Transient hypofrontality as a mechanism for the psychological effects of exercise

A mechanistic understanding of cognitive performance deficits concurrent with vigorous intensity exercise

This study aimed to evaluate whether cerebral oxygenation of the prefrontal cortex and associative-dissociative focus while completing the task mediate changes in cognition during exercise. Seventy-five young college-aged adults participated in this within-subjects randomized cross-over two-arm experimental design. During each session, participants completed a Stroop task four separate times: at baseline, two times during the exercise session, and at post-test. The experimental arm session involved participants cycling first at a moderate intensity, followed by cycling at a vigorous intensity. The active control arm session involved participants cycling at a very light intensity to ensure any effects were attributable to the level of exertion rather than the control of motor coordination. Cerebral oxygenation of the prefrontal cortex was assessed using fNIRS, while associate-dissociate attention was assessed using a self-report scale to provide insight into two hypothesized mechanisms which may contribute to alterations in cognition during exercise. Replicating well-established findings, results showed that during vigorous-intensity exercise, accuracy rates decreased for the most cognitively demanding conditions of the Stroop task, while reaction times were generally shorter compared to baseline. Neither shifting of attention in response to the dual-task nor prefrontal cortex oxygenation were observed to mediate cognitive deficits associated with vigorous exercise.

Exercise as a behavioral approach to improve mood in persons with traumatic brain injury

Mood disturbance is a common, long-term, negative consequence of traumatic brain injury (TBI) that is insufficiently addressed by most traditional treatment modalities. A large body of evidence supports the efficacy of exercise training (ET) to broadly improve mood, as measured most often by the Profile of Mood States (POMS). However, this behavioral approach is not used nearly enough in the TBI population, and when it is, mood is rarely measured. This scoping review will evaluate the use of POMS as a mood measure in TBI research and to establish a rationale for using ET as a behavioral approach to broadly improve mood in persons with TBI.

State of the art and future directions for measuring event-related potentials during cycling exercise: a systematic review

Intro

Electroencephalography (EEG) is a technique for measuring brain activity that is widely used in neuroscience research. Event-related potentials (ERPs) in the EEG make it possible to study sensory and cognitive processes in the brain. Previous reports have shown that aerobic exercise can have an impact on components of ERPs such as amplitude and latency. However, they focused on the measurement of ERPs after exercise.

Objectives

The aim of this systematic review was to investigate the feasibility of measuring ERPs during cycling, and to assess the impact of cycling on ERPs during cycling.

Methods

We followed the PRISMA guidelines for new systematic reviews. To be eligible, studies had to include healthy adults and measure ERPs during cycling. All articles were found using Google Scholar and by searching references. Data extracted from the studies included: objectives of ERP studies, ERP paradigm, EEG system, study population data, exercise characteristics (duration, intensity, pedaling cadence), and ERP and behavioral outcomes. The Cochrane Risk of Bias 2 tool was used to assess study bias.

Results

Twenty studies were selected. The effect of cycling on ERPs was mainly based on a comparison of P3 wave amplitude between cycling and resting states, using an attentional task. The ERP paradigm most often used was the auditory oddball task. Exercise characteristics and study methods varied considerably.

Discussion

It is possible to measure ERPs during cycling under conditions that are likely to introduce more artifacts, including a 3-h athletic exercise session and cycling outdoors. Secondly, no assessment of the effect of cycling on ERPs was possible, because the methods differed too widely between studies. In addition, the theories proposed to explain the results sometimes seemed to contradict each other. Although most studies reported significant results, the direction of the effects was inconsistent. Finally, we suggest some areas for improvement for future studies on the subject.

Creativity and consciousness in motion: The roundtrip of "mindful" and "mindless" processes in embodied creativity

In this opinion paper, we make a journey across different accounts of creativity that emphasize either the mindful, conscious and cognitive expression of creativity, or its mindless, unconscious and sensorimotor expression. We try to go beyond dichotomy, putting creativity in motion and outlining its embodied and enactive features. Based on the assumption that no creative act is purely conscious or purely unconscious, our discussion on creativity relies on the distinction of three types of creativity that complementarily contribute to the creative process through shifts in the activation of their substrates in the brain: the deliberate, spontaneous and flow types of creativity. The latter is a hybrid and embodied type, in which movement and physical activity meet creativity. We then focus on the most fascinating contribution of unconscious processes and mind wandering to spontaneous and flow modes of creativity, exploring what happens when the individual apparently takes a break from a deliberate and effortful search for solutions and the creative process progresses through an incubation phase. This phase and the overall creative process can be facilitated by physical activity which, depending on its features and context, can disengage the cognitive control network and free the mind from filters that constrain cognitive processes or, conversely, can engage attentional control on sensorimotor and cognitive task components in a mindful way. Lastly, we focus on the unique features of the outer natural environment of physical activity and of the inner environment during mindful movements that can restore capacities and boost creativity.

Exercise Influences the Brain's Metabolic Response to Chronic Cocaine Exposure in Male Rats

Cocaine use is associated with negative health outcomes: cocaine use disorders, speedballing, and overdose deaths. Currently, treatments for cocaine use disorders and overdose are non-existent when compared to opioid use disorders, and current standard cocaine use disorder treatments have high dropout and recidivism rates. Physical exercise has been shown to attenuate addiction behavior as well as modulate brain activity. This study examined the differential effects of chronic cocaine use between exercised and sedentary rats. The effects of exercise on brain glucose metabolism (BGluM) following chronic cocaine exposure were assessed using Positron Emission Tomography (PET) and [18F]-Fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG). Compared to sedentary animals, exercise decreased metabolism in the SIBF primary somatosensory cortex. Activation occurred in the amygdalopiriform and piriform cortex, trigeminothalamic tract, rhinal and perirhinal cortex, and visual cortex. BGluM changes may help ameliorate various aspects of cocaine abuse and reinstatement. Further investigation is needed into the underlying neuronal circuits involved in BGluM changes and their association with addiction behaviors.

Effects of self-efficacy on frontal midline theta power and golf putting performance

Introduction

Self-efficacy (SE), defined as an individual's belief in their ability to complete a task, is linked to top-down attentional control, influencing motor performance in sports. Although the behavioral effects of SE are well-documented, there is a lack of research on the mechanisms through which SE affects sports performance. Our research aims to elucidate the neurophysiological mechanisms that underlie the impact of self-efficacy on sports performance. Specifically, we intend to explore the effects of low and high SE on frontal midline theta (Fmθ) activity, associated with sustained top-down attention, and on motor performance.

Methods

We recruited thirty-four professional golfers to perform 60 putts, during which their electroencephalographic activity was monitored. SE levels were assessed using a visual analog scale from 0 to 10 before each putt, with scores categorized into higher or lower SE based on each golfer's individual average score.

Results

Paired t-tests indicated that trials with higher SE scores had a higher putting success rate than those with lower SE scores (53.3% vs. 46.7%). Furthermore, trials associated with higher SE scores exhibited lower Fmθ activity compared to those with lower SE scores (4.49 vs. 5.18).

