foods. Polyphenols have attracted widespread attention in the food industry and nutrition due to their unique structure and various biological activities. However, the health benefits of polyphenols are compromised owing to their structural instability and sensitivity to the external environment. The interaction between polyphenols and polysaccharides largely determined the stability and functional characteristics of polyphenols in food processing and storage. Thus, this topic has attracted widespread attention in recent years. The main purposes of this article are as follows: 1) to review the interaction mechanisms of polyphenols and polysaccharides including non-covalent and covalent bonds; 2) to comprehensively analyze the influencing factors of the interaction between polyphenols and polysaccharides, and introduce the effects of their interaction on the properties of polyphenols; 3) to systematically summarize the applications of interaction between polyphenols and polysaccharides. The findings can provide the important reference and theoretical support for the application of polyphenols and polysaccharides in food industry.

Chemically Recyclable Pseudo-Polysaccharides from Living Ring-Opening Polymerization of Glucurono-1,6-lactones

Recent advances in synthetic methods and monomer design have given access to precision carbohydrate polymers that extend beyond native polysaccharides. In this article, we present the synthesis of a class of chemically recyclable ester-linked pseudo-polysaccharides via the living anionic ring-opening polymerization of glucurono-1,6-lactones. Notably, the pseudo-polysaccharides exhibited defined chain-end groups, well-controlled molecular weights, and narrow molecular weight distributions, all hallmarks of living polymerization. Furthermore, we demonstrate that our approach is modular, as evidenced by tunable glass transition temperatures (Tg) and the ability to produce both amorphous and semicrystalline polymers by adjusting the monomer side chain structure. Lastly, we showcased the complete catalytic chemical recycling of these pseudo-polysaccharides back to the monomers. The flexibility of the polymerization and the recyclability of these pseudo-polysaccharides promote a sustainable circular economy while offering the potential to access polysaccharide-like materials with tunable thermal and mechanical properties.

Enhancing Electrochemical Signal for Efficient Chiral Recognition by Encapsulating C60 Fullerene into Chiral Lanthanum-Based MOFs

Chiral metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have attracted much attention due to their highly tunable regular microporous structures. However, chiral electrochemical recognition based on chiral MOFs is often limited by poor charge separation and slow charge transfer kinetics. In this case, C60 can be encapsulated into the cavity of [La(BTB)]n by virtue of host-guest interactions through π-π stacking to synthesize the chiral composite C60@[La(BTB)]n and amplify electrochemically controlled enantioselective interactions with the target enantiomers. A large electrostatic potential difference is generated in chiral C60@[La(BTB)]n due to the host-guest interaction and the inhomogeneity of the charge distribution, leading to the generation of a strong built-in electric field and thus an overall enhancement of the conductivity of the chiral material. Their enantioselective detection of tryptophan enantiomers was demonstrated by electrochemical measurement. The results showed that chiral MOF materials can be used for enantiomeric recognition. It is worth noting that this new material derived from the concept of host-guest interaction to enhance charge separation opens up unprecedented possibilities for future enantioselective recognition and separation.

Effect of Environmental pH on the Mechanics of Chitin and Chitosan: A Single-Molecule Study

Chitin and chitosan are important structural macromolecules for most fungi and marine crustaceans. The functions and application areas of the two molecules are also adjacent beyond their similar molecular structure, such as tissue engineering and food safety where solution systems are involved. However, the elasticities of chitin and chitosan in solution lack comparison at the molecular level. In this study, the single-molecule elasticities of chitin and chitosan in different solutions are investigated via atomic force microscope (AFM) based single-molecule spectroscopy (SMFS). The results manifest that the two macromolecules share the similar inherent elasticity in DOSM due to their same chain backbone. However, obvious elastic deviations can be observed in aqueous conditions. Especially, a lower pH value (acid environment) is helpful to increase the elasticity of both chitin and chitosan. On the contrary, the tendency of elastic variation of chitin and chitosan in a larger pH value (alkaline environment) shows obvious diversity, which is mainly determined by the side groups. This basic study may produce enlightenment for the design of intelligent chitin and chitosan food packaging and biomedical materials.

Precision Cellulose from Living Cationic Polymerization of Glucose 1,2,4-Orthopivalates

Cellulose serves as a sustainable biomaterial for a wide range of applications in biotechnology and materials science. While chemical and enzymatic glycan assembly methods have been developed to access modest quantities of synthetic cellulose for structure-property studies, chemical polymerization strategies for scalable and well-controlled syntheses of cellulose remain underdeveloped. Here, we report the synthesis of precision cellulose via living cationic ring-opening polymerization (CROP) of glucose 1,2,4-orthopivalates. In the presence of dibutyl phosphate as an initiator and triflic acid as a catalyst, precision cellulose with well-controlled molecular weights, defined chain-end groups, and excellent regio- and stereospecificity was readily prepared. We further demonstrated the utility of this method through the synthesis of precision native d-cellulose and rare precision l-cellulose.

Saccharide branched cellulose with controllable molecular structure and excellent water retention ability

In this work, saccharide branched cellulose (saccharide b-Cel) was synthesized by combining reducing saccharides with cellulose molecules using Ugi four-component reaction (Ugi-4CR). First, the carboxyl groups required for Ugi-4CR are obtained by carboxymethylating cellulose molecules. Then, saccharide b-Cel with a controlled molecular structure is formed when the terminal aldehyde group of reducing saccharides combines with the carboxyl group and auxiliary functional group. The types of saccharides, the degree of substitution of carboxymethyl groups, and the degree of branching all affect the molecular structure of saccharide b-Cel. Through molecular structural regulation, the relationship between the branching structure and water retention ability of saccharide b-Cel was examined in detail. This work not only provides new insights into the synthesis of cellulose derivatives, but it also provides a template for the synthesis of other biomass derivatives.

