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Sarmiento LF, Lopes da Cunha P, Tabares S, Tafet G, Gouveia Jr A. Decision-making under stress: A psychological and neurobiological integrative model. Brain Behav Immun Health 2024; 38:100766. [PMID: 38694793 PMCID: PMC11061251 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbih.2024.100766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2023] [Revised: 03/14/2024] [Accepted: 03/28/2024] [Indexed: 05/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Understanding the impact of stress on cognitive processes, particularly decision-making, is crucial as it underpins behaviors essential for survival. However, research in this domain has yielded disparate results, with inconsistencies evident across stress-induction paradigms and drug administration protocols designed to investigate specific stress pathways or neuromodulators. Building upon empirical studies, this research identifies a multifaceted matrix of variables contributing to the divergent findings. This matrix encompasses factors such as the temporal proximity between stressors and decision tasks, the nature of stressors and decision contexts, individual characteristics including psychobiological profiles and affective states at the time of decision-making and even cultural influences. In response to these complexities, we propose a comprehensive model that integrates these relevant factors and their intricate interplay to elucidate the mechanisms governing decision-making during stressful events. By synthesizing these insights, our model not only refines existing paradigms but also provides a framework for future study designs, offering avenues for theoretical advancements and translational developments in the field of stress's impact on cognitive functions. This research contributes to a deeper understanding of the nuanced relationship between stress and decision-making, ultimately advancing our knowledge of cognitive processes under challenging conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis Felipe Sarmiento
- BioTechMed Center, Brain & Mind Electrophysiology Laboratory, Multimedia Systems Department, Faculty of Electronics, Telecommunications and Informatics, Gdansk University of Technology, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Pamela Lopes da Cunha
- Cognitive Neuroscience Center, University of San Andres, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- National Council for Scientific and Technical Research (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Sonia Tabares
- International Foundation for the Development of Neurosciences, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Gustavo Tafet
- International Foundation for the Development of Neurosciences, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Texas A&M University, Texas, USA
| | - Amauri Gouveia Jr
- Laboratory of Neuroscience and Behavior, Federal University from Pará, Brazil
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2
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Rusu AS. Endogenous Opioids and Volunteering: On the Evolutionary Significance of Helping Others. ADVANCES IN NEUROBIOLOGY 2024; 35:251-265. [PMID: 38874727 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-45493-6_13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2024]
Abstract
The human tendency to help others in need has been subject to trans-, inter-, and multidisciplinary studies (e.g., anthropology, neurobiology, evolutionary psychology, economy), within the frame of studying the mechanisms and adaptive significance of human prosocial behavior. Volunteering directed to unrelated and unfamiliar individuals is one common form of such helping behavior. Helping others may be adaptive for a species at a macro-level, which in turn is mediated by neurobiological mechanisms. A key target for analysis of the neurobiological underpinnings of volunteering is the endogenous opioid system (EOS). This chapter discusses EOS activity as a potential mediator of volunteering behavior. Evidence of the congruence between EOS involvement in social group behavior and social bonding and the role of these phenomena in volunteerism is reviewed. Models and empirical evidence of the mechanisms and adaptive value of helping unrelated others are discussed and integrated, including the mammalian caregiving system, the neurobiological model of prosocial behavior, synchrony promoting social bonding, and stress-driven motivation of prosocial action in immediate needs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alina Simona Rusu
- Department of Fundamental Sciences, Faculty of Animal Science and Biotechnologies, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Cluj-Napoca, Romania.
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3
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Kyriakou A, Mavrou I. What language does your heart speak? The influence of foreign language on moral judgements and emotions related to unrealistic and realistic moral dilemmas. Cogn Emot 2023:1-19. [PMID: 37715522 DOI: 10.1080/02699931.2023.2258577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2022] [Revised: 06/07/2023] [Accepted: 07/14/2023] [Indexed: 09/17/2023]
Abstract
Emotional attenuation in a second language is believed to be one of the main causes of the Moral Foreign Language effect (MFLe). However, evidence on the mediating role of emotion in the relationship between language and moral judgements is limited and mainly derives from unrealistic moral dilemmas. We conducted two studies to investigate (1) whether the MFLe is present in both unrealistic (Study 1) and realistic (Study 2) moral dilemmas, and (2) whether this effect can be attributed to reduced emotionality. In Study 1, the MFLe was found in the moral judgements made by Spanish-English bilinguals. However, the same pattern was not observed in Greek Cypriot-English bilinguals' moral judgements, and this result was attributed to the prominent role of English in Cyprus. In Study 2, the MFLe extended to realistic moral dilemmas when the outcome of the action entailed the violation of a social norm. Study 1 and Study 2 also revealed that these bilinguals experienced a wide range of emotions in their L1 and L2, which did not differ significantly across languages. Mediation analyses further indicated that the MFLe was not mediated by emotional blunting, which made us consider alternative explanations for the MFLe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Kyriakou
- Departamento de Lenguas Aplicadas, Universidad Antonio de Nebrija, Madrid, Spain
| | - Irini Mavrou
- Departamento de Lenguas Aplicadas, Universidad Antonio de Nebrija, Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Nebrija en Cognición, Universidad Antonio de Nebrija, Madrid, Spain
- Department of Culture, Communication and Media, IOE, UCL's Faculty of Education and Society, University College London, UK
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4
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Rrapaj A, Landau AM, Winterdahl M. Exploration of possible sex bias in acute social stress research: a semi-systematic review. Acta Neuropsychiatr 2023; 35:205-217. [PMID: 36876342 DOI: 10.1017/neu.2023.16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/07/2023]
Abstract
Stress can have a significant impact on the daily lives of individuals and can increase vulnerability to a number of medical conditions. This study aims to estimate the ratio of male to female participants in acute social stress research in healthy individuals. We examined original research articles published over the last 20 years. Each article was screened to determine the total number of female and male participants. We extracted data from 124 articles involving a total of 9539 participants. A total of 4221 (44.2%) participants were female, 5056 (53.0%) were male and 262 (2.7%) were unreported. Articles incorporating only females were significantly underrepresented compared to articles incorporating only males. Forty articles (63.5%) which presented data from both females and males, failed to analyse and interpret the results by sex, a significant methodological limitation. In conclusion, in the literature published over the last 20 years, female participants are significantly underrepresented. In the studies where females are represented, severe methodological limitations are apparent. Researchers should be conscious of sexual dimorphism, menstrual phase and use of hormonal contraception, which may impact the interpretation of their results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Artemida Rrapaj
- Translational Neuropsychiatry Unit, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Anne M Landau
- Translational Neuropsychiatry Unit, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
- Department of Nuclear Medicine and PET-Centre, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Michael Winterdahl
- Translational Neuropsychiatry Unit, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
- Department of Nuclear Medicine and PET-Centre, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
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5
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Zhao F, Behnisch T. The Enigmatic CA2: Exploring the Understudied Region of the Hippocampus and Its Involvement in Parkinson's Disease. Biomedicines 2023; 11:1996. [PMID: 37509636 PMCID: PMC10377725 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines11071996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2023] [Revised: 07/12/2023] [Accepted: 07/13/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disease that affects both motor and non-motor functions. Although motor impairment is a prominent clinical sign of PD, additional neurological symptoms may also occur, particularly in the preclinical and prodromal stages. Among these symptoms, social cognitive impairment is common and detrimental. This article aims to review non-motor symptoms in PD patients, focusing on social cognitive deficits. It also examines the specific characteristics of the CA2 region and its involvement in social behavior, highlighting recent advances and perspectives. Additionally, this review provides critical insights into and analysis of research conducted in rodents and humans, which may help improve the understanding of the current status of putative therapeutic strategies for social cognitive dysfunction in PD and potential avenues related to the function of the hippocampal CA2 region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fang Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Thomas Behnisch
- State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology and MOE Frontiers Center for Brain Science, Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
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6
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Huang Z, Xiao X, Liu C, Cai Q, Liu C, Tan Q, Zhan Y. Acute Social Stress Influences Moral Decision-Making Under Different Social Distances in Young Healthy Men. Exp Psychol 2023; 70:171-179. [PMID: 37589233 DOI: 10.1027/1618-3169/a000586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/18/2023]
Abstract
Acute social stress has been shown to influence social decision-making. This study aimed to examine how social distance modulates the influence of acute social stress on young male moral decision-making. Sixty healthy male college students were randomly divided to be exposed to the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) or a placebo version of the TSST (P-TSST) before they performed moral decision-making tasks. The results showed that participants under acute social stress showed obvious increases in subjective stress perception, negative affect, salivary cortisol, and alpha-amylase and made more altruistic choices for others compared to the control group. However, social distance regulates the promotion of this acute social stress, with the promotion effect being stronger in socially distant others. Furthermore, the interpersonal order difference of different social distances in altruistic decisions is smaller in low-conflict dilemmas than in high-conflict dilemmas. In addition, an increase in salivary cortisol was positively correlated with altruistic choices toward both acquaintances and strangers, whereas an increase in salivary alpha-amylase was only positively correlated with altruistic choices toward friends. The results suggest that social distance modulates the promotion of acute social stress on moral decision-making, which might stem from the divergent effects of cortisol and alpha-amylase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziyan Huang
- Department of Psychology, Hunan University of Science and Technology, Xiangtan, Hunan, PR China
| | - Xiao Xiao
- Hunan First Normal University, Changsha, Hunan, PR China
| | - Changlin Liu
- Department of Psychology, Hunan University of Science and Technology, Xiangtan, Hunan, PR China
| | - Qinhong Cai
- Department of Psychology, Hunan University of Science and Technology, Xiangtan, Hunan, PR China
| | - Chan Liu
- Department of Psychology, Hunan University of Science and Technology, Xiangtan, Hunan, PR China
| | - Qianbao Tan
- Department of Psychology, Hunan University of Science and Technology, Xiangtan, Hunan, PR China
| | - Youlong Zhan
- Department of Psychology, Hunan University of Science and Technology, Xiangtan, Hunan, PR China
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7
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Speer SPH, Martinovici A, Smidts A, Boksem MAS. The acute effects of stress on dishonesty are moderated by individual differences in moral default. Sci Rep 2023; 13:3984. [PMID: 36894617 PMCID: PMC9998439 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-31056-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2022] [Accepted: 03/06/2023] [Indexed: 03/11/2023] Open
Abstract
In daily life we regularly must decide whether to act dishonestly for personal gain or to be honest and maintain a positive image of ourselves. While evidence suggests that acute stress influences moral decisions, it is unclear whether stress increases or decreases immoral behavior. Here, we hypothesize that stress, through its effects on cognitive control, has different effects on moral decision making for different individuals, depending on their moral default. We test this hypothesis by combining a task which allows for inconspicuously measuring spontaneous cheating with a well-established stress induction task. Our findings confirm our hypothesis, revealing that effects of stress on dishonesty are not uniform, but instead depend on the individual: for those who are relatively dishonest, stress increases dishonesty, whereas for participants who are relatively honest stress makes them more honest. These findings go a long way in resolving the conflicting findings in the literature on the effects of stress on moral decisions, suggesting that stress affects dishonesty differently for different individuals, depending on their moral default.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian P H Speer
- Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University, Rotterdam, The Netherlands. .,Princeton Neuroscience Institute, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA.