Discussion

Our results suggest that higher SE is associated with reduced top-down attentional control, leading to improved putting performance. These findings support Bandura's theory of SE, which suggests that the effects of efficacy beliefs are mediated by cognitive, motivational, emotional, and decision-making processes. This study sheds light on the intermediate processes of SE by examining its impact on the anticipation of outcomes, sports performance, and attentional control prior to putting.

Prefrontal cortex hemodynamic activity during a test of lower extremity functional muscle strength in children with cerebral palsy: A functional near-infrared spectroscopy study

Children with cerebral palsy (CP) exhibit impaired motor control and significant muscle weakness due to a brain lesion. However, studies that assess the relationship between brain activity and performance on dynamic functional muscle strength assessments in CP are needed. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of a progressive lateral step-up test on prefrontal cortex (PFC) hemodynamic activity in children with CP. Fourteen ambulatory children with spastic CP (Gross Motor Function Classification System level I; 5-11 y) and 14 age- and sex-matched typically developing control children completed a progressive lateral step-up test at incremental step heights (0, 10, 15 and 20 cm) using their non-dominant lower limb. Hemodynamic activity in the PFC was assessed using non-invasive, portable functional neuroimaging (functional near-infrared spectroscopy). Children with CP completed fewer repetitions at each step height and exhibited lower PFC hemodynamic activity across step heights compared to controls. Lower PFC activation in CP was maintained after statistically controlling for the number of repetitions completed at each step height. PFC hemodynamic activity was not associated with LSUT task performance in children with CP, but a positive relationship was observed in controls at the most challenging 20 cm step height. The results suggest there is an altered PFC recruitment pattern in children with CP during a highly dynamic test of functional strength. Further studies are needed to explore the mechanisms underlying the suppressed PFC activation observed in children with CP compared to typically developing children.

Mutual interference between memory encoding and motor skills: the influence of motor expertise

In cognitive-motor dual-task situations, the extent of performance decrements is influenced by the attentional requirements of each task. Well-learned motor skills should be automatized, leading to less interference. This study presents two studies combining an episodic memory encoding task with well-practiced motor tasks in athletes. Study 1 asked 40 rowers (early teenagers to middle adulthood) to row on ergometers at slow or fast speeds. In study 2, Taekwondo athletes (n = 37) of different skill levels performed a well-practiced sequence of martial arts movements. Performing the motor task during encoding led to pronounced performance reductions in memory in both studies, with costs of up to 80%. Cognitive costs were even larger when rowing with the fast compared to the slow speed in study 1. Both studies also revealed decrements in motor performances under dual-task conditions: Rowing became slower and more irregular (study 1), and the quality of the Taekwondo performance was reduced. Although higher-level athletes outperformed others in motor skills under single-task conditions, proportional dual-task costs were similar across skill levels for most domains. This indicates that even well-practiced motor tasks require cognitive resources.

Neuromuscular and perceptual-cognitive response to 4v4 small-sided game in youth soccer players

The physical and psychological load of small-sided games (SSGs) can affect players' neuromuscular and cognitive functions. Yet, little is known about the acute performance changes after such a specific exercise in young soccer players and their association with exercise load applied. This study investigates i) the neuromuscular and perceptual-cognitive response to the SSG exercise load, and ii) the relationship between pre- and post-SSG changes in variables of performance and the respective exercise load in youth soccer players. Sixteen participants (13.6 ± 0.5 years) underwent a 30-min SSG 4v4 + GK protocol. Prior to and after the SSG they performed countermovement jump (CMJ), planned and reactive Y-shaped agility tests (PA, RA), and go/no-go task (GNG). Their subjective perception of fatigue was evaluated by visual analog scale. Fatigue induced by SSG (perception of fatigue increased by 41.56%, p = .001, g = 4.15) increased PA time (4.04%, p = .002, g = .97), RA time (6.45%, p = .003, g = 1.16), and number of errors in the response inhibition task (87.1%, p = .023, rc = .57), whilst decreased CMJ height (-6.65%, p = .014, g = .56). These performance deteriorations were not significantly associated with neither internal nor external load variables. However, a less pronounced drop in performance was related to external load variables, i.e., ∆CMJ height and ∆RA time correlated with very high-speed running (rs = .66, p = .006; rs = -.50, p = .022; respectively) and maximal speed (r = .54, p = .032; r = -.52, p = .037; respectively), whilst ∆PA time was associated with high-intensity accelerations (rs = -.76, p = .002). These findings indicate that fatigue induced by SSG affects both planned and reactive agility, decision-making in response inhibition task, and explosive strength in youth soccer players regardless of significant contribution of any robust internal or external load variables. Nonetheless, high-intensity actions within SSG partially compensate for the decrements in their agility performance and explosive strength. The load variables encountered during SSG do not fully reflect youth players' neuromuscular and perceptual-cognitive responses to sport-specific exercise.

Differential effects of acute cardiovascular exercise on explicit and implicit motor memory: The moderating effects of fitness level

A single bout of cardiovascular exercise (CE) performed after practice can facilitate the consolidation of motor memory. However, the effect is variable and may be modulated by different factors such as the motor task's or participant's characteristics and level of awareness during encoding (implicit vs explicit learning). This study examines the effects of acute CE on the consolidation of motor sequences learned explicitly and implicitly, exploring the potential moderating effect of fitness level and awareness. Fifty-six healthy adults (24.1 ± 3.3 years, 32 female) were recruited. After practicing with either the implicit or explicit variant of the Serial Reaction Time Task (SRTT), participants either performed a bout of 16 min of vigorous CE or rested for the same amount of time. Consolidation was quantified as the change in SRTT performance from the end of practice to a 24 h retention test. Fitness level (V̇O2peak) was determined through a graded exercise test. Awareness (implicit vs explicit learning) was operationalized using a free recall test conducted immediately after retention. Our primary analysis indicated that CE had no statistically significant effects on consolidation, regardless of the SRTT's variant utilized during practice. However, an exploratory analysis, classifying participants based on the level of awareness gained during motor practice, showed that CE negatively influenced consolidation in unfit participants who explicitly acquired the motor sequence. Our findings indicate that fitness level and awareness in sequence acquisition can modulate the interaction between CE and motor memory consolidation. These factors should be taken into account when assessing the effects of CE on motor memory.

Social Regulation of the Neural Threat Response Predicts Subsequent Markers of Physical Health

OBJECTIVE

Social support has been linked to a vast range of beneficial health outcomes. However, the physiological mechanisms of social support are not well characterized. Drawing on functional magnetic resonance imaging and health-related outcome data, this study aimed to understand how neural measures of "yielding"-the reduction of brain activity during social support-moderate the link between social support and health.

METHODS

We used a data set where 78 participants around the age of 24 years were exposed to the threat of shock when holding the hand of a partner. At ages 28 to 30 years, participants returned for a health visit where inflammatory activity and heart rate variability were recorded.

RESULTS

Findings showed a significant interaction between dorsal anterior cingulate cortex-related yielding and perceived social support on C-reactive protein levels ( β = -0.95, SE = 0.42, z = -2.24, p = .025, 95% confidence interval = -1.77 to -0.12). We also found a significant interaction between hypothalamus-related yielding and perceived social support on baseline heart rate variability ( β = 0.51, SE = 0.23, z = 2.19, p = .028, 95% confidence interval = 0.05 to 0.97).