Quantitative, Regiospecific, and Stereoselective Radical Ring-Opening Polymerization of Monosaccharide Cyclic Ketene Acetals

Cyclic ketene acetals (CKAs) are among the most well-studied monomers for radical ring-opening polymerization (rROP). However, ring-retaining side reactions and low reactivities in homopolymerization and copolymerization remain significant challenges for the existing CKAs. Here, we report that a class of monosaccharide CKAs can be facilely prepared from a short and scalable synthetic route and can undergo quantitative, regiospecific, and stereoselective rROP. NMR analyses and degradation experiments revealed a reaction mechanism involving a propagating radical at the C2 position of pyranose with different monosaccharides exhibiting distinct stereoselectivity in the radical addition of the monomer. Furthermore, the addition of maleimide was found to improve the incorporation efficiency of monosaccharide CKA in the copolymerization with vinyl monomers and produced unique degradable terpolymers with carbohydrate motifs in the polymer backbone.

Chemically Recyclable Unnatural (1→6)-Polysaccharides from Cellulose-Derived Levoglucosenone and Dihydrolevoglucosenone

Unnatural polysaccharide analogs and their biological activities and material properties have attracted considerable research interest. However, these efforts often encounter challenges, especially those related to synthetic complexity and scalability. Here, we report the chemical synthesis of unnatural (1→6)-polysaccharides using levoglucosenone (LGO) and dihydrolevoglucosenone (Cyrene), which are derived from cellulose. Using a versatile monomer synthesis from LGO and Cyrene and cationic ring-opening polymerization, (1→6)-polysaccharides with various tailored substituent patterns are obtained. Additionally, environmentally benign and easy-to-handle organic Brønsted acid catalysts are investigated. This study demonstrates well-controlled first-order polymerization kinetics for the reactive (1S,5R)-6,8-dioxabicyclo[3,2,1]octane (DBO) monomer. The synthesized (1→6)-polysaccharides exhibit high thermal stability and form amorphous solids under ambient conditions, which could be processed into highly transparent self-standing films. Additionally, these polymers exhibit excellent closed-loop chemical recyclability. This study provides an important approach to explore the chemical spaces of unnatural polysaccharides and contributes to the development of sustainable polymer materials from abundant biomass resources.

Cnidium officinale polysaccharide enhanced RAW 264.7 cells activation and NK-92 cells cytotoxicity against colon cancer via NF-κB and MAPKs signaling pathways

In this study, Cnidium officinale-derived polysaccharides were isolated and investigated for their immune enhancing and anticancer activities. The isolated crude and its fractions, such as F1 and F2, contain carbohydrates (51.3-63.1%), sulfates (5.4-5.8%), proteins (1.5-7.1%), and uronic acids (2.1-26.9%). The molecular weight (Mw) of the polysaccharides ranged from 59.9 to 429.0 × 103 g/mol. The immunostimulatory activity of the polysaccharides was tested on RAW 264.7 cells, and the results showed that the F2 treatment notably enhanced pro-inflammatory activity in RAW 264.7 cells by increasing NO production and the expression of various cytokines. Furthermore, the influence of polysaccharide treatment on natural killer cells (NK-92) anticancer activities was investigated using a colon cancer cell line (HCT-116). Crude polysaccharide and its fractions showed no direct cytotoxicity to NK-92 and HCT-116 cells. However, the treatment of F2 showed an enhancement of NK-92 cells cytotoxicity against HCT-116 cells by upregulating the mRNA expression of IFN-γ, TNF-α, NKGp44, and granzyme-B. The western blot results showed that the induced RAW 264.7 cells activation and NK-92 cells cytotoxicity occur via NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways. Overall, C. officinale-derived polysaccharides show potential as immunotherapeutic agents capable of enhancing pro-inflammatory macrophage signaling and activating NK-92 cells; thus, they could be useful for biomedical applications.

Radical Ring Opening Polymerization of Cyclic Ketene Acetals Derived From d-Glucal

A cyclic ketene acetal (CKA) derived from d-glucal was synthesized, and its polymerization using free radicals has been investigated. NMR analysis of the resulting polymers revealed the formation of polyacetal-polyester copolymers, with up to 78% of ester linkages formed by radical ring-opening polymerization (rROP). Conversely, the polymerization of the monomer-saturated analogue only produced acetal linkages, demonstrating that the alkene functionality within the d-glucal pyranose ring is essential to promote ring-opening and ester formation, likely via the stabilization of an allyl radical. The thermal properties of the polymers were linked to the ratio of the ester and acetal linkages. Copolymerization with methyl methacrylate (MMA) afforded statistically PMMA-rich copolymers (66-98%) with linkages prone to hydrolytic degradation and decreased glass-transition temperatures. The retention of the pseudoglucal alkene function offers opportunities to functionalize further these bioderived (co)polymers.