| | - Ana Martinovici
- Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ale Smidts
- Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Maarten A S Boksem
- Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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8
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Xie Z, Wu J, Wang X, Zheng Z, Liu C. Dissociating the Multiple Psychological Processes in Everyday Moral Decision-Making with the CAN Algorithm. Behav Sci (Basel) 2022; 12:bs12120501. [PMID: 36546985 PMCID: PMC9774618 DOI: 10.3390/bs12120501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2022] [Revised: 11/29/2022] [Accepted: 12/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In previous research frameworks, researchers used an everyday dilemma to test people's altruistic versus egoistic inclination. However, there are at least three different psychological processes that could induce altruistic over egoistic decisions, i.e., stronger altruistic sensitivity, weaker egoistic sensitivity, and stronger overall action versus inaction preference. To dissociate these different psychological processes, we developed new materials and applied the CAN algorithm from traditional moral dilemma research in two studies. In Study 1, we designed scenarios varying with a 2 (egoistic/non-egoistic) × 2 (non-altruistic/altruistic) structure. Then, we recruited 209 participants to validate the scenarios and filtered six scene frameworks with 24 scenarios in total. In Study 2, we recruited 747 participants to judge whether they would conduct behavior that is simultaneously altruistic (or non-altruistic) and egoistic (or non-egoistic) in the filtered scenarios obtained from Study 1. They also filled in the Social Isolation Scale, Distress Disclosure Scale, and some other demographic information. As we dissociated the psychological processes using the CAN algorithm, significant correlations between social isolation and distress disclosure and three parameters (i.e., altruistic tendency, egoistic tendency, and overall action/inaction preference) underlying the altruistic choice were revealed to varying degrees. Other individual differences in the psychological processes in everyday moral decision-making were further demonstrated. Our study provided materials and methodological protocols to dissociate the multiple psychological processes in everyday moral decision-making. It promotes our insights on everyday moral decisions from a differential psychological processes perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongju Xie
- Department of Sociology and Psychology, School of Public Administration, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China
| | - Junhong Wu
- Department of Sociology and Psychology, School of Public Administration, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China
| | - Xingyuan Wang
- Department of Sociology and Psychology, School of Public Administration, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China
| | - Ziyi Zheng
- School of Economics, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China
| | - Chuanjun Liu
- Department of Sociology and Psychology, School of Public Administration, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China
- Institute of Psychology, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, China
- Correspondence:
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9
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Li Z, Gao L, Zhang L. Anticipatory Stress Increases Deontological Inclinations: The Mediating Role of Emotional Valence. Behav Sci (Basel) 2022; 12:bs12120476. [PMID: 36546959 PMCID: PMC9774951 DOI: 10.3390/bs12120476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2022] [Revised: 11/19/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous studies have explored the differences in moral judgments under normal situations and acute stress using the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST). The present study examined whether anticipatory stress (i.e., induced by an anticipated speech) could elicit similar effects and further explored the mediation of emotional responses between acute stress and moral judgments with a process-dissociation approach. Fifty-three undergraduate students (20 males and 33 females) were randomly assigned to the stress and control groups. In the first stage, they were instructed to prepare a public speech (the stress group) or just recall events during the previous vacation (the control group). In the second stage, they reported emotional valence and arousal for each moral dilemma in a set of 12 moral dilemmas, followed by judgments on moral acceptability of the agent's action. The manipulation check confirmed that anticipatory stress was reliably induced, as indicated in both self-reported and physiological data. The traditional dilemma analysis revealed that participants in the stress group would make fewer utilitarian judgments than those in the control group. The process dissociation (PD) analyses further revealed that the stress group exhibited higher deontological inclinations than the control group, but no significant differences in utilitarian inclinations. Emotional valence played a mediating role in the association between stress and deontological inclinations. To sum up, our study extended the investigation of the relationship between acute stress and moral judgment to anticipatory stress, clarified its distinct impact on deontological and utilitarian inclinations, and revealed the mediating effect of emotional valence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongquan Li
- Department of Psychology, School of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Liuping Gao
- Jiangsu Provincial Education Examination Authority, Nanjing 210036, China
| | - Lisong Zhang
- School of Sociology and Population, Nanjing University of Posts and Telecommunications, Nanjing 210049, China
- Correspondence:
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10
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Vieira JB, Pierzchajlo S, Jangard S, Marsh AA, Olsson A. Acute anxiety during the COVID-19 pandemic was associated with higher levels of everyday altruism. Sci Rep 2022; 12:18619. [PMID: 36329157 PMCID: PMC9632580 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-23415-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 10/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Prior laboratory research has suggested that humans may become more prosocial in stressful or threatening situations, but it is unknown whether the link between prosociality and defense generalizes to real-life. Here, we examined the association between defensive responses to a real-world threat (the COVID-19 pandemic) and everyday altruism. Four independent samples of 150 (N = 600) US residents were recruited online at 4 different timepoints, and self-report measures of perceived COVID-19 threat, defensive emotions (e.g., stress and anxiety), and everyday altruism were collected. Our operationalization of defensive emotions was inspired by the threat imminence framework, an ecological model of how humans and animals respond to varying levels of threat. We found that perceived COVID-19 threat was associated with higher levels of everyday altruism (assessed by the Self-report Altruism scale). Importantly, there was a robust association between experiencing acute anxiety and high physiological arousal during the pandemic (responses typically characteristic of higher perceived threat imminence), and propensity to engage in everyday altruism. Non-significant or negative associations were found with less acute defensive responses like stress. These findings support a real-life relation between defensive and altruistic motivation in humans, which may be modulated by perceived threat imminence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joana B. Vieira
- grid.8391.30000 0004 1936 8024Department of Psychology, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK ,grid.4714.60000 0004 1937 0626Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Stephen Pierzchajlo
- grid.10548.380000 0004 1936 9377Department of Psychology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Simon Jangard
- grid.4714.60000 0004 1937 0626Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Abigail A. Marsh
- grid.213910.80000 0001 1955 1644Department of Psychology, Georgetown University, Washington, DC USA
| | - Andreas Olsson
- grid.4714.60000 0004 1937 0626Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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11
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Nitschke JP, Forbes PA, Lamm C. Does stress make us more—or less—prosocial? A systematic review and meta-analysis of the effects of acute stress on prosocial behaviours using economic games. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2022; 142:104905. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2022] [Revised: 09/16/2022] [Accepted: 10/02/2022] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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12
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Bo O'Connor B, Fowler Z. How Imagination and Memory Shape the Moral Mind. PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY REVIEW 2022; 27:226-249. [PMID: 36062349 DOI: 10.1177/10888683221114215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Interdisciplinary research has proposed a multifaceted view of human cognition and morality, establishing that inputs from multiple cognitive and affective processes guide moral decisions. However, extant work on moral cognition has largely overlooked the contributions of episodic representation. The ability to remember or imagine a specific moment in time plays a broadly influential role in cognition and behavior. Yet, existing research has only begun exploring the influence of episodic representation on moral cognition. Here, we evaluate the theoretical connections between episodic representation and moral cognition, review emerging empirical work revealing how episodic representation affects moral decision-making, and conclude by highlighting gaps in the literature and open questions. We argue that a comprehensive model of moral cognition will require including the episodic memory system, further delineating its direct influence on moral thought, and better understanding its interactions with other mental processes to fundamentally shape our sense of right and wrong.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Zoë Fowler
