Psychosocial factors underlying symptoms of muscle dysmorphia in a non-clinical sample of men

Dissonance-Based Eating Disorder Prevention for Body-Dissatisfied Brazilian Cisgender Gay and Bisexual Men: A Randomized Controlled Trial With a 1-Year Follow-Up

OBJECTIVE

Gay and bisexual men are at an increased risk for eating disorders (EDs) and muscle dysmorphia (MD) compared with their heterosexual counterparts. Existing dissonance-based (DB) EDs prevention programs for this population have been evaluated in the United States; however, these programs have not been evaluated in the Brazilian context. Thus, we investigated the feasibility, acceptability, and efficacy of a DB ED prevention program (i.e., the PRIDE Body Project) among Brazilian cisgender gay and bisexual men.

METHOD

Eligible men were randomly assigned to either a DB intervention (n = 74) condition or an assessment-only control (AOC) condition (n = 75). Participants completed measures assessing ED and MD risk and protective factors at baseline, post-intervention, 1-month, 6-month, and 1-year follow-up. Those in the intervention condition also completed acceptability measures.

RESULTS

Feasibility and acceptability ratings were highly favorable. Regarding efficacy, post-intervention results were not significant, except for self-objectification, which showed a significantly greater decrease in the DB condition compared with the AOC condition at all time-points of follow-ups (Cohen's d = -0.31 to -0.76). At follow-up, the DB condition showed significantly greater decreases in appearance-ideal internalization, drive for muscularity, self-objectification, ED and MD symptoms at 1-month, 6-month, and 1-year follow-ups (d = -0.33 to -0.92) compared with the AOC condition. Significant increases were observed in the DB compared with the AOC condition for body appreciation at 1-month, 6-month, and 1-year follow-ups (d = 0.31-0.81).

DISCUSSION

Results support the feasibility, acceptability, and efficacy of the PRIDE Body Project up to 1-year in Brazilian cisgender gay and bisexual men.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Brazilian Registry of Clinical Trials (ReBEC; available at http://www.ensaiosclinicos.gov.br/) number of registration: RBR-62fctqz.

Exploring risk factors of drive for muscularity and muscle dysmorphia in male adolescents from a resource-limited setting in Burkina Faso

In low-income countries, Muscle Dysmorphia (MD) has only been investigated in adult south African amateur-bodybuilders. To date, there is no epidemic study about MD or its cardinal symptom "drive for muscularity" (DFM) and its impact on young men's lives in African low-income settings. We analyzed a population-representative cross-sectional study of 838 adolescent males aged 12-20 in the rural northwestern Burkina Faso. Participants were assessed for MD with the research criteria of Pope and its cardinal symptom DFM based on the DFM scale (DMS). Since DFM has not been studied in a comparable sample so far, all possible influencing variables were examined exploratively in a linear regression model. Many respondents were underweight (41.5%) and few overweight (1.3%). No-one met standard clinical MD criteria. While 60.1% of 837 wished to be more muscular, only 8.7% of 824 desired a lower body-fat percentage. Regression analysis revealed that higher DMS scores were associated with greater internalization of the muscular body ideal, going to school, living in a rural area, older age, and a history of having faced sexual harassment or assault, but not with media exposure. Our results show that levels of DMS in Burkinabe adolescents were elevated. Risk factors for DFM in environmental circumstances where undernutrition and poverty are common are discussed.

The Associations between Obsessive Compulsive Personality Traits, Self-Efficacy, and Exercise Addiction

Exercise addiction refers to maladaptive exercise patterns involving compulsivity and addiction-like behaviors. Exercise addiction has been found to relate to negative physical and mental health outcomes such as heart abnormalities, physical injuries, and interpersonal conflicts. Based on the social cognitive theory, this study investigated the extent to which the interplay of obsessive compulsive personality disorder (OCPD) traits and self-efficacy beliefs would influence the development and maintenance of exercise addiction. A total of 1228 college students in the United States responded to an online survey. Based on cut-off scores of the Revised Exercise Addiction Inventory, the prevalence estimates of exercise addiction were 4.0% for males and 1.8% for females. Results showed that males are more prone to exercise addiction than females. Also, OCPD traits and self-efficacy significantly predicted exercise addiction after controlling for age and sex. Self-efficacy acted as a moderator in influencing the relationship between OCPD traits and exercise addiction, especially for females. At high levels of self-efficacy, more OCPD traits were significantly associated with a higher risk of exercise addiction. However, at low levels of self-efficacy, there was no association between OCPD traits and exercise addiction. The findings suggest that public education and intervention for exercise addiction should attend to the interplay between personality factors and sex.

Examination of the association of muscle dysmorphia (bigorexia) and social physique anxiety in the male bodybuilders

PURPOSE

This study aimed to examine the association between social physique anxiety and muscular dystrophy in bodybuilders.

DESIGN AND METHODS

This cross-sectional study included 384 male bodybuilders.