Multifunctional polysaccharide nanoprobes for biological imaging

Imaging and tracking biological targets or processes play an important role in revealing molecular mechanisms and disease states. Bioimaging via optical, nuclear, or magnetic resonance techniques enables high resolution, high sensitivity, and high depth imaging from the whole animal down to single cells via advanced functional nanoprobes. To overcome the limitations of single-modality imaging, multimodality nanoprobes have been engineered with a variety of imaging modalities and functionalities. Polysaccharides are sugar-containing bioactive polymers with superior biocompatibility, biodegradability, and solubility. The combination of polysaccharides with single or multiple contrast agents facilitates the development of novel nanoprobes with enhanced functions for biological imaging. Nanoprobes constructed with clinically applicable polysaccharides and contrast agents hold great potential for clinical translations. This review briefly introduces the basics of different imaging modalities and polysaccharides, then summarizes the recent progress of polysaccharide-based nanoprobes for biological imaging in various diseases, emphasizing bioimaging with optical, nuclear, and magnetic resonance techniques. The current issues and future directions regarding the development and applications of polysaccharide nanoprobes are further discussed.

Precision native polysaccharides from living polymerization of anhydrosugars

The composition, sequence, length and type of glycosidic linkage of polysaccharides profoundly affect their biological and physical properties. However, investigation of the structure-function relationship of polysaccharides is hampered by difficulties in accessing well-defined polysaccharides in sufficient quantities. Here we report a chemical approach to precision polysaccharides with native glycosidic linkages via living cationic ring-opening polymerization of 1,6-anhydrosugars. We synthesized well-defined polysaccharides with tunable molecular weight, low dispersity and excellent regio- and stereo-selectivity using a boron trifluoride etherate catalyst and glycosyl fluoride initiators. Computational studies revealed that the reaction propagated through the monomer α-addition to the oxocarbenium and was controlled by the reversible deactivation of the propagating oxocarbenium to form the glycosyl fluoride dormant species. Our method afforded a facile and scalable pathway to multiple biologically relevant precision polysaccharides, including D-glucan, D-mannan and an unusual L-glucan. We demonstrated that catalytic depolymerization of precision polysaccharides efficiently regenerated monomers, suggesting their potential utility as a class of chemically recyclable materials with tailored thermal and mechanical properties.

Controlled Drug Release from Nanoengineered Polysaccharides

Polysaccharides are naturally occurring complex molecules with exceptional physicochemical properties and bioactivities. They originate from plant, animal, and microbial-based resources and processes and can be chemically modified. The biocompatibility and biodegradability of polysaccharides enable their increased use in nanoscale synthesis and engineering for drug encapsulation and release. This review focuses on sustained drug release studies from nanoscale polysaccharides in the fields of nanotechnology and biomedical sciences. Particular emphasis is placed on drug release kinetics and relevant mathematical models. An effective release model can be used to envision the behavior of specific nanoscale polysaccharide matrices and reduce impending experimental trial and error, saving time and resources. A robust model can also assist in translating from in vitro to in vivo experiments. The main aim of this review is to demonstrate that any study that establishes sustained release from nanoscale polysaccharide matrices should be accompanied by a detailed analysis of drug release kinetics by modeling since sustained release from polysaccharides not only involves diffusion and degradation but also surface erosion, complicated swelling dynamics, crosslinking, and drug-polymer interactions. As such, in the first part, we discuss the classification and role of polysaccharides in various applications and later elaborate on the specific pharmaceutical processes of polysaccharides in ionic gelling, stabilization, cross-linking, grafting, and encapsulation of drugs. We also document several drug release models applied to nanoscale hydrogels, nanofibers, and nanoparticles of polysaccharides and conclude that, at times, more than one model can accurately describe the sustained release profiles, indicating the existence of release mechanisms running in parallel. Finally, we conclude with the future opportunities and advanced applications of nanoengineered polysaccharides and their theranostic aptitudes for future clinical applications.

Cross-Linking of Sugar-Derived Polyethers and Boronic Acids for Renewable, Self-Healing, and Single-Ion Conducting Organogel Polymer Electrolytes

This report describes the synthesis and characterization of organogels by reaction of a diol-containing polyether, derived from the sugar d-xylose, with 1,4-phenylenediboronic acid (PDBA). The cross-linked materials were analyzed by infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA), scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), and rheology. The rheological material properties could be tuned: gel or viscoelastic behavior depended on the concentration of polymer, and mechanical stiffness increased with the amount of PDBA cross-linker. Organogels demonstrated self-healing capabilities and recovered their storage and loss moduli instantaneously after application and subsequent strain release. Lithiated organogels were synthesized through incorporation of lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (LiTFSI) into the cross-linked matrix. These lithium-borate polymer gels showed a high ionic conductivity value of up to 3.71 × 10^-3 S cm^-1 at 25 °C, high lithium transference numbers (t ₊ = 0.88-0.92), and electrochemical stability (4.51 V). The gels were compatible with lithium-metal electrodes, showing stable polarization profiles in plating/stripping tests. This system provides a promising platform for the production of self-healing gel polymer electrolytes (GPEs) derived from renewable feedstocks for battery applications.

Synthesizing Polyurethane Using Isosorbide in Primary Alcohol Form, and Its Biocompatibility Properties

Isosorbide is a bio-based renewable resource that has been utilized as a stiffness component in the synthesis of novel polymers. Modified isosorbide-based bis(2-hydroxyethyl)isosorbide (BHIS) has favorable structural features, such as fused bicyclic rings and a primary hydroxyl function with improved reactivity to polymerization when compared to isosorbide itself. Polyurethane series (PBH PU series) using polycarbonate diol (PCD) and bis(2-hydroxyethyl)isosorbide (BHIS) were polymerized through a simple, one-shot polymerization without a catalyst using various ratios of BHIS, PCD, and hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI). The synthesized BHIS and PUs were characterized using proton nuclear magnetic resonance (¹H-NMR), Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and mechanical testing. To determine the feasibility of using these PUs as biomedical materials, we investigated the effects of their BHIS content on PBH PU series physical and mechanical properties. The PBH PU series has excellent elasticity, with a breaking strain ranging from 686.55 to 984.69% at a 33.26 to 63.87 MPa tensile stress. The material showed superb biocompatibility with its high adhesion and proliferation in the bone marrow cells. Given their outstanding mechanical properties and biocompatibility, the polymerized bio-based PUs can contribute toward various applications in the medical field.