- University at Albany, State University of New York, USA
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13
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Ben Simon E, Vallat R, Rossi A, Walker MP. Sleep loss leads to the withdrawal of human helping across individuals, groups, and large-scale societies. PLoS Biol 2022; 20:e3001733. [PMID: 35998121 PMCID: PMC9398015 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3001733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2022] [Accepted: 06/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Humans help each other. This fundamental feature of homo sapiens has been one of the most powerful forces sculpting the advent of modern civilizations. But what determines whether humans choose to help one another? Across 3 replicating studies, here, we demonstrate that sleep loss represents one previously unrecognized factor dictating whether humans choose to help each other, observed at 3 different scales (within individuals, across individuals, and across societies). First, at an individual level, 1 night of sleep loss triggers the withdrawal of help from one individual to another. Moreover, fMRI findings revealed that the withdrawal of human helping is associated with deactivation of key nodes within the social cognition brain network that facilitates prosociality. Second, at a group level, ecological night-to-night reductions in sleep across several nights predict corresponding next-day reductions in the choice to help others during day-to-day interactions. Third, at a large-scale national level, we demonstrate that 1 h of lost sleep opportunity, inflicted by the transition to Daylight Saving Time, reduces real-world altruistic helping through the act of donation giving, established through the analysis of over 3 million charitable donations. Therefore, inadequate sleep represents a significant influential force determining whether humans choose to help one another, observable across micro- and macroscopic levels of civilized interaction. The implications of this effect may be non-trivial when considering the essentiality of human helping in the maintenance of cooperative, civil society, combined with the reported decline in sufficient sleep in many first-world nations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eti Ben Simon
- Center for Human Sleep Science, Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley, California, United States of America
| | - Raphael Vallat
- Center for Human Sleep Science, Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley, California, United States of America
| | - Aubrey Rossi
- Center for Human Sleep Science, Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley, California, United States of America
| | - Matthew P. Walker
- Center for Human Sleep Science, Department of Psychology, University of California, Berkeley, California, United States of America
- Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, University of California, Berkeley, California, United States of America
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14
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Variations in progesterone and estradiol across the menstrual cycle predict generosity toward socially close others. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2022; 140:105720. [PMID: 35305405 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2022.105720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2021] [Revised: 03/06/2022] [Accepted: 03/08/2022] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
The human tendency to share goods with others at personal costs declines across the perceived social distance to them, an observation termed social discounting. Cumulating evidence suggests that social preferences are influenced by the agent's neurohormonal state. Here we tested whether endogenous fluctuations in steroid hormone compositions across the menstrual cycle were associated with differences in generosity in a social discounting task. Adult healthy, normally-cycling, women made incentivized decisions between high selfish rewards for themselves and lower generous rewards for themselves but also for other individuals at variable social distances from their social environment. We determined participants' current levels of menstrual-cycle-dependent steroid hormones via salivary sampling. Results revealed that the increase in progesterone levels as well as the decrease in estradiol levels, but not changes in testosterone or cortisol, across the menstrual cycle, accounted for increased generosity specifically toward socially close others, but not toward remote strangers.
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15
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Salehi M, Zimon G, Ghaderi AR, Hasan ZA. The Relationship between Prevention and Panic from COVID-19, Ethical Principles, Life Expectancy, Anxiety, Depression and Stress. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:5841. [PMID: 35627379 PMCID: PMC9142045 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19105841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2021] [Revised: 05/01/2022] [Accepted: 05/03/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The present study aims to assess the relationship between prevention and panic from COVID-19, ethical principles, life expectancy, anxiety, depression, and stress in auditors and financial managers of small- and medium-sized Iraqi firms. In other words, this paper seeks to answer the question of whether different types of prevention and panic from COVID-19 can enhance the ethical principles, life expectancy, anxiety, depression, and stress, or not. The study method is practical in its objective and descriptive survey procedure. The study's statistical population includes 185 employed auditors in audit firms, and 215 financial managers of small- and medium-sized Iraqi firms were selected as a sample of the study using the Cochran Sampling Method. In this paper, PLS tests are used to assess the effect of independent variables on the dependent variable. The results indicate no significant relationship between prevention from COVID-19 and ethical principles and life expectancy. However, the association between prevention from COVID-19 and anxiety, depression, and stress, and between panic from COVID-19 and ethical principles, life expectancy, anxiety, depression, and stress is positive and significant. The higher the panic from COVID-19, the more ethical principles, life expectancy, anxiety, depression, and stress. Since no study has been carried out so far on the effect of prevention and panic from COVID-19, ethical principles, life expectancy, depression, and stress in Iraqi firms, the present study results can provide valuable information and contribute to the development of science and knowledge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahdi Salehi
- Department of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad 9177948974, Iran
| | - Grzegorz Zimon
- Department of Finance, Banking, and Accountancy, Faculty of Management, Rzeszow University of Technology, 35-959 Rzeszow, Poland
| | - Ali Reza Ghaderi
- Department of Clinical Psychology, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad 9177948974, Iran;
| | - Zinab Ahmed Hasan
- Department of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Imamreza International University of Mashhad, Mashhad 9137913316, Iran;
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16
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Shukri M, Jones F, Conner M. Theory of planned behaviour, psychological stressors and intention to avoid violating traffic rules: A Multi-Level modelling analysis. ACCIDENT; ANALYSIS AND PREVENTION 2022; 169:106624. [PMID: 35272222 DOI: 10.1016/j.aap.2022.106624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2021] [Revised: 02/15/2022] [Accepted: 03/01/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
This study applies a multilevel model approach to test the predictive effect of the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) plus moral norm, past behaviour and crash history to account for intentions to avoid traffic violations within the context of commuting to or from work. This study also extended the theory by adding psychological stressors of perceived stress and work-family conflict. In this study, we systematically tested the direct and mediated models. A sample of Malaysian drivers (N = 482; 44.6% were men and 55.4% women), with the average age of 36.7 years (SD = 10.0) was surveyed. The self-report questionnaire contained multiple observations nested within individual drivers, with respect to 3 different driving violations. As predicted, multi-level modelling showed that within-person predictor variables of all the TPB components emerged as independent predictors, with injunctive norm being the most predictive variable, followed by self-efficacy and cognitive attitude. Intention was also predicted by moral norms and crash history. Between-person variables, gender, commuting hours and work-family conflict also had direct influences on intention (i.e., men and those with longer commuting hours and higher work-family conflict reported lower intentions). Substantial support for the mediation model was found, confirming that stressors indirectly influence intentions through effects on the social cognitive components. The implications of the linkage between the social cognition and stressors for developing potential broader interventions focusing on multiple violation behaviours and designing appropriate safety policies to reduce commuting crashes are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madihah Shukri
- Department of Psychology and Counseling, University Malaysia Terengganu, Malaysia.
| | - Fiona Jones
- School of Psychology, University of Leeds, UK.
| | - Mark Conner
- School of Psychology, University of Leeds, UK.