CONCLUSIONS

Greater perceived social support was associated with lower C-reactive protein levels and greater baseline heart rate variability among individuals who were more likely to yield to social support in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex and hypothalamus years earlier. The current study highlights the construct of yielding in the link between social support and physical health.

Neurobiological effects of exercise intervention for premenstrual syndrome

Background

Up to 75%-90% of women have varying degrees of premenstrual syndrome (PMS). Exercises are recognized to be beneficial to regulate the negative emotions associated with PMS; however, the effects of exercise on sadness inhibition have not yet been investigated from the neurobiological perspective.

Purpose

This study examined the effects of a single exercise intervention on the neural mechanisms mediating sadness response inhibition at the cortical level using multichannel event-related potential (ERP) recording in women with PMS.

Methods

Participants performed Go/No-go trials while viewing of sad or neutral images before and after exercise intervention, and changes in the No-go-evoked N200 (N2) ERP component were measured by electroencephalography (EEG) at multiple cortical sites. The associations of PMS Inventory scores with N2 amplitude and latency changes were then examined using Pearson's correlation analysis.

Results

There were no significant differences in N2 latency and response error rate following exercise compared to baseline. However, women with higher PMS Inventory scores (greater symptom severity) demonstrated significantly lengthen N2 latency at the Fz electrode sites during correct sad face No-go trials after exercise (p < 0.05), which was not the case in the pre-exercise baseline. We detected no significant relationship between the PMS score and N2 amplitude, either pre- or post-exercise.

Conclusion

Women with higher PMS severity exhibited longer sad N2 latencies as well as slow down the speed of reaction to negative stimuli by exercise, suggesting that the prefrontal emotion regulation network is involved in PMS symptoms and is sensitive to the beneficial effects of exercise.

Influence of physical fitness on decision-making of soccer referees throughout the match

The purpose of this study was to analyze the relationships between physical fitness and physical performance in competition and the decision-making (successes and errors). A sample of 22 male national-level soccer referees (weight: 72.7 kg; height: 178.0 cm; age: 23.4 years) participated in this study. Physical fitness was assessed through 6 series of 40 m (velocity) and Yo-yo (aerobic) test in annual exam by Soccer Committee, physical performance was performed through the total distance covered in competition (Experiment 1), and decision-making was registered through a simulated Video Assistant Referee system (VAR) with the consensus of 2 national referees evaluating only warnings (yellow cards), expulsions (red cards), established penalties and obvious goal actions (called and no called) (Experiments 2 and 3). Results showed that physical fitness test was related with total distance (rho = 0.63, p < .01) and success rate percentage (rho = 0.74, p < .05) registered during competition. The success rate percentage, in the first half, was observed 44% successes, and in the second half, 59% successes. The number of events called was related with the physical fitness test score (R2 = 0.71, p = .035; R2 = 0.64, p = .056, respectively). As conclusion, the main finding of this study has provided insight into decision-making behavior in real competitive matches and the physical fitness was the predictor of the successful decision-making being able to determine the permanency, promotion or decrease of category.

Physical exercise induces mental flow related to catecholamine levels in noncompetitive, but not competitive conditions in men

The study aimed to reveal physical exercise conditions and catecholamine response-dependent differences while an individual experiences a flow state (FS) following noncompetitive and competitive running drills. Urine laboratory catecholamine levels were measured using a standard clinical method during pre- and post-physical exercises. The noncompetitive task involved intermittent running drills, from an absolute beginning up through exhaustion. Initially, the drill is performed individually then later competing alongside other runners. Twenty-two males (mean age: 40.27; SD: 5.4; min-max: 31-49 years) were selected in accordance to the following criterion: healthy status without using medication, routine forms of training (running, cycling or swimming) ideally performed with regularity, at least three times per week, 45 min per session. During the noncompetitive task, a high FS experience was associated with a low level of catecholamines, (noradrenaline and adrenaline) while in parallel, the high FS was associated with a low concentration of homovallinic acid. During competitive conditions, the FS-related catecholamine level changes have not yet been found. In conclusion, the low concentration of the circulating catecholamines supports the transient hypofrontality hypothesis regarding the FS experiences. Furthermore, synchronized noradrenaline and adrenaline neurosecretion play an essential role in the manifestation and the prolongation of FS in noncompetitive exercise conditions.

Static and dynamic resting-state brain activity patterns of table tennis players in 7-Tesla MRI

Table tennis involves quick and accurate motor responses during training and competition. Multiple studies have reported considerably faster visuomotor responses and expertise-related intrinsic brain activity changes among table tennis players compared with matched controls. However, the underlying neural mechanisms remain unclear. Herein, we performed static and dynamic resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI) analyses of 20 table tennis players and 21 control subjects using 7T ultra-high field imaging. We calculated the static and dynamic amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations (ALFF) of the two groups. The results revealed that table tennis players exhibited decreased static ALFF in the left inferior temporal gyrus (lITG) compared with the control group. Voxel-wised static functional connectivity (sFC) and dynamic functional connectivity (dFC) analyses using lITG as the seed region afforded complementary and overlapping results. The table tennis players exhibited decreased sFC in the right middle temporal gyrus and left inferior parietal gyrus. Conversely, they displayed increased dFC from the lITG to prefrontal cortex, particularly the left middle frontal gyrus, left superior frontal gyrus-medial, and left superior frontal gyrus-dorsolateral. These findings suggest that table tennis players demonstrate altered visuomotor transformation and executive function pathways. Both pathways involve the lITG, which is a vital node in the ventral visual stream. These static and dynamic analyses provide complementary and overlapping results, which may help us better understand the neural mechanisms underlying the changes in intrinsic brain activity and network organization induced by long-term table tennis skill training.

Acute evening high-intensity interval training may attenuate the detrimental effects of sleep restriction on long-term declarative memory

Recent evidence shows that a nap and acute exercise synergistically enhanced memory. Additionally, human-based cross-sectional studies and animal experiments suggest that physical exercise may mitigate the cognitive impairments of poor sleep quality and sleep restriction, respectively. We evaluated whether acute exercise may offset sleep restriction's impairment of long-term declarative memory compared to average sleep alone. A total of 92 (82% females) healthy young adults (24.6 ± 4.2 years) were randomly allocated to one of four evening groups: sleep restriction only (S5, 5-6 h/night), average sleep only (S8, 8-9 h/night), high-intensity interval training (HIIT) before restricted sleep (HIITS5), or HIIT before average sleep (HIITS8). Groups either followed a 15-min remote HIIT video or rest period in the evening (7:00 p.m.) prior to encoding 80 face-name pairs. Participants completed an immediate retrieval task in the evening. The next morning a delayed retrieval task was given after their subjectively documented sleep opportunities. Long-term declarative memory performance was assessed with the discriminability index (d') during the recall tasks. While our results showed that the d' of S8 (0.58 ± 1.37) was not significantly different from those of HIITS5 (-0.03 ± 1.64, p = 0.176) and HIITS8 (-0.20 ± 1.28, p = 0.092), there was a difference in d' compared to S5 (-0.35 ± 1.64, p = 0.038) at the delayed retrieval. These results suggest that the acute evening HIIT partially reduced the detrimental effects of sleep restriction on long-term declarative memory.