Analysis of carbohydrates and glycoconjugates by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry: An update for 2017-2018

This review is the tenth update of the original article published in 1999 on the application of matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry (MALDI) mass spectrometry to the analysis of carbohydrates and glycoconjugates and brings coverage of the literature to the end of 2018. Also included are papers that describe methods appropriate to glycan and glycoprotein analysis by MALDI, such as sample preparation techniques, even though the ionization method is not MALDI. Topics covered in the first part of the review include general aspects such as theory of the MALDI process, new methods, matrices, derivatization, MALDI imaging, fragmentation and the use of arrays. The second part of the review is devoted to applications to various structural types such as oligo- and poly-saccharides, glycoproteins, glycolipids, glycosides, and biopharmaceuticals. Most of the applications are presented in tabular form. The third part of the review covers medical and industrial applications of the technique, studies of enzyme reactions, and applications to chemical synthesis. The reported work shows increasing use of combined new techniques such as ion mobility and highlights the impact that MALDI imaging is having across a range of diciplines. MALDI is still an ideal technique for carbohydrate analysis and advancements in the technique and the range of applications continue steady progress.

Insights to improve the activity of glycosyl phosphorylases from Ruminococcus albus 8 with cello-oligosaccharides

The phosphorolysis of cello-oligosaccharides is a critical process played in the rumen by Ruminococcus albus to degrade cellulose. Cellodextrins, made up of a few glucosyl units, have gained lots of interest by their potential applications. Here, we characterized a cellobiose phosphorylase (RalCBP) and a cellodextrin phosphorylase (RalCDP) from R. albus 8. This latter was further analyzed in detail by constructing a truncated mutant (Ral∆N63CDP) lacking the N-terminal domain and a chimeric protein by fusing a CBM (RalCDP-CBM37). RalCBP showed a typical behavior with high activity on cellobiose. Instead, RalCDP extended its activity to longer soluble or insoluble cello-oligosaccharides. The catalytic efficiency of RalCDP was higher with cellotetraose and cellopentaose as substrates for both reaction directions. Concerning properties of Ral∆N63CDP, results support roles for the N-terminal domain in the conformation of the homo-dimer and conferring the enzyme the capacity to catalyze the phosphorolytic reaction. This mutant exhibited reduced affinity toward phosphate and increased to glucose-1-phosphate. Further, the CBM37 module showed functionality when fused to RalCDP, as RalCDP-CBM37 exhibited an enhanced ability to use insoluble cellulosic substrates. Data obtained from this enzyme's binding parameters to cellulosic polysaccharides agree with the kinetic results. Besides, studies of synthesis and phosphorolysis of cello-saccharides at long-time reactions served to identify the utility of these enzymes. While RalCDP produces a mixture of cello-oligosaccharides (from cellotriose to longer oligosaccharides), the impaired phosphorolytic activity makes Ral∆N63CDP lead mainly toward the synthesis of cellotetraose. On the other hand, RalCDP-CBM37 remarks on the utility of obtaining glucose-1-phosphate from cellulosic compounds.

Synergistic Hypolipidemic Effects and Mechanisms of Phytochemicals: A Review

Hyperlipidemia, a chronic disorder of abnormal lipid metabolism, can induce obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases such as coronary heart disease, atherosclerosis, and hypertension. Increasing evidence indicates that phytochemicals may serve as a promising strategy for the prevention and management of hyperlipidemia and its complications. At the same time, the concept of synergistic hypolipidemic and its application in the food industry is rapidly increasing as a practical approach to preserve and improve the health-promoting effects of functional ingredients. The current review focuses on the effects of single phytochemicals on hyperlipidemia and its mechanisms. Due to the complexity of the lipid metabolism regulatory network, the synergistic regulation of different metabolic pathways or targets may be more effective than single pathways or targets in the treatment of hyperlipidemia. This review summarizes for the first time the synergistic hypolipidemic effects of different combinations of phytochemicals such as combinations of the same category of phytochemicals and combinations of different categories of phytochemicals. In addition, based on the different metabolic pathways or targets involved in synergistic effects, the possible mechanisms of synergistic hypolipidemic effects of the phytochemical combination are illustrated in this review. Hence, this review provides clues to boost more phytochemical synergistic hypolipidemic research and provides a theoretical basis for the development of phytochemicals with synergistic effects on hyperlipidemia and its complications.

Synthesis of bioactive (1→6)-β-glucose branched poly-amido-saccharides that stimulate and induce M1 polarization in macrophages

β-Glucans are of significant interest due to their potent antitumor and immunomodulatory activities. Nevertheless, the difficulty in purification, structural heterogenicity, and limited solubility impede the development of structure-property relationships and translation to therapeutic applications. Here, we report the synthesis of a new class of (1→6)-β-glucose-branched poly-amido-saccharides (PASs) as β-glucan mimetics by ring-opening polymerization of a gentiobiose-based disaccharide β-lactam and its copolymerization with a glucose-based β-lactam, followed by post-polymerization deprotection. The molecular weight (Mn) and frequency of branching (FB) of PASs is readily tuned by adjusting monomer-to-initiator ratio and mole fraction of gentiobiose-lactam in copolymerization. Branched PASs stimulate mouse macrophages, and enhance production of pro-inflammatory cytokines in a FB-, dose-, and Mn-dependent manner. The stimulation proceeds via the activation of NF-κB/AP-1 pathway in a Dectin-1-dependent manner, similar to natural β-glucans. The lead PAS significantly polarizes primary human macrophages towards M1 phenotype compared to other β-glucans such as lentinan, laminarin, and curdlan.