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17
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Schulreich S, Tusche A, Kanske P, Schwabe L. Altruism under Stress: Cortisol Negatively Predicts Charitable Giving and Neural Value Representations Depending on Mentalizing Capacity. J Neurosci 2022; 42:3445-3460. [PMID: 35288436 PMCID: PMC9034777 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1870-21.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2021] [Revised: 02/09/2022] [Accepted: 02/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Altruism, defined as costly other-regarding behavior, varies considerably across people and contexts. One prominent context in which people frequently must decide on how to socially act is under stress. How does stress affect altruistic decision-making and through which neurocognitive mechanisms? To address these questions, we assessed neural activity associated with charitable giving under stress. Human participants (males and females) completed a charitable donation task before and after they underwent either a psychosocial stressor or a control manipulation, while their brain activity was measured using functional magnetic resonance imaging. As the ability to infer other people's mental states (i.e., mentalizing) predicts prosocial giving and may be susceptible to stress, we examined whether stress effects on altruism depend on participants' general capacity to mentalize, as assessed in an independent task. Although our stress manipulation per se had no influence on charitable giving, increases in the stress hormone cortisol were associated with reductions in donations in participants with high mentalizing capacity, but not in low mentalizers. Multivariate neural response patterns in the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) were less predictive of postmanipulation donations in high mentalizers with increased cortisol, indicating decreased value coding, and this effect mediated the (moderated) association between cortisol increases and reduced donations. Our findings provide novel insights into the modulation of altruistic decision-making by suggesting an impact of the stress hormone cortisol on mentalizing-related neurocognitive processes, which in turn results in decreased altruism. The DLPFC appears to play a key role in mediating this cortisol-related shift in altruism.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Altruism is a fundamental building block of our society. Emerging evidence indicates a major role of acute stress and stress-related neuromodulators in social behavior and decision-making. How and through which mechanisms stress may impact altruism remains elusive. We observed that the stress hormone cortisol was linked to diminished altruistic behavior. This effect was mediated by reduced value representations in the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and critically depended on the individual capacity to infer mental states of others. Our findings provide novel insights into the modulation of human altruism linked to stress-hormone dynamics and into the involved sociocognitive and neural mechanisms, with important implications for future developments of more targeted interventions for stress-related decrements in social behavior and social cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Schulreich
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Faculty of Psychology and Human Movement Science, Universität Hamburg, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Anita Tusche
- Queen's Neuroeconomics Laboratory, Departments of Psychology and Economics, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario K7L 3N6, Canada
- Division of the Humanities and Social Sciences, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125
| | - Philipp Kanske
- Institute of Clinical Psychology and Behavioral Neuroscience, Faculty of Psychology, Technische Universität Dresden, 01187 Dresden, Germany
| | - Lars Schwabe
- Department of Cognitive Psychology, Faculty of Psychology and Human Movement Science, Universität Hamburg, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
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18
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Freitas CCMDC, Osório FDL. Moral judgment and hormones: A systematic literature review. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0265693. [PMID: 35385511 PMCID: PMC8985980 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0265693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2021] [Accepted: 03/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
This systematic review of the literature aims to evaluate possible associations between moral judgment and hormones. The electronic databases PsycINFO, PubMed, Scielo, Web of Science, Scopus, and LILACS were used. Twenty studies with different methodological designs were reviewed, covering the hormones cortisol, oxytocin, and testosterone, assessing aspects related to polymorphisms in receptor genes, endogenous levels, and exogenous administration. Taken together, the reviewed studies showed a trend towards an association between hormones and moral judgment, with important specificities involving biological, environmental, and individual aspects. Endogenous levels of cortisol, released under stress, showed negative associations with altruistic and utilitarian decisions only in highly emotionally charged dilemmas. Oxytocin receptor gene polymorphisms (rs2268498, rs237889, and rs2254298) and acute administration of this hormone were associated with variability in moral judgment, with sex as an important moderating variable. Testosterone studies have tended to show a positive association with utilitarian moral judgments, particularly in female and in individuals with low prenatal exposure to this hormone. Knowing how hormones influence moral judgment may help expand our understanding of the plurality of human behavior. However, this area of research is new and still little explored, which does not allow for conclusions with a high level of evidence. Subsequent research will benefit from methodological improvements to extend current findings.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Flávia de Lima Osório
- Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- National Institute for Science and Technology (INCT-TM, CNPq), Brasília, Brazil
- * E-mail:
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19
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Müller A, Georgiadou E, Birlin A, Laskowski NM, Jiménez-Murcia S, Fernández-Aranda F, Hillemacher T, de Zwaan M, Brand M, Steins-Loeber S. The Relationship of Shopping-Related Decisions with Materialistic Values Endorsement, Compulsive Buying-Shopping Disorder Symptoms and Everyday Moral Decision Making. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19074376. [PMID: 35410054 PMCID: PMC8998309 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19074376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2022] [Revised: 03/25/2022] [Accepted: 03/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Compulsive buying-shopping disorder (CBSD) is associated with high materialistic values endorsement and excessive purchasing of consumer goods. A subgroup of individuals with CBSD engage in socially unacceptable behaviors to continue shopping despite negative consequences. This investigation aimed at exploring possible links between ego-oriented shopping-related decisions, materialism, symptoms of CBSD and close-to-everyday moral decision making. METHODS In study 1, patients with CBSD were interviewed to develop a list of conflict situations, capturing typical shopping-related dilemmas. In study 2, the shopping-related dilemmas from study 1, standardized close-to-everyday moral dilemmas, the Material Values Scale and Pathological Buying Screener were administered to a web-based convenience sample (n = 274). RESULTS The main effects of a moderated hierarchical regression analysis revealed an association of more ego-oriented shopping-related decisions with both higher materialistic values endorsement and more CBSD symptoms, but not with everyday moral decision-making. However, a more egoistic everyday moral decision making style moderated the effect of CBSD symptoms on ego-oriented shopping related decisions. CONCLUSIONS The findings indicate that a more egoistic everyday moral decision making style is not directly linked to domain-specific shopping-related decision making but strengthens the link between symptoms of CBSD and ego-oriented shopping-related decisions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Astrid Müller
- Department of Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany; (A.B.); (N.M.L.); (M.d.Z.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-511-532-6569
| | - Ekaterini Georgiadou
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Paracelsus Medical University Nuremberg, 90419 Nuremberg, Germany; (E.G.); (T.H.)
| | - Annika Birlin
- Department of Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany; (A.B.); (N.M.L.); (M.d.Z.)
| | - Nora M. Laskowski
- Department of Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany; (A.B.); (N.M.L.); (M.d.Z.)
- Institute of Psychology, Technische Universität Braunschweig, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany
- University Clinic for Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, Medical Faculty, Campus East-Westphalia, Ruhr-University Bochum, 32312 Luebbecke, Germany
| | - Susana Jiménez-Murcia
- Ciber Fisiopatología Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERObn), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain; (S.J.-M.); (F.F.-A.)
- Psychoneurobiology of Eating and Addictive Behaviors Group, Neurosciences Programme, Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBELL), 08908 Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Psychiatry, University Hospital of Bellvitge, L’Hospitalet de Llobregat, 08907 Barcelona, Spain
- Psychiatry and Mental Health Group, Neuroscience Program, Institut d’Investigació Biomèdica de Bellvitge-IDIBELL, L’Hospitalet de Llobregat, 08907 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Fernando Fernández-Aranda
- Ciber Fisiopatología Obesidad y Nutrición (CIBERObn), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain; (S.J.-M.); (F.F.-A.)
- Psychoneurobiology of Eating and Addictive Behaviors Group, Neurosciences Programme, Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBELL), 08908 Barcelona, Spain
- Department of Psychiatry, University Hospital of Bellvitge, L’Hospitalet de Llobregat, 08907 Barcelona, Spain
- Psychiatry and Mental Health Group, Neuroscience Program, Institut d’Investigació Biomèdica de Bellvitge-IDIBELL, L’Hospitalet de Llobregat, 08907 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Thomas Hillemacher
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Paracelsus Medical University Nuremberg, 90419 Nuremberg, Germany; (E.G.); (T.H.)
| | - Martina de Zwaan
- Department of Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany; (A.B.); (N.M.L.); (M.d.Z.)