Neural oscillation amplitude in the frontal cortex predicts esport results

In competitive matches, strategic decisions and emotional control are important. Relevant cognitive functions and corresponding neural activities in simple and short-term laboratory tasks have been reported. Brain resources are intensively allocated in the frontal cortex during strategic decision-making. The suppression of the frontal cortex with alpha-synchronization optimizes emotional control. However, no studies have reported the contribution of neural activity to the outcome of a more complex and prolonged task. To clarify this issue, we focused on a fighting video game following a two-round first-pass system. Frontal high-gamma and alpha power in the first and third pre-round periods, respectively, were found to be increased in a winning match. Furthermore, inter-participant variations in the importance of strategic decisions and emotional control in the first and third pre-round periods were correlated with frontal high-gamma and alpha power, respectively. Therefore, the psychological and mental state, involving frontal neural fluctuations, is predictive of match outcome.

The brain in motion-cognitive effects of simultaneous motor activity

During the last 30 years, a large number of behavioral studies have investigated the effect of simultaneous exercise on cognitive functions. The heterogeneity of the results has been attributed to different parameters, such as intensity or modality of physical activity, and the investigated cognitive processes. More recent methodological improvements have enabled to record electroencephalography (EEG) during physical exercise. EEG studies combining cognitive tasks with exercise have described predominantly detrimental effects on cognitive processes and EEG parameters. However, differences in the underlying rationale and the design of EEG versus behavioral studies make direct comparisons between both types of studies difficult. In this narrative review of dual-task experiments we evaluated behavioral and EEG studies and discuss possible explanations for the heterogeneity of results and for the discrepancy between behavioral and EEG studies. Furthermore, we provide a proposal for future EEG studies on simultaneous motion to be a useful complement to behavioral studies. A crucial factor might be to find for each cognitive function the motor activity that matches this function in terms of attentional focus. This hypothesis should be investigated systematically in future studies.

A Three-Fold Integrated Perspective on Healthy Development: An Opinion Paper

Mental health and wellbeing are increasingly threatened in the current post-pandemic times, with stress, especially in students, reaching preoccupying levels. In addition, while many educational programs are unidimensional (i.e., lacking integration between physical, emotional and cognitive elements), there are ways to promote physical, social and mental health in children and adolescents. In this opinion paper, we will discuss the importance of an integrative approach for health development and examine relevant factors, such as awareness and emotional intelligence. We will highlight evidence ranging from behavioral to electrophysiological, structural and molecular, and report several recent studies supporting the effectiveness of a holistic approach in supporting wellbeing and creativity in children and adults, and detailing a specific paradigm named the Quadrato Motor Training (QMT). QMT is a specifically structured movement meditation, involving cognitive, motor and affective components. Finally, we will support a holistic view on education, integrating motion, emotion and cognition to develop a person-centered, or in this case student-centered, approach to wellbeing and health.

A Scoping Review on Movement, Neurobiology and Functional Deficits in Dyslexia: Suggestions for a Three-Fold Integrated Perspective

Developmental dyslexia is a common complex neurodevelopmental disorder. Many theories and models tried to explain its symptomatology and find ways to improve poor reading abilities. The aim of this scoping review is to summarize current findings and several approaches and theories, focusing on the interconnectedness between motion, emotion and cognition and their connection to dyslexia. Consequently, we present first a brief overview of the main theories and models regarding dyslexia and its proposed neural correlates, with a particular focus on cerebellar regions and their involvement in this disorder. After examining different types of intervention programs and remedial training, we highlight the effects of a specific structured sensorimotor intervention named Quadrato Motor Training (QMT). QMT utilizes several cognitive and motor functions known to be relevant in developmental dyslexia. We introduce its potential beneficial effects on reading skills, including working memory, coordination and attention. We sum its effects ranging from behavioral to functional, structural and neuroplastic, especially in relation to dyslexia. We report several recent studies that employed this training technique with dyslexic participants, discussing the specific features that distinguish it from other training within the specific framework of the Sphere Model of Consciousness. Finally, we advocate for a new perspective on developmental dyslexia integrating motion, emotion and cognition to fully encompass this complex disorder.

Cognitive performance of military men and women during prolonged load carriage

BACKGROUND

This study evaluated cognitive workload in soldiers undertaking a long duration march wearing different loads.

METHODS

Military participants (n=12 men and n=10 women) performed four 3-hour loaded marches (12.25 km at 4.9 km/hour) wearing either 21 kg, 26 kg, 33 kg or 43 kg. During the march, accuracy and response time were measured using the verbal working memory n-back test (0, 1, 2 and 3) and two bespoke Go/No Go tests (visual/auditory) to assess inhibition of a pre-potent response.

RESULTS

The physical demands of the march increased with load and march duration but remained at moderate intensity. N-back test accuracy ranged from 74% to 98% in men and 62% to 98% in women. Reduced accuracy was observed as load and time increased. Accuracy during the visual Go/No Go test also reduced with load, accuracy ranged from 69% to 89% in men and 65% to 90% in women. No differences due to load or time were observed during completion of the auditory Go/No Go task; accuracy ranged from 93% to 97% in men and 77% to 95% in women. A number of participants were unable to complete the march due to discomfort. Reports of discomfort were more frequent in women, which may have contributed to the greater reductions in accuracy observed.

CONCLUSION

These data provide further evidence that cognitive performance of military personnel can be affected during long duration loaded marching. Women reported discomfort from equipment more frequently than men, which may make them more susceptible to declines in cognitive performance. These findings highlight important considerations for equipment procurement.

Effects of Moderate-to-Vigorous Acute Exercise on Conscious Perception and Visual Awareness

Background: the effect of acute exercise on cognition covers almost all stages of information processing, but few studies have focused on visual awareness. Reports on the appearance of faint speed-changes in the perception of stimuli were used as an index for visual awareness. Visual awareness was assessed after exercise or rest. Aside from the detection of speed-changes, speed-change discrimination was added as an index of perception. Results: the results showed that reports on the appearance of faint speed-changes were affected by acute aerobic exercise. The d' index was higher after exercise. The hit rate for speed-change detection was marginally significantly higher after exercise than after the sedentary test condition. Analysis of the results obtained for the discrimination task showed that discrimination speed was boosted only when subjects were aware of the speed-change. Importantly, neither false alarm rate nor response bias was affected by exercise. Conclusions: acute moderate- to vigorous-intensity aerobic exercise improved subjects' awareness of speed changes. In addition, there was a perceptual advantage due to exercise.