Debenzylation of Benzyl-Protected Methylcellulose

Methyl cellulose and its derivatives are widely used in the food industry, cosmetics, and as construction materials. The properties of methyl celluloses (MC) strongly depend on their degrees and positions of substitution. In order to generate MCs with uncommon blocky substitution, we apply fully protected O-benzyl-O-methyl celluloses (BnMC). Such complex polysaccharide derivatives could not be deprotected completely and without shift of the composition by methods usually applied to mono- and oligosaccharides. Therefore, a facile debenzylation method was developed based on photo-initiated free-radical bromination in the presence of hydrobromic acid scavengers followed by alkaline treatment. The reaction proceeds under homogeneous conditions and without the aid of any catalyst. There is no need for expensive equipment, materials, anhydrous reagents, or running the reaction under anhydrous conditions. Reaction parameters were investigated and optimized for successful debenzylation of completely protected BnMC with degrees of methyl substitution (DSMe) around 1.9 (and DSBn around 1.1). Side-product-free and almost complete debenzylation was achieved when 1,2-epoxybutane (0.5 eq./eq. N-bromosuccinimide) and 2,6-di-tert-butylpyridine (0.5 eq./eq. N-bromosuccinimide) were used in the reaction. Furthermore, ATR-IR and 1H NMR spectroscopy confirmed the successful removal of benzyl ether groups. The method was developed to monitor the transglycosylation reaction of the BnMC with permethylated cellulose, for which the deprotection of many small samples in parallel is required. This comprises the determination of the methyl pattern in the glucosyl units by gas-liquid chromatography (GLC), as well as oligosaccharide analysis by liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LC-MS) after perdeuteromethylation and partial hydrolysis to determine the methyl pattern in the chains. The unavoidable partial chain degradation during debenzylation does not interfere with this analytical application, but, most importantly, the DS and the methyl pattern were almost congruent for the debenzylated product and the original MC, indicating the full success of this approach The presented method provides an unprecedented opportunity for high throughput and parallel debenzylation of complicated glucans, such as BnMC (as a model compound), for analytical purposes. For comparison, debenzylation using Na/NH3 was applied to BnMC and resulted in a completely debenzylated product with a remarkably high recovery yield of 99 mol% and is, thus, the method of choice for synthetic applications, e.g., for the transglycosylation product prepared under the selected conditions in a preparative scale.

A Synthetic Gene Library Yields a Previously Unknown Glycoside Phosphorylase That Degrades and Assembles Poly-β-1,3-GlcNAc, Completing the Suite of β-Linked GlcNAc Polysaccharides

The considerable utility of glycoside phosphorylases (GPs) has led to substantial efforts over the past two decades to expand the breadth of known GP activities. Driven largely by the increase of available genomic DNA sequence data, the gap between the number of sequences in the carbohydrate active enzyme database (CAZy DB) and its functionally characterized members continues to grow. This wealth of sequence data presented an exciting opportunity to explore the ever-expanding CAZy DB to discover new GPs with never-before-described functionalities. Utilizing an in silico sequence analysis of CAZy family GH94, we discovered and then functionally and structurally characterized the new GP β-1,3-N-acetylglucosaminide phosphorylase. This new GP was sourced from the genome of the cell-wall-less Mollicute bacterium, Acholeplasma laidlawii and was found to synthesize β-1,3-linked N-acetylglucosaminide linkages. The resulting poly-β-1,3-N-acetylglucosamine represents a new, previously undescribed biopolymer that completes the set of possible β-linked GlcNAc homopolysaccharides together with chitin (β-1,4) and PNAG (poly-β-1,6-N-acetylglucosamine). The new biopolymer was denoted acholetin, a combination of the genus Acholeplasma and the polysaccharide chitin, and the new GP was thus denoted acholetin phosphorylase (AchP). Use of the reverse phosphorolysis action of AchP provides an efficient method to enzymatically synthesize acholetin, which is a new biodegradable polymeric material.

Exploration of expanded carbohydrate chemical space to access biological activity using microwave-induced acid condensation of simple sugars

Complex glycans are ubiquitous in nature and essential to life. Despite their diverse roles, however, only a fraction of their potential chemical space has been explored. New regions of this chemical space can, nevertheless, be accessed by generating structures that do not occur in nature or by modifying naturally-occurring polysaccharide structures – collectively, termed new polysaccharides (NPs). Two synthetic routes to NPs are described; the de novo route, directly from monosaccharide starting materials and the functionalization route, involving glycosylation of existing polysaccharides. The reaction involves a simple condensation step under microwave heating, catalysed by environmentally benign organic acids and is illustrated by the generation of structures with biological activities ranging from cell signalling and inhibition of bacterial growth, to mimicking carbohydrate antigens of pathogenic microorganisms. The method is as applicable to fine chemicals as it is to industrial waste, for example, biotechnologically-derived d-allulose (d-psicose), or the waste products of biofermentation. Accessing this chemical space unlocks new functionalities, generating complex glycans with applications in the biological, medical, biotechnological and materials science arenas.

Condensation of simple sugars provides new polysaccharides with diverse biological activities, expanding access to carbohydrate chemical space.