| | - Matthias Brand
- General Psychology, Cognition and Center for Behavioral Addiction Research (CeBAR), University of Duisburg-Essen, 47057 Duisburg, Germany;
- Erwin L. Hahn Institute for Magnetic Resonance Imaging, 45141 Essen, Germany
| | - Sabine Steins-Loeber
- Department of Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, Otto Friedrich University of Bamberg, 96047 Bamberg, Germany;
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20
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Zhao H, Li Y, Wang X, Kan Y, Xu S, Duan H. Inter-Brain Neural Mechanism Underlying Turn-Based Interaction Under Acute Stress in Women: A Hyperscanning Study Using Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 2022; 17:850-863. [PMID: 35079834 PMCID: PMC9433846 DOI: 10.1093/scan/nsac005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2020] [Revised: 12/10/2021] [Accepted: 01/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
With the ever-changing social environment, stress has exerted a substantial influence on social interaction. The present study examined the underlying cognitive and neural mechanism on how acute stress affected the real-time cooperative and competitive interaction with four hypothesized path models. We used the hyperscanning technique based on functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) device to examine brain-to-brain coherence within the dyads engaging Pattern Game under acute stress manipulated through Trier Social Stress Test for Groups. Behavioral results showed stressed dyads exhibited better cooperative performance and higher self-other overlap level during the cooperative session than dyads in the control group. The fNIRS results identified higher interpersonal brain synchronization in the right temporal-parietal junction (r-TPJ) stronger Granger causality from partner-to-builder during the cooperative session in the stress group when compared with the control group. Our results corroborated better performance in the cooperative context and further identified that brain-to-brain coherence in r-TPJ and self-other overlap serially mediated the effect of acute stress on cooperative performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanxuan Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Modern Teaching Technology, Ministry of Education, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi’an 710062, China
- Center for Magnetic Resonance Imaging Research & Key Laboratory of Applied Brain and Cognitive Sciences, School of Business and Management, Shanghai International Studies University, Shanghai 200083, China
| | - Yadan Li
- Key Laboratory of Modern Teaching Technology, Ministry of Education, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi’an 710062, China
| | - Xuewei Wang
- Centre for Mental Health Education, Xidian University, Xi’an, Shaanxi 710071, China
| | - Yuecui Kan
- School of Psychology, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi’an 710062, China
| | - Sihua Xu
- Center for Magnetic Resonance Imaging Research & Key Laboratory of Applied Brain and Cognitive Sciences, School of Business and Management, Shanghai International Studies University, Shanghai 200083, China
| | - Haijun Duan
- Correspondence should be addressed to Haijun Duan, Key Laboratory of Modern Teaching Technology, Ministry of Education, Yanta Campus, Shaanxi Normal University, 199 South Chang’ an Road, Xi’an 710062, China. E-mail:
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21
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Jedwab R, Khan AM, Russ J, Zaveri ED. Epidemics, pandemics, and social conflict: Lessons from the past and possible scenarios for COVID-19. WORLD DEVELOPMENT 2021; 147:105629. [PMID: 34866756 PMCID: PMC8633882 DOI: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/05/2021] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Since COVID-19 broke out, there has been renewed interest in understanding the economic and social dynamics of historical and more recent epidemics and pandemics, from the plagues of Antiquity to modern-day outbreaks like Ebola. These events can have significant impacts on the interplay between poverty and social cohesion, i.e. how different groups in society interact and cooperate to survive and prosper. To that effect, this paper provides a theory-driven overview of how social responses to past epidemics and pandemics were determined by the epidemiological and non-epidemiological characteristics of these outbreaks, with a particular focus on the conditions giving rise to scapegoating and persecution of minority groups, including migrants. We discuss existing theories as well as historical and quantitative studies, and highlight the cases where epidemics and pandemics may lead to milder or more severe forms of scapegoating. Finally, we conclude with a summary of priorities for future research on epidemics, pandemics and social conflict and discuss the possible effects and policy implications of COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Remi Jedwab
- George Washington University, Elliott School of International Affairs, 603 North Henry St, Alexandria, VA 22314, USA
| | - Amjad M Khan
- George Washington University, Elliott School of International Affairs, 603 North Henry St, Alexandria, VA 22314, USA
| | - Jason Russ
- George Washington University, Elliott School of International Affairs, 603 North Henry St, Alexandria, VA 22314, USA
| | - Esha D Zaveri
- George Washington University, Elliott School of International Affairs, 603 North Henry St, Alexandria, VA 22314, USA
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22
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Azulay H, Guy N, Shalev I, Pertzov Y, Israel S. Social evaluation under stress: Does acute stress affect social attributions and eye gaze? COMPREHENSIVE PSYCHONEUROENDOCRINOLOGY 2021; 8:100093. [PMID: 35757674 PMCID: PMC9216653 DOI: 10.1016/j.cpnec.2021.100093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2021] [Accepted: 10/11/2021] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Acute stress has been found to elicit pro-social, anti-social or null responses in humans. The causes for these contradicting findings are currently poorly understood, and may rise from subjects' characteristics, such as sex or hormonal status, as well as stimuli-based traits, such as group membership. In the current study, 120 subjects performed either the Trier Social Stress Test or a control (non-stress inducing) condition, followed by ranking displayed faces according to several attributes (e.g., trustworthiness, attractiveness, dominance). Participants' eye gaze was also tracked while viewing facial stimuli. We examined how acute stress interacts with participants' sex, female participants' hormonal status (hormonal contraceptives, early-follicular phase and mid-luteal phase), and the observed faces’ social group (ethnicity-based in-group or out-groups). In general, frequentist and Bayesian analyses showed that acute stress exposure did not affect social attributions or gaze behavior, nor did it interact with subjects' sex or the group membership of the observed faces. Interestingly, sub-group analyses showed that in females, acute stress interacted with hormonal status to yield heterogenous anti-social effects, such as post-stress reductions in perceived trustworthiness in the early-follicular phase, and lower perceived attractiveness in the mid-luteal phase. Given the small sample sizes for the sub-groups, these results should be viewed as preliminary until further replicated. Our results highlight the necessity for large-scale studies, particularly in females, to further refine existing theories regarding the nature and contexts by which acute stress elicits changes in social cognition and behavior. Bayesian analysis showed that stress did not broadly affect social attributions. However, females' hormonal status may interact with stress to modulate attributions. Attributions were highly biased against out-group members, regardless of stress. Stress also did not influence patterns of eye gaze to faces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hagar Azulay
- Department of Psychology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
- Truman Research Institute, Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Nitzan Guy
- Department of Psychology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Idan Shalev
- Department of Biobehavioral Health, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Yoni Pertzov
- Department of Psychology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Salomon Israel
- Department of Psychology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
- Scheinfeld Center of Human Genetics for the Social Sciences, Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Israel
- Corresponding author. Department of Psychology, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel.
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23
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Li T, Siu PM. Socioeconomic Status Moderates Age Differences in Empathic Concern. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci 2021; 76:507-517. [PMID: 31155671 DOI: 10.1093/geronb/gbz079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Older age has been found to relate to a higher level of empathic concern and prosocial tendencies in many studies, but there are also studies that found contradictory results. To fully understand the phenomenon, we propose that socioeconomic status (SES) is an important factor to consider when examining differences in empathic concern and prosocial tendencies. METHOD Two studies with Hong Kong Chinese participants were conducted to test the moderating effect of SES on the relationship between age and empathic concern. Both studies assessed participants' age, SES, empathic concern, and background information, while Study 2 also examined different indicators of prosocial tendencies. RESULTS SES consistently moderated age differences in empathic concern in the two studies. The positive association between age and empathic concern was only significant for individuals with low SES, but not for those with high SES. Study 2 further revealed that the positive indirect effects from age to prosocial tendencies through a higher level of empathic concern were only significant for individuals with low SES as well. DISCUSSION The results highlighted the importance to consider contextual factors when studying age-related differences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianyuan Li
- Department of Psychology and Centre for Psychosocial Health, Education University of Hong Kong, China
| | - Pok-Man Siu
- Department of Psychology and Centre for Psychosocial Health, Education University of Hong Kong, China
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24
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Zhen Z, Wang H, Zhu R, Zhang S, Jin T, Qin S, Liu C. Acute psychosocial stress increases third-party helping but not punishing behavior. Stress 2021; 24:430-441. [PMID: 32951512 DOI: 10.1080/10253890.2020.1825672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite extensive research on the effects of stress on the brain and behaviors, there is a debate whether stress promotes prosocial behaviors, especially acute stress due to intricate costly punishment in the ultimatum game. Therefore, the present study introduced an irrelevant third party to examine how acute stress and the triggered cortisol influence third parties' punishing and helping behaviors as more convincing altruistic behaviors. The 65 participants were exposed to a psychosocial stressor (n = 33) or a control condition (n = 32). Afterwards, two third-party intervention tasks (a token allocation task and criminal scenario judgment task) were completed, during which the participants, as an "irrelevant" third party, could choose whether to sacrifice their own interests to help the victim or punish the transgressor. Participants' affective states, heart rate, and salivary cortisol were repeatedly measured throughout the experiment. Results showed that acute stress can lead to more third-party helping behaviors but not more punishing behaviors. Specifically, participants under stress tended to transfer more monetary units to the victim in the token allocation task than the control-group participants, and they tended to help the victim in the scenario task. In contrast, there was no significant difference in punishing behavior between the stressed and control participants. These findings reveal that acute psychosocial stress triggers the "tend and befriend" response, which might reflect the prosocial intuition under acute stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhen Zhen
- Psychological Health Education and Counseling Center, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China
| | - Huagen Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning and IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
- Center for Collaboration and Innovation in Brain and Learning Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Brain Imaging and Connectomics, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Ruida Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning and IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