Interoceptive differences in elite sprint and long-distance runners: A multidimensional investigation

Interoception, the process of detecting and interpreting bodily sensations, may facilitate self-regulation and thereby play a crucial role in achieving elite performance in competitive sports. However, there is a lack of research conducted in world-class athletes. In the present research, two studies examined self-reported (interoceptive sensibility) and behavioural (interoceptive accuracy) interoception in elite (top 100 ranking) sprint and long-distance runners, and non-athletes. Study 1 used the Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness Questionnaire. Sprinters reported having better regulation of attention to internal sensations, greater emotional awareness, better self-regulation, and reported a greater propensity to listen to their body for insight, than distance runners. Compared to non-athletes, sprinters and distance runners had more bodily trust, attention regulation, and self-regualtion. Additionally, elite athletes reported lower emotional awareness, self-regulation, and body listening. Study 2 examined cardioception using two tasks: The Heartbeat Counting Task, and The Heartbeat Detection Task. Elite and non-elite runners performed the tasks under two conditions; in silence, and whilst listening to pre-recorded crowd noise that simulated the live sounds of spectators during a sporting event. Sprinters and distance runners were able to maintain heartbeat detection accuracy when distracted, whereas non-athletes could not. Across both tasks, compared to non-athletes, sprinters and distance runners were more confident than non-athletes in their interoceptive percept. Additionally, elite athletes compared to non-elite athletes were less accurate when counting their heartbeat and were characterised by a higher interoceptive prediction error. Athletic populations have altered interoceptive abilities.

Effects of acute exercise with different modalities on working memory in men with high and low aerobic fitness

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to determine the effects of high-intensity interval exercise (HIIE) and moderate-intensity continuous exercise (MICE) on working memory in individuals with high and low aerobic fitness.

DESIGN

The protocol adopted a between-subjects crossover design.

METHODS

Forty healthy male college students (mean age = 19.59 ± 1.00 years) were assigned to high fitness (n = 20) or low fitness (n = 20) groups based on their estimated maximum oxygen consumption (VO_2max) in the 20 m shuttle run test. All participants were instructed to engage in three acute exercise interventions (10 min HIIE, 20 min HIIE, 20 min MICE) and a reading control intervention on separate days in a randomized order. A spatial 2-back task was performed before and after each intervention to assess working memory.

RESULTS

Analyses of the 2-back task performance revealed that the working memory of high and low fitness participants benefited from different modalities of acute exercise. Specifically, reaction time in the 2-back task was significantly shorter after 20 min HIIE compared to pre-exercise in high fitness participants, whereas low fitness participants had significantly faster reaction time in the 2-back task after 20 min MICE and 10 min HIIE relative to pre-exercise.

CONCLUSIONS

The effects of acute aerobic exercise on working memory are modulated by a combination of exercise modality and aerobic fitness. This finding has important implications for providing experimental evidence that participants choose appropriate exercise to undertake based on their level of aerobic fitness to improve cognitive performance.

Protective effect of aerobic fitness on the detrimental influence of exhaustive exercise on information processing capacity

Although aerobic fitness has been thought to protect against the detrimental cognitive effects following exhaustive exercise, available evidence from studies using traditional mean behavioral measures remain somewhat equivocal.

PURPOSE

This study aimed to reconcile this discrepancy by using a novel theory-driven diagnostic tool, the Systems Factorial Technology (SFT).

METHODS

Sixty-six healthy young adults aged from 18 to 30 years old with different levels of aerobic fitness (n = 33 for the higher-fit and lower-fit groups) completed a go/nogo version of redundant-target task before and after a graded exercise test (GXT) until exhaustion. SFT was used to calculate the resilience capacity, which reflects the information processing capacity underlying inhibitory control.

RESULTS

Following the GXT, both higher-fit and lower-fit groups showed faster responses while leaving accuracy unchanged as compared to the performance at the pretest. On the other hand, the resilience capacity decreased for the lower-fit group but was maintained for the higher-fit group.

CONCLUSION

The present findings suggest that aerobic fitness may modulate the individual difference in decisional mechanism following exhaustive exercise. In sum, this study offers an alternative mechanistic explanation regarding cognitive individual differences in response to exhaustive exercise and provides novel insights into the significance of maintaining a state of high physical fitness for those who need to perform cognitively challenging tasks under physically stressful conditions (e.g., elite athletes).

The effect of exercise-induced fatigue and heat exposure on soccer-specific decision-making during high-intensity intermittent exercise

Global warming and the globalisation of sport has increased the prevalence of sports competitions being held in hot environments. However, there is currently limited research investigating the impact of the heat on soccer-specific decision-making skills during exercise reflective of the physical demands of match-play. Therefore, the effects of heat exposure on physical and soccer-specific decision-making performance, biological markers (i.e., metanephrines), appraisal (i.e., challenge vs. threat) and affective states, during prolonged high-intensity intermittent exercise were investigated. Nine well-trained male soccer players completed a 92-min cycling intermittent sprint protocol (CISP), whilst simultaneously responding to a series of soccer-specific decision-making trials at various time points, in two temperature conditions: hot (32°C, 50%rh) and temperate (18°C, 50%rh). Results showed that decision-making score (p = .030) was impaired in the hot compared to the temperate condition. There was a reduced workload in the second half during the hot condition (p = .016), which coincided with a heightened threat state (p = .007) and more unpleasant feelings (p = .008) experienced in the hot, compared to temperate, condition. Furthermore, plasma normetanephrine (NMET) was higher at half-time (p = .012) and post-CISP (p ≤ .001). Also, plasma metanephrine (MET) was higher post-CISP (p = .009) in the hot compared to temperate condition, reflecting a heightened stress response. Our findings highlight the need for practitioners to consider the detrimental effects heat exposure can have on both physical and decision-making performance when looking to facilitate performance in hot conditions.

Fitness Dance Counteracts Female Ph.D. Candidates' Stress by Affecting Emotion Regulation

Background: The impact of stress on the nation's physical and mental health is considerable. Exercise is considered to have beneficial effects on mental health and the capacity for coping with stress. The purpose of this study is to verify the effects of fitness dance intervention on female Ph.D. candidates' stress, and compare it with the intervention effects of MBSR. Method: A repeated measurement experimental design was used to evaluate the effects of fitness dance and MBSR on Chinese female Ph.D. candidates' stress. Results: Twelve weeks of fitness dance and MBSR can reduce participants' stress from severe to moderate. Eight weeks of fitness dance can reduce the tension from perceived stress (p = 0.019) and loss of control from perceived stress (p = 0.043). Twelve weeks of fitness dance can reduce the tension from perceived stress (p < 0.000), loss of control from perceived stress (p = 0.002) and perceived stress (p = 0.001). Fitness dance and MBSR affect emotion regulation, thereby affecting stress. Fitness dance reduced participants' stress by improving their cognitive reappraisal ability. MBSR reduced participants' stress by improving their cognitive reappraisal ability and expression suppression ability. Conclusions: Fitness dance, as a method of exercise intervention, is suitable for reducing Chinese female Ph.D. candidates' stress.

Learning Multiple Movements in Parallel-Accurately and in Random Order, or Each with Added Noise?