Interaction between polysaccharides and toll-like receptor 4: Primary structural role, immune balance perspective, and 3D interaction model hypothesis

Various structural types of polysaccharides are recognized by toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4). However, the mechanism of interaction between the polysaccharides with different structures and TLR4 is unclarified. This review summarized the primary structure of polysaccharides related to TLR4, mainly including molecular weight, monosaccharide composition, glycosidic bonds, functional groups, and branched-chain structure. The optimal primary structure for interacting with TLR4 was obtained by the statistical analysis. Besides, the dual-directional regulation of TLR4 signaling cascade by polysaccharides was also elucidated from an immune balance perspective. Finally, the 3D interaction model of polysaccharides to TLR4-myeloid differentiation factor 2 (MD2) complex was hypothesized according to the LPS-TLR4-MD2 dimerization model and the polysaccharides solution conformation. The essence of polysaccharides binding to TLR4-MD2 complex is a multivalent non-covalent bond interaction. All the arguments summarized in this review are intended to provide some new insights into the interaction between polysaccharides and TLR4.

Different Withering Times Affect Sensory Qualities, Chemical Components, and Nutritional Characteristics of Black Tea

The present study emphasizes the effect of withering time set at 4 ± 0.5 h (WT4), 6 ± 0.5 h (WT6), 8 ± 0.5 h (WT8), 10 ± 0.5 h (WT10), and 12 ± 0.5 h (WT12) on the sensory qualities, chemical components, and nutritional characteristics of black tea. The sensory evaluation revealed high total quality scores at WT8 and WT10. Polysaccharides, amino acids, and soluble sugars significantly increased with an increase in withering time, and an apparent peak value was obtained at WT10. However, polyphenols, flavonoids, glycosides, organic acids, catechins, alkanoids, and theaflavins decreased with an increase in withering time. With an increase in withering time, the content of aromatic substances showed a trend of increasing first and then decreasing. The peaks of alcohols, aldehydes, and acids appeared at 10 ± 0.5 h, 10 ± 0.5 h, and 8 ± 0.5 h, respectively. The content of esters, ketones, and hydrocarbons showed a downward trend with an increase in withering time. Aroma analysis revealed that withering time could not exceed 10 ± 0.5 h. Black tea withered up to WT10 showed enhanced inhibition of α-glucosidase and α-amylase activity with good sensorial attributes. Glucose uptake inhibition capacity increased up 6 ± 0.5 h and then decreased, while antioxidant capacity decreased with an increase in withering time. The overall results show that the 8 ± 0.5 h to 10 ± 0.5 h withering time could improve black tea quality and nutritional characteristics.

Marine Polysaccharides for Wound Dressings Application: An Overview

Wound dressings have become a crucial treatment for wound healing due to their convenience, low cost, and prolonged wound management. As cutting-edge biomaterials, marine polysaccharides are divided from most marine organisms. It possesses various bioactivities, which allowing them to be processed into various forms of wound dressings. Therefore, a comprehensive understanding of the application of marine polysaccharides in wound dressings is particularly important for the studies of wound therapy. In this review, we first introduce the wound healing process and describe the characteristics of modern commonly used dressings. Then, the properties of various marine polysaccharides and their application in wound dressing development are outlined. Finally, strategies for developing and enhancing marine polysaccharide wound dressings are described, and an outlook of these dressings is given. The diverse bioactivities of marine polysaccharides including antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, haemostatic properties, etc., providing excellent wound management and accelerate wound healing. Meanwhile, these biomaterials have higher biocompatibility and biodegradability compared to synthetic ones. On the other hand, marine polysaccharides can be combined with copolymers and active substances to prepare various forms of dressings. Among them, emerging types of dressings such as nanofibers, smart hydrogels and injectable hydrogels are at the research frontier of their development. Therefore, marine polysaccharides are essential materials in wound dressings fabrication and have a promising future.

Hierarchical Self-Assembly of Amphiphilic β-C-Glycosylbarbiturates into Multiresponsive Alginate-Like Supramolecular Hydrogel Fibers and Vesicle Hydrogel

Ordered molecular self-assembly of glycoamphiphiles has been regarded as an attractive, practical and bottom-up approach to obtain stable, structurally well-defined, and functional mimics of natural polysaccharides. This study describes a versatile and rational design of carbohydrate-based hydrogelators through N,N'-substituted barbituric acid-mediated Knoevenagel condensation onto unprotected carbohydrates in water. Amphiphilic N-substituted β-C-maltosylbarbiturates self-assembled into pH- and calcium-triggered alginate-like supramolecular hydrogel fibers with a multistimuli responsiveness to temperature, pH and competitive metal chelating agent. In addition, amphiphilic N,N'-disubstituted β-C-maltosylbarbiturates formed vesicle gels in pure water that were scarcely observed for glyco-hydrogelators. Finally, barbituric acid worked as a multitasking group allowing chemoselective ligation onto reducing-end carbohydrates, structural diversity, stimuli-sensitiveness, and supramolecular interactions by hydrogen bonding.

Single-crystal-to-single-crystal synthesis of a pseudostarch via topochemical azide-alkyne cycloaddition polymerization

There is high demand for polysaccharide-mimics as enzyme-stable substitutes for polysaccharides for various applications. Circumventing the problems associated with the solution-phase synthesis of such polymers, we report here the synthesis of a crystalline polysaccharide-mimic by topochemical polymerization. By crystal engineering, we designed a topochemically reactive crystal of a glucose-mimicking monomer decorated with azide and alkyne units. In the crystal, the monomers arrange in head-to-tail fashion with their azide and alkyne groups in a ready-to-react antiparallel geometry, suitable for their topochemical azide-alkyne cycloaddition (TAAC) reaction. On heating the crystals, these pre-organized monomer molecules undergo regiospecific TAAC polymerization, yielding 1,4-triazolyl-linked pseudopolysaccharide (pseudostarch) in a single-crystal-to-single-crystal manner. This crystalline pseudostarch shows better thermal stability than its amorphous form and many natural polysaccharides.