- Center for Collaboration and Innovation in Brain and Learning Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Brain Imaging and Connectomics, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Shen Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning and IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
- Center for Collaboration and Innovation in Brain and Learning Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Brain Imaging and Connectomics, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Tao Jin
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning and IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
- Center for Collaboration and Innovation in Brain and Learning Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Brain Imaging and Connectomics, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Shaozheng Qin
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning and IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
- Center for Collaboration and Innovation in Brain and Learning Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Brain Imaging and Connectomics, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Chao Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning and IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
- Center for Collaboration and Innovation in Brain and Learning Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Brain Imaging and Connectomics, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
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25
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Singer N, Binapfl J, Sommer M, Wüst S, Kudielka BM. Everyday moral decision-making after acute stress exposure: do social closeness and timing matter? Stress 2021; 24:468-473. [PMID: 33138682 DOI: 10.1080/10253890.2020.1846029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
There is increasing empirical evidence that social distance and timing affect prosocial behavior after acute stress exposure. The present study focused on everyday moral decision-making after acute psychosocial stress and how it is influenced by effects of social closeness and timing. We exposed 40 young healthy men to the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST, n = 20) or its non-stressful placebo version (PTSST, n = 20). Moral decision-making was assessed early (+10 until +30 min) and late (+75 until +95 min) after (P)TSST exposure by the Everyday Moral Conflict Situations (EMCS) Scale. The EMCS Scale requests altruistic versus egoistic responses to everyday moral conflict situations with varying closeness of target persons. Results revealed significantly higher total percentages of altruistic decisions in the stress than in the control condition and for scenarios involving socially close (e.g., mother) versus socially distant (e.g., stranger) protagonists, while the main effect of timing was nonsignificant. Only secondary analyses showed increased altruistic decision-making after acute stress exposure toward socially close but not toward distant protagonists at the early but not at the late point of measurement. Moreover, psychological stress responses and personality traits were significantly associated with EMCS scores. Positive correlations between cortisol levels and altruistic decision-making were descriptively observable, but did not reach statistical significance. In sum, our findings suggest increased altruistic decision-making toward socially close compared to socially distant protagonists and provide further evidence that acute stress influences decision-making in everyday moral conflict scenarios in a prosocial manner.Lay summaryIn order to investigate the effects of acute stress on everyday moral decision-making, 40 young healthy men were exposed to moderate psychosocial stress by the use of the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) or its non-stressful placebo version and then completed a hypothetical everyday moral decision-making paradigm. Our findings provide evidence that acute stress exposure influences decision-making in everyday moral conflict situations in a prosocial manner. Furthermore, participants decided more altruistically in scenarios involving socially close (e.g., mother) versus socially distant (e.g., stranger) protagonists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nina Singer
- Department of Psychology, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Julia Binapfl
- Department of Psychology, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Monika Sommer
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
- Department of Psychology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Stefan Wüst
- Department of Psychology, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
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Robinson K, McKenna B, Rooney D. The Relationship of Risk to Rules, Values, Virtues, and Moral Complexity: What We can Learn from the Moral Struggles of Military Leaders. JOURNAL OF BUSINESS ETHICS : JBE 2021; 179:749-766. [PMID: 34177014 PMCID: PMC8211304 DOI: 10.1007/s10551-021-04874-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2020] [Accepted: 06/10/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Leaders are faced with ethical and moral dilemmas daily, like those within the military who must span from large-scale combat operations to security cooperation and deterrence. For businesses, these dilemmas can include social and environmental impact such as those in mining; and for governments, the social and economic impact of their decision-making in their response to COVID-19. The move by Western defence forces to align their foundational principles, policies, and "soldier" dispositions with the changing values of the countries they serve are starkly illustrative of challenges faced by all leaders. While admirable, such changes face the apparent contradiction of enhancing individual moral agency within a hierarchical organization that maintain enforceable codes of conduct. Ethical leadership theory provides aspirational goals, but lacks empirically based guidance on how to implement policies that facilitate values-based behavior. Using a discourse theory analysis of a moral dilemma vignette with Royal Australian Air Force personnel, this research identifies important aspects of agency and subject position that must be addressed if such policies are to succeed. These findings show that the potential contradiction can be addressed by acknowledging the contrasting tendency to bureaucratic process by leaders at upper levels, while lower-level leaders address moral issues by incorporating their subjectivity and making a conscious deontological choice between humanity and comrade loyalty.
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Christen M, Narvaez D, Zenk JD, Villano M, Crowell CR, Moore DR. Trolley dilemma in the sky: Context matters when civilians and cadets make remotely piloted aircraft decisions. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0247273. [PMID: 33755672 PMCID: PMC7987167 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0247273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2020] [Accepted: 02/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Crews operating remotely piloted aircrafts (RPAs) in military operations may be among the few that truly experience tragic dilemmas similar to the famous Trolley Problem. In order to analyze decision-making and emotional conflict of RPA operators within Trolley-Problem-like dilemma situations, we created an RPA simulation that varied mission contexts (firefighter, military and surveillance as a control condition) and the social “value” of a potential victim. We found that participants (Air Force cadets and civilian students) were less likely to make the common utilitarian choice (sacrificing one to save five), when the value of the one increased, especially in the military context. However, in the firefighter context, this decision pattern was much less pronounced. The results demonstrate behavioral and justification differences when people are more invested in a particular context despite ostensibly similar dilemmas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus Christen
- Digital Society Initiative & Institute of Biomedical Ethics and History of Medicine, University of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland
- * E-mail:
| | - Darcia Narvaez
- Department of Psychology, University of Notre Dame, South Bend, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Julaine D. Zenk
- Department of Psychology, University of Notre Dame, South Bend, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Michael Villano
- Department of Psychology, University of Notre Dame, South Bend, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Charles R. Crowell
- Department of Psychology, University of Notre Dame, South Bend, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Daniel R. Moore
- United States Air Force Academy, Colorado Springs, Colorado, United States of America
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The Psychological Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic Affected Decision-Making Processes. SPANISH JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY 2021; 24:e16. [DOI: 10.1017/sjp.2021.14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
A sample of 641 participants were presented with four decision-making tasks during the first stages of the COVID–19 lockdown in Spain: The dictator game, framing problems, utilitarian/deontological and altruistic/egoistic moral dilemmas. Participants also completed questionnaires on mental health status and experiences related to the COVID–19 pandemic. We used boosted regression trees (an advanced form of regression analysis based on machine learning) to model relationships between responses to the questionnaires and decision-making tasks. Results showed that the psychological impact of the COVID–19 pandemic predicted participants’ responses to the framing problems and utilitarian/deontological and altruistic/egoistic moral dilemmas (but not to the dictator game). More concretely, the more psychological impact participants suffered, the more they were willing to choose the safest response in the framing problems, and the more deontological/altruistic were their responses to moral dilemmas. These results suggest that the psychological impact of the COVID–19 pandemic might prompt automatic processes.
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Singer N, Sommer M, Wüst S, Kudielka BM. Effects of gender and personality on everyday moral decision-making after acute stress exposure. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2021; 124:105084. [PMID: 33387970 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2020.105084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2020] [Revised: 11/13/2020] [Accepted: 11/23/2020] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Exposure to acute psychosocial stress has been shown to affect moral decision-making, though little is known about potential gender differences or effects of personality. In two within-subjects design studies, 179 healthy men and women (N = 99 in Study 1, N = 80 in Study 2) were exposed to the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST) and a non-stress control condition (resting period) on two testing days in random order. After stress/resting, moral decision-making was assessed by the Everyday Moral Conflict Situations (EMCS) Scale (Singer et al., 2019), which requests altruistic versus egoistic responses to everyday moral conflict scenarios with varying closeness of target persons. We investigated effects of acute stress, social closeness, participants' gender, and the a priori selected personality traits agreeableness, empathy, and social desirability on everyday moral decision-making. Despite high statistical power, we could neither confirm the hypothesized effects of acute stress nor social closeness on EMCS scores in both samples. However, our data revealed a prosocial impact of acute stress on everyday moral decisions rather in females than males as well as effects of agreeableness and social desirability. Salivary alpha-amylase (sAA) levels in Study 1 and cortisol levels in females in Study 2 were significantly correlated with higher EMCS scores after acute stress exposure. Additionally, lower anticipatory subjective stress responses were associated with more altruistic decisions. Moreover, we found positive relationships between hypothetical moral decision-making and real prosocial behavior (opportunity for a charitable donation). In sum, due to methodological differences compared to previous between-subjects design studies, it might not be justified to rule out effects of acute stress on everyday moral decision-making based on the current within-subjects results. Nevertheless, the present data suggest that specific personality traits like agreeableness might have a stronger impact on everyday moral decision-making than short term-exposure to acute stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nina Singer
- Department of Psychology, University of Regensburg, 93053 Regensburg, Germany.
| | - Monika Sommer
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Regensburg, 93053 Regensburg, Germany; Department of Psychology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, 80802 Munich, Germany.
| | - Stefan Wüst
- Department of Psychology, University of Regensburg, 93053 Regensburg, Germany.
| | - Brigitte M Kudielka
- Department of Psychology, University of Regensburg, 93053 Regensburg, Germany.