Traditionally, studies on learning have mainly focused on the acquisition and stabilization of only single movement tasks. In everyday life and in sports, however, several new skills often must be learned in parallel. The extent to which the similarity of the movements or the order in which they are learned influences success has only recently begun to attract increased interest. This study aimed to compare the effects of CI in random practice order (high CI) with differential learning (DL) in learning three volleyball skills in parallel. Thirty-two advanced beginners in volleyball (mean age = 24, SD = 2.7) voluntarily participated in the study. Within a pre-, post-, retention test design, an intervention of six weeks and one week retention phase, the effects of three practice protocols of a CI, DL, and control (CO) group were compared. Three different volleyball skills (underhand pass, overhand pass, and overhand serve) were trained with emphasis on accuracy. Results showed statistically significant higher rates of improvement in the acquisition and learning phases for the DL group compared to the CI and CO groups. The differences were associated with moderate to high effect sizes in all individual skills and in the combined skills. The findings show more agreement with DL than with CI theory.

Neural efficiency and proficiency adaptation of effective connectivity corresponding to early and advanced skill levels in athletes of racket sports

This study explored how the neural efficiency and proficiency worked in athletes with different skill levels from the perspective of effective connectivity brain network in resting state. The deconvolved conditioned Granger causality (GC) analysis was applied to functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data of 35 elite athletes (EAs) and 42 student-athletes (SAs) of racket sports as well as 39 normal controls (NCs), to obtain the voxel-wised hemodynamic response function (HRF) parameters representing the functional segregation and effective connectivity representing the functional integration. The results showed decreased time-to-peak of HRF in the visual attention brain regions in the two athlete groups compared with NC and decreased response height in the advanced motor control brain regions in EA comparing to the nonelite groups, suggesting the neural efficiency represented by the regional HRF was different in early and advanced skill levels. GC analysis demonstrated that the GC values within the middle occipital gyrus had a linear trend from negative to positive, suggesting a stepwise "neural proficiency" of the effective connectivity from NC to SA then to EA. The GC values of the inter-lobe circuits in EA had the trend to regress to NC levels, in agreement with the neural efficiency of these circuits in EA. Further feature selection approach suggested the important role of the cerebral-brainstem GC circuit for discriminating EA. Our findings gave new insight into the complementary neural mechanisms in brain functional segregation and integration, which was associated with early and advanced skill levels in athletes of racket sports.

Specific relations of visual skills and executive functions in elite soccer players

Visual and cognitive skills are key to successful functioning in highly demanding settings such as elite sports. However, their mutual influence and interdependencies are not sufficiently understood yet. This cross-sectional study examined the relationship between visual skills and executive functions in elite soccer players. Fifty-nine male elite soccer players (age: 18–34 years) performed tests assessing visual clarity (left-, right-, and both eyes), contrast sensitivity, near-far quickness, and hand-eye coordination. Executive function measures included working memory capacity, cognitive flexibility, inhibition and selective attention. Overall, visual abilities were largely correlated with executive functions. Near-far quickness performance showed a large correlation with an executive function total score as well as with cognitive flexibility, working memory, and especially selective attention. Visual clarity and contrast sensitivity were moderately correlated with the cognition total score. Most consistent correlations with the visual functions were present for working memory. These findings present an overall vision-cognition relationship but also very specific linkages among subcategories of these functions, especially meaningful relations between near-far quickness, selective attention and cognitive flexibility. Further studies are needed to investigate the neuropsychological mechanisms accounting for the correlations and possible improvements of the executive functions by training specific visual skills.

Alexithymia, reward sensitivity and excessive exercise in non-binge-eaters versus severe binge eaters: Implications for primary and secondary exercise dependence

A distinction has been made between primary and secondary exercise dependence, with the latter defined as excessive exercise secondary to disordered eating and weight concerns. Based on theoretical considerations from research on the roles of trait factors in addictions, the present study used validated scales to assess alexithymia, sensitivity to reward and punishment, emotion regulation and interoception in relation to exercise dependence symptoms in Australian male and female non-binge eaters (n = 228) and severe binge eaters (n = 126) aged 18-30 yr. In both groups, exercise dependence symptoms were significantly positively associated with reward sensitivity and interoceptive awareness, with the latter two variables predicting exercise dependence symptoms in hierarchical regression models; punishment sensitivity was significantly negatively related to such symptoms. Alexithymia was significantly associated with exercise dependence symptoms only in non-binge eaters; in severe binge eaters, alexithymia explained 0% of unique variance. Male sex was associated with more exercise dependence symptoms in severe binge eaters only. Participants in the severe binge group scored significantly higher on measures of exercise dependence, alexithymia, risky alcohol use, and sensitivity to reward and punishment, and significantly lower on emotion regulation, compared to those in the non-binge group. Hierarchical regression models explained 25% of variance in exercise dependence symptoms in non-binge-eaters and 43% in severe binge eaters. Findings are discussed in terms of the distinction between primary and secondary exercise dependence, the role of alexithymia, study limitations including data collection during the COVID-19 pandemic in Australia, and suggestions for future research.

The Effect of Exercise Intensity on Affective and Repetition Priming in Middle-Aged Adults

Previous research has shown that physical exercise improves memory. In the present study, we investigated the possible effects of the intensity of physical exercise as a function of the affective valence of words on implicit memory. In the study, 79 young adult volunteers were randomly assigned to perform moderate- (50% VO2max) or high-intensity exercise (80% VO2max) on a stationary bike. Once the required exercise intensity was achieved, participants performed an affective and repetition priming task concurrently with the physical exercise. Both groups showed similar repetition priming. The moderate-intensity exercise group showed affective priming with positive words, while affective priming was not found in the high-intensity exercise group. Facilitation occurred in both groups when a negative target word was preceded by a positive prime word. Our results suggest that the positive effect of physical exercise on memory is modulated by the affective valence of the stimuli. It seems that moderate-intensity exercise is more beneficial for implicit memory than high-intensity exercise.

An experimental test of resource recovery from physical and relaxation work break activities

Actual resource replenishment, a defining part of the stress-recovery process, has hardly been studied. We address this gap in the literature within the context of work breaks to determine which resources are replenished relative to a pre-stressor baseline. Guided by conservation of resources theory and the effort-recovery model, we explored how two different break activities promoted recovery by looking at their effects on recovery experiences (relaxation, psychological detachment), psychological resources (self-regulatory capacity, energy), and an indicator of insufficient recovery (fatigue). In a sample of 160 college students, we experimentally induced a state of resource depletion via mentally demanding tasks and randomly assigned people to a physical (stationary bike) or relaxation (progressive muscle relaxation) recovery break activity. The relaxation activity resulted in higher psychological detachment and relaxation experiences, the physical activity resulted in higher energy levels, and there were no differences between the break activities for self-regulatory capacity or fatigue. Overall, post-break resource levels improved following recovery break activities. Energy levels returned to baseline (replenishment); self-regulatory capacity and fatigue improved beyond baseline (accumulation). These resource replenishment and accumulation findings further the development of recovery theory and help employees select a work break activity that better meets their resource-related needs.

Altered States of Consciousness during Exercise, Active-Alert Hypnosis, and Everyday Waking State

This retrospective study was a nonrandomized comparison of exercisers' (runners and participants of a spinning class) states of consciousness with subjects of active-alert hypnosis (AAH) and students in a class (control). Three hundred and seventy-five participants completed the Phenomenology of Consciousness Inventory (PCI). Runners, spinners, and participants of AAH scored higher on the altered experience and altered state of awareness dimensions of the PCI than the control group. Runners scored higher than participants of AAH and the control condition on the rationality dimension, and spinners scored higher than participants in the AAH condition. The AAH group scored lowest on the self-awareness dimension. On the volitional control dimension, the spinning and control groups scored significantly higher than the runner and AAH groups. The results suggest that exercise may lead to states of consciousness similar to AAH and thus increase responsiveness to a coach's training suggestions.