Progress and challenges in the synthesis of sequence controlled polysaccharides

The sequence, length and substitution of a polysaccharide influence its physical and biological properties. Thus, sequence controlled polysaccharides are important targets to establish structure-properties correlations. Polymerization techniques and enzymatic methods have been optimized to obtain samples with well-defined substitution patterns and narrow molecular weight distribution. Chemical synthesis has granted access to polysaccharides with full control over the length. Here, we review the progress towards the synthesis of well-defined polysaccharides. For each class of polysaccharides, we discuss the available synthetic approaches and their current limitations.

Carbohydrate-Based Macromolecular Biomaterials

Carbohydrates are the most abundant and one of the most important biomacromolecules in Nature. Except for energy-related compounds, carbohydrates can be roughly divided into two categories: Carbohydrates as matter and carbohydrates as information. As matter, carbohydrates are abundantly present in the extracellular matrix of animals and cell walls of various plants, bacteria, fungi, etc., serving as scaffolds. Some commonly found polysaccharides are featured as biocompatible materials with controllable rigidity and functionality, forming polymeric biomaterials which are widely used in drug delivery, tissue engineering, etc. As information, carbohydrates are usually referred to the glycans from glycoproteins, glycolipids, and proteoglycans, which bind to proteins or other carbohydrates, thereby meditating the cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions. These glycans could be simplified as synthetic glycopolymers, glycolipids, and glycoproteins, which could be afforded through polymerization, multistep synthesis, or a semisynthetic strategy. The information role of carbohydrates can be demonstrated not only as targeting reagents but also as immune antigens and adjuvants. The latter are also included in this review as they are always in a macromolecular formulation. In this review, we intend to provide a relatively comprehensive summary of carbohydrate-based macromolecular biomaterials since 2010 while emphasizing the fundamental understanding to guide the rational design of biomaterials. Carbohydrate-based macromolecules on the basis of their resources and chemical structures will be discussed, including naturally occurring polysaccharides, naturally derived synthetic polysaccharides, glycopolymers/glycodendrimers, supramolecular glycopolymers, and synthetic glycolipids/glycoproteins. Multiscale structure-function relationships in several major application areas, including delivery systems, tissue engineering, and immunology, will be detailed. We hope this review will provide valuable information for the development of carbohydrate-based macromolecular biomaterials and build a bridge between the carbohydrates as matter and the carbohydrates as information to promote new biomaterial design in the near future.

Selenium-Containing Polysaccharides—Structural Diversity, Biosynthesis, Chemical Modifications and Biological Activity

Selenosugars are a group of sugar derivatives of great structural diversity (e.g., molar masses, selenium oxidation state, and selenium binding), obtained as a result of biosynthesis, chemical modification of natural compounds, or chemical synthesis. Seleno-monosaccharides and disaccharides are known to be non-toxic products of the natural metabolism of selenium compounds in mammals. In the case of the selenium-containing polysaccharides of natural origin, their formation is also postulated as a form of detoxification of excess selenium in microorganisms, mushroom, and plants. The valency of selenium in selenium-containing polysaccharides can be: 0 (encapsulated nano-selenium), IV (selenites of polysaccharides), or II (selenoglycosides or selenium built into the sugar ring to replace oxygen). The great interest in Se-polysaccharides results from the expected synergy between selenium and polysaccharides. Several plant- and mushroom-derived polysaccharides are potent macromolecules with antitumor, immunomodulatory, antioxidant, and other biological properties. Selenium, a trace element of fundamental importance to human health, has been shown to possess several analogous functions. The mechanism by which selenium exerts anticancer and immunomodulatory activity differs from that of polysaccharide fractions, but a similar pharmacological effect suggests a possible synergy of these two agents. Various functions of Se-polysaccharides have been explored, including antitumor, immune-enhancement, antioxidant, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, and neuroprotective activities. Due to being non-toxic or much less toxic than inorganic selenium compounds, Se-polysaccharides are potential dietary supplements that could be used, e.g., in chemoprevention.

Advances in Separation and Purification of Bioactive Polysaccharides through High-speed Counter-Current Chromatography

Polysaccharides, with an extensive distribution in natural products, represent a group of natural bioactive substances having widespread applications in health-care food products and as biomaterials. Devising an efficient system for the separation and purification of polysaccharides from natural sources, hence, is of utmost importance in the widespread applicability and feasibility of research for the development of polysaccharide-based products. High-speed counter-current chromatography (HSCCC) is a continuous liquid-liquid partitioning chromatography with the ability to support a high loading amount and crude material treatment. Due to its flexible two-phase solvent system, HSCCC has been successfully used in the separation of many natural products. Based on HSCCC unique advantages over general column chromatography and its enhanced superiority in this regard when coupled to aqueous two-phase system (ATPS), this review summarizes the separation and purification of various bioactive polysaccharides through HSCCC and its coupling to ATPS as an aid in future research in this direction.