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Goekoop R, de Kleijn R. How higher goals are constructed and collapse under stress: A hierarchical Bayesian control systems perspective. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2021; 123:257-285. [PMID: 33497783 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.12.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2020] [Revised: 11/19/2020] [Accepted: 12/19/2020] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
In this paper, we show that organisms can be modeled as hierarchical Bayesian control systems with small world and information bottleneck (bow-tie) network structure. Such systems combine hierarchical perception with hierarchical goal setting and hierarchical action control. We argue that hierarchical Bayesian control systems produce deep hierarchies of goal states, from which it follows that organisms must have some form of 'highest goals'. For all organisms, these involve internal (self) models, external (social) models and overarching (normative) models. We show that goal hierarchies tend to decompose in a top-down manner under severe and prolonged levels of stress. This produces behavior that favors short-term and self-referential goals over long term, social and/or normative goals. The collapse of goal hierarchies is universally accompanied by an increase in entropy (disorder) in control systems that can serve as an early warning sign for tipping points (disease or death of the organism). In humans, learning goal hierarchies corresponds to personality development (maturation). The failure of goal hierarchies to mature properly corresponds to personality deficits. A top-down collapse of such hierarchies under stress is identified as a common factor in all forms of episodic mental disorders (psychopathology). The paper concludes by discussing ways of testing these hypotheses empirically.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rutger Goekoop
- Parnassia Group, PsyQ, Department of Anxiety Disorders, Early Detection and Intervention Team (EDIT), Netherlands.
| | - Roy de Kleijn
- Cognitive Psychology Unit, Leiden University, Netherlands
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Weismüller B, Schweda A, Dörrie N, Musche V, Fink M, Kohler H, Skoda EM, Teufel M, Bäuerle A. Different Correlates of COVID-19-Related Adherent and Dysfunctional Safety Behavior. Front Public Health 2021; 8:625664. [PMID: 33520924 PMCID: PMC7838460 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2020.625664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2020] [Accepted: 12/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Safety behaviors are key elements in reducing the spread of the COVID-19 virus, but have also assumed excessive proportions in form of panic buying groceries. This raises the question whether these behaviors are independent or related to each other. Adherent safety behavior including increased hygiene and physical distancing appears inherently adherent and prosocial, while dysfunctional safety behavior such as panic buying most probably emerges from other motives and contextual variables. Methods: Data from 15,308 participants collected from March 10 to May 4, 2020, during the COVID-19 acute period in Germany, was analyzed to assess whether adherent and dysfunctional safety behavior are predicted by the same or divergent variables. Two multiple regression models are presented including various sociodemographic, trait, attitudinal, and COVID-19-specific variables as predictors. Results: Some variables similarly predict both, adherent and dysfunctional safety behavior. Yet, adherent safety behavior is stronger predicted by COVID-19-related fear than generalized anxiety, while a trend toward a reverse pattern emerged for dysfunctional safety behavior. Adherent safety behavior was also related to higher trust in governmental actions to face COVID-19, subjective level of information, as well as use of public media and TV to remain informed on COVID-19. Higher age was related to dysfunctional, but not adherent safety behavior. Respondents living in rural communities report more adherent safety behavior than urban dwellers. Discussion: Divergent psychological variables underlie adherent and dysfunctional safety behavior. This hints toward a theoretical separation with practical relevance in behavioral engineering and public health campaigning.
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von Dawans B, Strojny J, Domes G. The effects of acute stress and stress hormones on social cognition and behavior: Current state of research and future directions. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2020; 121:75-88. [PMID: 33301780 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.11.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2020] [Revised: 11/09/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Stress encompasses profound psychological and physiological changes that are observable on all levels, from cellular mechanisms, humoral changes, and brain activation to subjective experience and behavior. While the impact of stress on health has already been studied for decades, a more recent field of research has revealed effects of stress on human social cognition and behavior. Initial studies have attempted to elucidate the underlying biological mechanisms of these stress-induced effects by measuring physiological responses or by using pharmacological approaches. We provide an overview of the current state of research on the effects of acute stress induction or pharmacological manipulations of stress-related neuro circuitry on social cognition and behavior. Additionally, we discuss the methodological challenges that need to be addressed in order to gain further insight into this important research topic and facilitate replicability of results. Future directions may help to disentangle the complex interplay of psychological and biological stress variables and their effects on social cognition and behavior on health and in disorders with social deficits.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Julia Strojny
- Department of Biological and Clinical Psychology, University of Trier, Germany
| | - Gregor Domes
- Department of Biological and Clinical Psychology, University of Trier, Germany.
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Mazza M, Attanasio M, Pino MC, Masedu F, Tiberti S, Sarlo M, Valenti M. Moral Decision-Making, Stress, and Social Cognition in Frontline Workers vs. Population Groups During the COVID-19 Pandemic: An Explorative Study. Front Psychol 2020; 11:588159. [PMID: 33329249 PMCID: PMC7710972 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.588159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
On March 9, 2020, Italy has gone into "lockdown" because of COVID-19 pandemic, with a national quarantine. All non-essential working activities and schools of all levels have been temporarily closed: consequently, the entire population have been forced to dramatically change their daily habits. The pandemic raised important psychological, moral, social, and economic issues. Our research focused on the moral decision-making of people during an emergency. This paper reports two studies. The aim of Study 1 was to evaluate moral decision-making, level of perceived stress, ability of mentalizing and empathy in university students and Italian workers. 224 front-line workers (FLW), 413 second-line workers (SLW), and 663 university students (US), during Italian Phase 1 of lockdown, completed an online questionnaire. The results of Study 1 showed that participants in the FLW group are more likely to choose utilitarian solutions and judge as morally acceptable actions finalized to saving lives of more people if this requires sacrificing a low number of individuals. At the same time, decision-making was experienced as less unpleasant and less arousing with respect to the other two groups, demonstrating a greater ability to keep emotional control under pressure. In Study 2, we compared the same variables used in Study 1, selecting two professional categories from the FLW group engaged in emergency during COVID-19, namely healthcare providers (n = 82) and public safety personnel (n = 117). Our results showed that healthcare providers were more stressed and emotionally involved than public safety personnel, with higher empathic concern and arousal in moral decision-making. We suggest it is essential providing immediate psychological support and monitoring physical and emotional well-being for workers in the front-line during emergencies like the COVID-19 pandemic, in order to prevent experiences of moral distress or mental health problems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica Mazza
- Department of Applied Clinical Sciences and Biotechnology, University of L’Aquila, L’Aquila, Italy
- Regional Centre for Autism, Abruzzo Region Health System, L’Aquila, Italy
| | - Margherita Attanasio
- Department of Applied Clinical Sciences and Biotechnology, University of L’Aquila, L’Aquila, Italy
- Regional Centre for Autism, Abruzzo Region Health System, L’Aquila, Italy
| | - Maria Chiara Pino
- Department of Applied Clinical Sciences and Biotechnology, University of L’Aquila, L’Aquila, Italy
- Regional Centre for Autism, Abruzzo Region Health System, L’Aquila, Italy
| | - Francesco Masedu
- Department of Applied Clinical Sciences and Biotechnology, University of L’Aquila, L’Aquila, Italy
| | - Sergio Tiberti
- Department of Applied Clinical Sciences and Biotechnology, University of L’Aquila, L’Aquila, Italy
| | - Michela Sarlo
- Department of Communication Sciences, Humanities and International Studies, University of Urbino Carlo Bo, Urbino, Italy
| | - Marco Valenti
- Department of Applied Clinical Sciences and Biotechnology, University of L’Aquila, L’Aquila, Italy
- Regional Centre for Autism, Abruzzo Region Health System, L’Aquila, Italy
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Schweda A, Margittai Z, Kalenscher T. Acute stress counteracts framing-induced generosity boosts in social discounting in young healthy men. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2020; 121:104860. [PMID: 32932203 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2020.104860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2019] [Revised: 08/09/2020] [Accepted: 08/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Most individuals are willing to forego resources for the benefit of others, but their willingness to do so typically declines as a function of social distance between the donor and recipient, a phenomenon termed social discounting. We recently showed that participants were more altruistic towards strangers when a costly generous choice was framed as preventing a monetary loss to the other rather than granting them a gain. Here, we asked if acute stress would diminish this frame effect on social discounting. To test this hypothesis, 102 male participants engaged in either the Maastricht Acute Stress Task, or a matched, non-stressful control procedure. They subsequently played a two-frame dictator game version of the social discounting paradigm. Whereas both frame conditions were economically equivalent, in the give frame, participants were asked how much money they would share with other persons on variable social distance levels, and in the take frame, they decided on how much money to take away from the others. While non-stressed control participants showed increased generosity toward strangers in the take compared to the give frame, similar to previous findings of our group, stress attenuated this frame effect on social discounting by reducing generosity toward strangers in the take frame. These findings confirm that stress can corrupt prosocial motives and social norm compliance, diminishing prosocial tendencies toward unfamiliar others.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Schweda
- Comparative Psychology, Heinrich-Heine-University Düsseldorf, Germany.
| | - Z Margittai
- Comparative Psychology, Heinrich-Heine-University Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - T Kalenscher
- Comparative Psychology, Heinrich-Heine-University Düsseldorf, Germany
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35
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Rab SL, Admon R. Parsing inter- and intra-individual variability in key nervous system mechanisms of stress responsivity and across functional domains. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2020; 120:550-564. [PMID: 32941963 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2019] [Revised: 08/21/2020] [Accepted: 09/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Exposure to stressful events is omnipresent in modern human life, yet people show considerable heterogeneity in the impact of stress exposure(s) on their functionality and overall health. Encounter with stressor(s) is counteracted by an intricate repertoire of nervous-system responses. This narrative review starts with a brief summary of the vast evidence that supports heart rate variability, cortisol secretion, and large-scale cortical network interactions as kay physiological, endocrinological, and neural mechanisms of stress responsivity, respectively. The second section highlights potential sources for inter-individual variability in these mechanisms, by focusing on biological, environmental, social, habitual, and psychological factors that may influence stress responsivity patterns and thus contribute to heterogeneity in the impact of stress exposure on functionality and health. The third section introduces intra-individually variability in stress responsivity across functional domains as a novel putative source for heterogeneity in the impact of stress exposure. Challenges and future directions are further discussed. Parsing inter- and intra-individual variability in nervous-system mechanisms of stress responsivity and across functional domains is critical towards potential clinical translation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharona L Rab
- Department of Psychology, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
| | - Roee Admon
- Department of Psychology, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel; The Integrated Brain and Behavior Research Center (IBBRC), University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel.