Brain Mapping the Effects of Chronic Aerobic Exercise in the Rat Brain Using FDG PET

Exercise is a key component to health and wellness and is thought to play an important role in brain activity. Changes in brain activity after exercise have been observed through various neuroimaging techniques, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and positron emission tomography (PET). The precise impact of exercise on brain glucose metabolism (BGluM) is still unclear; however, results from PET studies seem to indicate an increase in regional metabolism in areas related to cognition and memory, direction, drive, motor functions, perception, and somatosensory areas in humans. Using PET and the glucose analog [18F]-Fluorodeoxyglucose (18F-FDG), we assessed the changes in BGluM between sedentary and chronic exercise in rats. Chronic treadmill exercise treatment demonstrated a significant increase in BGluM activity in the following brain regions: the caudate putamen (striatum), external capsule, internal capsule, deep cerebellar white matter, primary auditory cortex, forceps major of the corpus callosum, postsubiculum, subiculum transition area, and the central nucleus of the inferior colliculus. These brain regions are functionally associated with auditory processing, memory, motor function, and motivated behavior. Therefore, chronic daily treadmill running in rats stimulates BGluM in distinct brain regions. This identified functional circuit provides a map of brain regions for future molecular assessment which will help us understand the biomarkers involved in specific brain regions following exercise training, as this is critical in exploring the therapeutic potential of exercise in the treatment of neurodegenerative disease, traumatic brain injury, and addiction.

Vigorous-intensity acute exercise during encoding can reduce levels of episodic and false memory

The potential benefits (veridical memory) and, importantly, costs (false memory) of acute exercise on memory in conjunction with the timing and type of exercise have not been fully studied. In Experiment 1, we employed a three-condition (15-minute vigorous-intensity acute exercise Before or During memory encoding, or a Control condition of watching a video), within-subjects, counterbalanced design. The procedures included an immediate and delayed (20-minute post encoding) free recall assessment. Veridical memory was determined by the number of studied words that were recalled, whereas false memory was determined by retrieving a non-presented, critical item. For veridical memory, Before was not different than Control (p = .42), however, During was worse than Before and Control (p's < .001). No differences occurred for false memory. Experiment 2 was conducted that included several additional exercise conditions (e.g., light-intensity exercise) during memory encoding, used a recognition task instead of a free recall task, and extended the long-term memory assessment out to 24-hours. Experiment 2 demonstrated that vigorous-intensity acute exercise during encoding reduced both veridical and false memory for related new items (p < .05). These findings demonstrate that the timing and intensity of exercise play an important role in influencing memory performance.

Effects of combat sports on cerebellar function in adolescents: a resting-state fMRI study

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the effects of combat sports on cerebellar function in adolescents based on resting-state functional MRI (rs-fMRI).

METHODS

Rs-fMRI data were acquired from the combat sports (CS) group (n = 32, aged 14.2 ± 1.1 years) and non-athlete healthy control (HC) group (n = 29, aged 14.8 ± 0.9 years). The amplitude of low-frequency fluctuation (ALFF), regional homogeneity (ReHo), and functional connectivity (FC) within the cerebellum was calculated and then compared between the two groups.

RESULTS

None of these participants displayed intracranial lesions on conventional MRI and microhemorrhages on SWI. Compared with the HC group, the CS group showed decreased ALFF and ReHo in the bilateral cerebellum, mainly located in the inferior regions of the cerebellum (Cerebellum_8, Cerebellum_9, Cerebellum_7b, and Cerebellum_Crus2). While increased FC was found within the cerebellar network, mainly located in the superior regions near the midline (bilateral Cerebellum_6, Cerebellum_Crus1_R, and Vermis_6). There is no internetwork FC change between the CEN and other networks.

CONCLUSION

This study confirmed extensive effects of combat sports on cerebellar rs-fMRI in adolescents, which could enhance the understanding of cerebellar regulatory mechanism under combat conditions, and provide additional information about cerebellar protective inhibition and compensatory adaptation.

ADVANCES IN KNOWLEDGE

Adolescent combat participants are an ideal model to study training-induced brain plasticity and vulnerability. Relative to task-related fMRI, rs-fMRI can bring more information about cerebellar regulation and explain the Central Governor Model more comprehensively.

A Review of Cognitive Changes During Acute Aerobic Exercise

A growing body of work has investigated the effects of acute, or single bouts of, aerobic exercise on cognitive function. However, review of this research has largely focused on changes following exercise, with less focus on cognitive changes during exercise. The purpose of this review is to discuss the critical characteristics of this literature to date, including: (1) what has been done, (2) what has been found, and (3) what is next. Furthermore, previous meta-analytic reviews have demonstrated there is a small positive effect on cognition when measured during exercise, with executive functions showing the largest effects. However, these reviews group executive functions together. Here we explore how inhibition, working memory and cognitive flexibility are individually impacted by factors such as exercise intensity or duration. Searches of electronic databases and reference lists from relevant studies resulted in 73 studies meeting inclusion criteria. Studies were grouped by executive and non-executive cognitive domains, intensity and duration of exercise bouts. Within the executive domain, we found that effects on working memory and cognitive flexibility remain mixed, effects on inhibition are clearer. Moderate intensity exercise improves response time, vigorous intensity impairs accuracy. Moderate to vigorous intensity improves response time across non-executive domains of attention, motor speed and information processing, with no significant effects on accuracy. Memory processes are consistently improved during exercise. Effects of exercise duration on response time and accuracy are nuanced and vary by cognitive domain. Studies typically explore durations of 45 min or less, extended exercise durations remain largely unexplored. We highlight factors to consider when assessing exercise-cognition relationships, as well as current gaps and future directions for work in this field.

Acute electroencephalography responses during incremental exercise in those with mental illness

INTRODUCTION

Depression is a mental illness (MI) characterized by a process of behavioral withdrawal whereby people experience symptoms including sadness, anhedonia, demotivation, sleep and appetite change, and cognitive disturbances. Frontal alpha asymmetry (FAA) differs in depressive populations and may signify affective responses, with left FAA corresponding to such aversive or withdrawal type behavior. On an acute basis, exercise is known to positively alter affect and improve depressive symptoms and this has been measured in conjunction with left FAA as a post-exercise measure. It is not yet known if these affective electroencephalography (EEG) responses to exercise occur during exercise or only after completion of an exercise bout. This study therefore aimed to measure EEG responses during exercise in those with MI.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Thirty one participants were allocated into one of two groups; those undergoing management of a mental health disorder (MI; N = 19); or reporting as apparently healthy (AH; N = 12). EEG responses at rest and during incremental exercise were measured at the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and the motor cortex (MC). EEG data at PFC left side (F3, F7, FP1), PFC right side (F4, F8, FP2), and MC (C3, Cz, and C4) were analyzed in line with oxygen uptake at rest, 50% of ventilatory threshold (VT) (50% VT) and at VT.