FINDINGS

5.7% of the participants reported muscular dystrophy. Younger age and use of protein powder were associated with higher scores on the muscle dysmorphic disorder Inventory. Higher muscular dystrophy was associated with higher social physique anxiety.

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS

Young male bodybuilders using protein powder are at increased risk to suffer from social physique anxiety and muscular dystrophy.

The Association of Muscle Dysmorphia, Social Physique Anxiety, and Body Checking Behavior in Male College Students With Weight Exercise

Objectives: To investigate the association between muscle dysmorphia (MD), social physique anxiety, and body-checking behavior in male college students with weight exercise, and to reveal the association between them.

Methods: A total of 492 male college students with weight exercise from 18 Fitness Clubs or bodybuilding centers in Chengdu, China, participated in this study.

Results: First, the social physique anxiety scores, body checking frequency, and weight exercise behavior (i.e., frequency, time, and intensity) in male college students with MD were significantly higher than those without MD; it indicated that the higher the exercise frequency they had, the longer the exercise time they cost, and the higher exercise intensity carried out, and the higher the social physique anxiety scores tended to be, the higher the frequency of body checking on “global muscles,” “chest and shoulder muscles,” “comparison with others” and “posture measurement” they did. Second, the mediating effect of the social physique anxiety on MD and body checking was established in the “MD → global muscle checking,” “MD → chest and shoulder muscle checking,” “MD → comparison with others,” and “muscle dysmorphia → posture measurement.”

Conclusion: Male college students with MD not only have a higher social physique anxiety, but also a higher frequency of body-checking behavior than the ordinary individuals. Social physique anxiety is one of the important mediating factors to those with MD which affects the body-checking behavior.

Role of parental confirmation in body dissatisfaction and body change behaviors among college men

To examine how the components of confirmation (i.e., acceptance and challenge) from mother and father have an indirect effect on college men's body dissatisfaction through self-concept, and if body dissatisfaction, in turn, is related to body change behaviors. Participants: College men (N = 237) aged 18-25 from two large universities completed an online survey. Methods: Structural equation modeling was conducted to test hypothesized mediation model. Results: Maternal acceptance had negative indirect effects on body dissatisfaction through self-concept, and body dissatisfaction, in turn, was positively related to body change behaviors. Mother challenge emerged as a near-significant direct and positive predictor of muscularity enhancement behaviors. None of the paternal variables significantly contributed to the model. Conclusions: Mother acceptance may contribute to sons' positive view of self and their appearance, potentially reducing the likelihood of their engagement in body change behaviors. Intervention can target parent-child communication and enhancement of college men's self-concept.

Relationship between orthorexia nervosa, muscle dysmorphic disorder (bigorexia), and self-confidence levels in male students

PURPOSE

This study aims to determine the prevalence of muscular dysmorphic disorder (bigorexia) and orthorexia nervosa in male students and to evaluate the relationship between these conditions and self-esteem.

DESIGN AND METHODS

This cross-sectional study included 430 male students.

FINDINGS

While the tendency of orthorexia among faculty of sports sciences (FSSs)' students was 28.8%, this rate was 16.3% for nursing department (ND); for tendency to bigorexia, it was found to be 16.3% in FSS students and 6% in ND. There was a negative correlation between the ortorexia scale and self-confidence scales. And, there was a week negative correlation between the bigorexia Inventory and the self-confidence scale.

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS

This study is thought to help understand the factors affecting body image perception and to identify risky situations especially in young university students. It is thought that health professionals will guide the planning of initiatives that will help individuals gain healthy lifestyle behaviors.

Relationships Between Maternal Factors and Weight Loss Attempts Among Urban Male and Female Adolescents Living in Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa

PURPOSE

South Africa is undergoing rapid urban transition favoring ideals of thinness, which increases eating disorders risk for female adolescents, whereas older women continue to uphold corpulence as a female cultural value. This study aimed to assess the potential conflicting relationship between urban male and female adolescents' weight loss attempts (WLA) and maternal body image norms within households.

METHODS

The study included a longitudinal sample of mother-daughter and mother-son pairs from the Birth to Twenty Plus Cohort (N = 1,613), using data collected at 13, 17, and 22 years. Sociodemographic characteristics, eating attitudes, WLA, and body mass index were assessed in mothers and their offspring. Relationships between maternal factors and offspring's WLA were assessed using both logistic regression and structural equation modeling.

RESULTS

More females had WLA compared with their male counterparts at 13, 17, and 22 years. Multivariable models showed an independent positive association between maternal household socioeconomic status and boys' WLA at 13 years, whereas independent negative associations were found between mothers' body mass index and boys' WLA at 17 and 22 years. Mothers' age and sons' WLA at 22 years showed an independent positive association. No association was found between maternal factors and daughters' WLA.

CONCLUSIONS

Strong gender-differentiated intergenerational patterns were observed between maternal factors and offspring's WLA from early adolescence to early adulthood. The lack of relationship between maternal factors and daughters' behavior in contrast to that of sons suggests that Western acculturation may pose a greater risk for females to modern body image disturbances and eating disorders.