Control of Crystallinity and Stereocomplexation of Synthetic Carbohydrate Polymers from d- and l-Xylose

Manipulating the stereochemistry of polymers is a powerful method to alter their physical properties. Despite the chirality of monosaccharides, reports on the impact of stereochemistry in natural polysaccharides and synthetic carbohydrate polymers remain absent. Herein, we report the cocrystallisation of regio- and stereoregular polyethers derived from d- and l-xylose, leading to enhanced thermal properties compared to the enantiopure polymers. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first example of a stereocomplex between carbohydrate polymers of opposite chirality. In contrast, atactic polymers obtained from a racemic mixture of monomers are amorphous. We also show that the polymer hydroxyl groups are amenable to post-polymerisation functionalization. These strategies afford a family of carbohydrate polyethers, the physical and chemical properties of which can both be controlled, and which opens new possibilities for polysaccharide mimics in biomedical applications or as advanced materials.

Polymers from sugars and CS2: ring opening copolymerisation of a d-xylose anhydrosugar oxetane

An oxetane derived from d-xylose has been copolymerised with CS₂ into sulfur-containing polymers which are chemically recyclable and degradable under UV light.

Aqueous Suspensions of Cellulose Oligomer Nanoribbons for Growth and Natural Filtration-Based Separation of Cancer Spheroids

In vitro growth of cancer spheroids (CSs) and the subsequent separation of CSs from a 2D or 3D cell culture system are important for fundamental cancer studies and cancer drug screening. Although biopolymer-based or synthetic hydrogels are suitable candidates to be used as 3D cell culture scaffolds, alternatives with better processing capabilities are still required to set up cell culture microenvironment. In this study, we show that aqueous suspensions of crystalline nanoribbons composed of cellulose oligomers have a potential for CS growth and separation. The nanoribbon suspensions in serum-containing cell culture media fixed single cancer cells and CSs with large sizes in a 3D space, leading to suspension cultures for CS growth corresponding to culture time. Well-grown CSs were easily separated from the suspensions by natural filtration using a mesh filter with a suitable pore size. Cell viability tests revealed negligible cytotoxicity of the nanoribbons. In addition, physical damages to CSs by the separation procedures were negligible. Stable suspensions of biocompatible nanomaterials will thus provide novel microenvironments for growth and separation of diverse cell aggregates.

Modular Functionalization of Laminarin to Create Value-Added Naturally Derived Macromolecules

With society's growing awareness of climate change, novel renewable and naturally sourced materials have received increasing attention as substitutes for petroleum-based products. Laminarin (LAM-OH) is a highly abundant, nontoxic, degradable polysaccharide found in marine organisms and hence is a promising sustainable polymeric candidate. This work reports on a simple, environmentally friendly, and customizable functionalization strategy for producing a toolbox of LAM-OH derivatives under mild conditions. Herein, natural-origin macromolecules exhibiting specific chemical moieties, namely, allyl, amine, carboxylic acid, thiol, aldehyde, and catechol, were prepared and chemically characterized. Furthermore, the obtained polymers were processed into cytocompatible hydrogels, obtained by employing distinct cross-linking mechanisms, to assess their potential for biomedical purposes. The application scope of such polymers could be extended to fields such as catalysis, cosmetics, life sciences, and food packaging, which can also benefit from having sustainable, nontoxic, and degradable materials. Moreover, it is anticipated that the methodology employed to create this library of new natural-based products could be adapted to modify other polysaccharides and biopolymers in general.

Poly-Amido-Saccharides (PASs): Functional Synthetic Carbohydrate Polymers Inspired by Nature

Carbohydrates are ubiquitous in nature, playing vital roles in all organisms ranging from metabolism to intercellular signaling. Polysaccharides, repeating units of small molecule carbohydrates, are hydrophilic, densely functionalized, stereoregular, and rigid macromolecules, and these characteristics are simultaneously advantageous in biomedical applications while presenting major hurdles for synthetic methodology and development of structure property relationships. While naturally obtained polysaccharides are widely utilized in the biochemical and medical literature, their poor physicochemical definition and the potential for contaminated samples hinders the clinical translation of this work. To address the need for new methods to synthesize carbohydrate polymers, we reported a novel class of biomaterials (Poly-Amido-Saccharides; PAS) in 2012. PASs share many properties with natural polysaccharides, such as hydrophilicity, dense hydroxyl functionality, stereoregularity, and a rigid backbone. PASs are connected by an α-1,2-amide linkage, instead of an ether linkage, that confers resistance to enzymatic and hydrolytic degradation and leads to a unique helical conformation. Importantly, our synthetic methodology affords control over molecular weight distribution resulting in pure, well-defined polymers. This Account provides an overview of the development of PAS, from the factors that initially motivated our research to current efforts to translate functional PAS to biomedical applications. We detail the synthesis of glucose- and galactose-based PAS and their biophysical properties including conformation analysis, lectin interactions, cell internalization, and water solubility. Additionally, we describe postpolymerization modification strategies to afford PASs that act as protein stabilizers. We also highlight our recent efforts toward a mechanistic understanding of monomer synthesis via [2 + 2] cycloaddition reactions in order to develop novel monomers with different stereochemistry and amine or alkyl functionality, thereby accessing functional carbohydrate polymers. Throughout our work, we apply computational and theoretical analysis to explain how properties at the monomer level (e.g., stereochemistry, functionality) significantly impact polymer properties, helical conformation, and bioactivities. Collectively, the results from the theoretical, synthetic, and applied aspects of this research advance us toward our goal of utilizing PASs in key biomedical applications as alternatives to natural polysaccharides. The importance of carbohydrates in nature and the versatility of their functions continue to inspire our investigation of new monomers, polymers, and copolymers, leveraging the advantageous properties of PAS to develop potential therapies.