RESULTS

EEG responses increased with exercise across intensity from rest to 50% VT and to VT in all bandwidths (P < 0.05) for both groups. There were no significant differences in alpha activity responses between groups. Gamma responses in the PFC were significantly higher in MI on the left side compared to AH (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Alpha activity responses were no different between groups at rest or any exercise intensity. Therefore the alpha activity response previously shown post-exercise was not found during exercise. However, increased PFC gamma activity in the MI group adds to the body of evidence showing increased gamma can differentiate between those with and without MI.

Acute effects of exercise on cerebrovascular response and cognitive performance in individuals with stable coronary heart disease

BACKGROUND

Individuals with coronary heart disease (CHD) exhibit cognitive deficits and cerebrovascular dysfunctions, and are at higher risk of developing dementia. Cognitive function in individuals with CHD has never been studied during acute aerobic exercise. Given the increasing popularity of training at high peak power output (PPO), its impact on cerebrovascular and cognitive functions in individuals with CHD should be further studied.

METHOD

Thirty-eight individuals with CHD and 16 healthy controls completed two exercise bouts at 30% and 70% of their individualized PPO on an ergocycle while performing a cognitive task including non-executive and executive conditions. Variations of oxy- deoxy-hemoglobin, and total hemoglobin concentrations were measured on left prefrontal cortex at both PPO using near-infrared spectroscopy.

RESULTS

Cognitive task performances were equivalent between groups at all intensity levels. Individuals with CHD exhibited larger variation of deoxyhemoglobin in the executive condition and larger variation in total hemoglobin concentration in all task conditions compared to healthy controls at 70% of PPO.

CONCLUSION

Exercising at high intensity seems to have a larger impact on cerebral blood volume in CHD patients compared to healthy age-matched controls. Higher exercise intensity has negative impacts on cerebral blood volume variations during a cognitive task in CHD patients and could potentially lead to other neurocognitive dysfunctions. Other studies are needed to determine if a cognitive task administered during an exercise test could help identify individuals with CHD at higher risk of developing cognitive decline.

Moderate intensity cycling combined with cognitive dual-task improves selective attention

Physical and cognitive exercises have positive long-term effects on cognitive capacities. However, acute effects still are controversial. Here we determine the acute effects of physical exercise combined with concurrent cognitive exercise on cognitive performance in young adults. Simple reaction time, selective attention, and memory were evaluated in 23 young men before and after 30 min of stationary cycling exercise, 30 min of stationary cycling exercise combined with cognitive exercise, and 30 min of rest. Exercise intensity was continuously controlled to ensure exercise at moderate intensity. We found that physical exercise combined with cognitive dual-task improves selective attention. Both exercise conditions showed similar effects on simple reaction time, and memory was not affected by the different exercise conditions. We conclude that the combination of cycling exercise at moderate intensity with a cognitive exercise acutely improves selective attention in young adults. These results can be of particular interest for interventions aiming at improving selective attention in sports and for older adults and individuals with difficulty to suppress and filter out task-irrelevant information, like when receiving instruction or learning a new task or concept.

Evaluation of the transient hypofrontality theory in the context of exercise: A systematic review with meta-analysis

Accumulating research suggests that, as a result of reduced neural activity in the prefrontal cortex (PFC), higher-order cognitive function may be compromised while engaging in high-intensity acute exercise, with this phenomenon referred to as the transient hypofrontality effect. However, findings in this field remain unclear and lack a thorough synthesis of the evidence. Therefore, the purpose of this meta-analysis was to evaluate the effects of in-task acute exercise on cognitive function, and further, to examine whether this effect is moderated by the specific type of cognition (i.e., PFC-dependent vs. non-PFC-dependent). Studies were identified by electronic databases in accordance with the PRISMA guidelines. In total, 22 studies met our inclusion criteria and intercept only meta-regression models with robust variance estimation were used to calculate the weighted average effect sizes across studies. Acute exercise at all intensities did not influence cognitive function (β = -0.16, 95% CI = [-0.58, 0.27], p = .45) when exercise occurred during the cognitive task, and no significant moderation effects emerged. However, there was evidence that cognitive task type (PFC-dependent vs. non-PFC-dependent) moderated the effect of high-intensity acute exercise on a concomitant cognitive performance (β = -0.81, 95% CI = [-1.60, -0.02], p = .04). Specifically, our findings suggest that PFC-dependent cognition is impaired while engaging in an acute bout of high-intensity exercise, providing support for the transient hypofrontality theory. We discuss these findings in the context of reticular-activating and cognitive-energetic perspectives.

Toward Predicting Human Performance Outcomes From Wearable Technologies: A Computational Modeling Approach

Wearable technologies for measuring digital and chemical physiology are pervading the consumer market and hold potential to reliably classify states of relevance to human performance including stress, sleep deprivation, and physical exertion. The ability to efficiently and accurately classify physiological states based on wearable devices is improving. However, the inherent variability of human behavior within and across individuals makes it challenging to predict how identified states influence human performance outcomes of relevance to military operations and other high-stakes domains. We describe a computational modeling approach to address this challenge, seeking to translate user states obtained from a variety of sources including wearable devices into relevant and actionable insights across the cognitive and physical domains. Three status predictors were considered: stress level, sleep status, and extent of physical exertion; these independent variables were used to predict three human performance outcomes: reaction time, executive function, and perceptuo-motor control. The approach provides a complete, conditional probabilistic model of the performance variables given the status predictors. Construction of the model leverages diverse raw data sources to estimate marginal probability density functions for each of six independent and dependent variables of interest using parametric modeling and maximum likelihood estimation. The joint distributions among variables were optimized using an adaptive LASSO approach based on the strength and directionality of conditional relationships (effect sizes) derived from meta-analyses of extant research. The model optimization process converged on solutions that maintain the integrity of the original marginal distributions and the directionality and robustness of conditional relationships. The modeling framework described provides a flexible and extensible solution for human performance prediction, affording efficient expansion with additional independent and dependent variables of interest, ingestion of new raw data, and extension to two- and three-way interactions among independent variables. Continuing work includes model expansion to multiple independent and dependent variables, real-time model stimulation by wearable devices, individualized and small-group prediction, and laboratory and field validation.

The effects of standing in tutorial group meetings on learning: A randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Standing desks have been brought into the education environment to reduce sedentary behavior among students. The current study explored the effects of standing in tutorial group meetings on learning among undergraduate students.

METHODS

Ninety-six participants were randomly allocated to a Sit or Stand group, with 2 h tutorial group meetings scheduled, once or twice per week, for nine weeks. Learning was analyzed using exam grades, concept maps, and tutorial interactions.

RESULTS

Overall, the Sit and Stand groups did not differ from each other in terms of learning, measured through their exam, concept map, and the use of learning-oriented interactions.

CONCLUSION

Standing in tutorial group meetings neither enhanced nor compromised learning. Considering the health risks associated with prolonged sedentary behavior, offering standing tutorial group meetings to undergraduate students is a recommended solution to break up prolonged sedentary behavior and encourage more physical activity, while maintaining the learning performance of students.