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36
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Vieira JB, Schellhaas S, Enström E, Olsson A. Help or flight? Increased threat imminence promotes defensive helping in humans. Proc Biol Sci 2020; 287:20201473. [PMID: 32842931 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2020.1473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
In humans and other mammals, defensive responses to danger vary with threat imminence, but it is unknown how those responses affect decisions to help conspecifics. Here, we manipulated threat imminence to investigate the impact of different defensive states on human helping behaviour. Ninety-eight healthy adult participants made trial-by-trial decisions about whether to help a co-participant avoid an aversive shock, at the risk of receiving a shock themselves. Helping decisions were prompted under imminent or distal threat, based on temporal distance to the moment of shock administration to the co-participant. Results showed that, regardless of how likely participants were to also receive a shock, they helped the co-participant more under imminent than distal threat. Reaction times and cardiac changes during the task supported the efficacy of the threat imminence manipulation in eliciting dissociable defensive states, with faster responses and increased heart rate during imminent compared to distal threats. Individual differences in empathic concern were specifically correlated with helping during imminent threats. These results suggest that defensive states driving active escape from immediate danger may also facilitate decisions to help others, potentially by engaging neurocognitive systems implicated in caregiving across mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joana B Vieira
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden
| | - Sabine Schellhaas
- Department of Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health Mannheim, Medical Faculty Mannheim/Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Erik Enström
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden
| | - Andreas Olsson
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden
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37
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Nitschke JP, Sunahara CS, Carr EW, Winkielman P, Pruessner JC, Bartz JA. Stressed connections: cortisol levels following acute psychosocial stress disrupt affiliative mimicry in humans. Proc Biol Sci 2020; 287:20192941. [PMID: 32396799 PMCID: PMC7287352 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.2941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2019] [Accepted: 04/19/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Mimicry, and especially spontaneous facial mimicry, is a rudimentary element of social-emotional experience that is well-conserved across numerous species. Although such mimicry is thought to be a relatively automatic process, research indicates that contextual factors can influence mimicry, especially in humans. Here, we extend this work by investigating the effect of acute psychosocial stress on spontaneous facial mimicry. Participants performed a spontaneous facial mimicry task with facial electromyography (fEMG) at baseline and approximately one month later, following an acute psychosocial stressor (Trier Social Stress Test). Results show that the magnitude of the endocrine stress response reduced zygomaticus major reactivity, and specifically spontaneous facial mimicry for positive social stimuli (i.e. smiles). Individuals with higher levels of the stress hormone cortisol showed a more blunted fEMG response to smiles, but not to frowns. Conversely, stress had no effect on corrugator supercilii activation (i.e. frowning to frowns). These findings highlight the importance of the biological stress response system in this basic element of social-emotional experience.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Evan W. Carr
- Columbia Business School, Columbia University, New York, USA
| | - Piotr Winkielman
- Department of Psychology, University of California, San Diego, USA
- SWPS University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Jens C. Pruessner
- Faculty of Medicine, McGill Centre for Studies in Aging, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
- Department of Psychology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
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38
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Parker S, Finkbeiner M. Examining the unfolding of moral decisions across time using the reach-to-touch paradigm. THINKING & REASONING 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/13546783.2019.1601640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Samantha Parker
- Perception in Action Research Centre (PARC), Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- Department of Cognitive Science, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Matthew Finkbeiner
- Perception in Action Research Centre (PARC), Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- Department of Cognitive Science, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
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39
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Passarelli TO, Buchanan TW. How Do Stress and Social Closeness Impact Prosocial Behavior? Exp Psychol 2020; 67:123-131. [DOI: 10.1027/1618-3169/a000482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Abstract. Factors such as time pressure and psychosocial stress may increase or decrease prosocial behavior depending on a number of factors. One factor that consistently positively impacts prosocial behavior is relationship status: Prosocial behavior is more likely toward kin than toward strangers. The interactions among stress, kin relationships, and prosocial behavior were examined in two separate experiments. In Study 1, 79 university students were asked to decide how much money to donate to family members, friends, or strangers, either under time pressure or with no time constraints. Participants donated more to close kin and friends than to strangers, but time pressure did not increase prosocial behavior. In Study 2, 94 university students completed the Trier Social Stress Test for Groups (TSST-G) or a control task, followed by a similar donation task as used in Study 1. Participants donated more to close kin and friends than to strangers, but stress did not influence donation amounts. These results do not support the hypothesis that stress due to time pressure or psychosocial factors increases prosocial behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Tony W. Buchanan
- Department of Psychology, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
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40
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Frank LE. What Do We Have to Lose? Offloading Through Moral Technologies: Moral Struggle and Progress. SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING ETHICS 2020; 26:369-385. [PMID: 30900160 PMCID: PMC6978436 DOI: 10.1007/s11948-019-00099-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2018] [Accepted: 03/11/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Moral bioenhancement, nudge-designed environments, and ambient persuasive technologies may help people behave more consistently with their deeply held moral convictions. Alternatively, they may aid people in overcoming cognitive and affective limitations that prevent them from appreciating a situation's moral dimensions. Or they may simply make it easier for them to make the morally right choice by helping them to overcome sources of weakness of will. This paper makes two assumptions. First, technologies to improve people's moral capacities are realizable. Second, such technologies will actually help people get morality right and behave more consistently with whatever the 'real' right thing to do turns out to be. The paper then considers whether or not humanity loses anything valuable, particularly opportunities for moral progress, when being moral is made much easier by eliminating difficult moral deliberation and internal moral struggle. Ultimately, the worry that moral struggle has value as a catalyst for moral progress is rejected. Moral progress is understood here as the discovery and application of new values or sensitization to new sources of harm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lily Eva Frank
- Department of Philosophy and Ethics, School of Innovation Science, Technical University of Eindhoven, 5612 AZ, Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
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41
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The effects of psychosocial stress on intergroup resource allocation. Sci Rep 2019; 9:18620. [PMID: 31819104 PMCID: PMC6901446 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-54954-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2019] [Accepted: 11/20/2019] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Stress changes our social behavior. Traditionally, stress has been associated with “fight-or-flight” – the tendency to attack an aggressor, or escape the stressor. But stress may also promote the opposite pattern, i.e., “tend-and-befriend” – increased prosociality toward others. It is currently unclear which situational or physiological factors promote one or the other. Here, we hypothesized that stress stimulates both tendencies, but that fight-or-flight is primarily directed against a potentially hostile outgroup, moderated by rapid-acting catecholamines, while tend-and-befriend is mainly shown towards a supportive ingroup, regulated by cortisol. To test this hypothesis, we measured stress-related neurohormonal modulators and sex hormones in male and female participants who were exposed to a psychosocial stressor, and subsequently played an intergroup social dilemma game in which they could reveal prosocial motives towards an ingroup (ingroup-love) and hostility towards an outgroup (outgroup-hate). We found no significant effects of stress on social preferences, but stress-related heart-rate increases predicted outgroup-hostile behavior. Furthermore, when controlling for testosterone, cortisol was associated with increased ingroup-love. Other-regarding behavior was overall higher in male than female participants. Our mixed results are of interest to scholars of the effects of stress on prosocial and aggressive behavior, but call for refinement in future replications.
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Hsieh I, Chen YY. The effects of physical contact and decision type on moral decision making: A study of harm to save moral behavior. ASIAN JOURNAL OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/ajsp.12385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- I‐Ju Hsieh
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience National Central University Taoyuan City Taiwan
| | - Yung Y. Chen
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience National Central University Taoyuan City Taiwan
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Zhang Q, Ma J, Nater UM. How Cortisol Reactivity Influences Prosocial Decision-Making: The Moderating Role of Sex and Empathic Concern. Front Hum Neurosci 2019; 13:415. [PMID: 32038194 PMCID: PMC6988811 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2019.00415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2019] [Accepted: 11/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The fight and flight theory and the tend-and-befriend theory suggest two opposite behavioral stress responses, and heterogeneous research results revealed the importance of taking sex into account. The experiment was designed to investigate the effect of stress-related cortisol reactivity on subsequent prosocial decision-making behaviors, and the moderating role of sex and empathic concern (EC) in the process. Sixty-one healthy students (34 women, 27 men) underwent the Trier Social Stress Test for Groups (TSST-G) or the control condition. Subsequently, participants completed three economic tasks-the dictator game, the ultimatum game, and the third-party compensation game. Statistical analyses revealed a significant main effect of cortisol reactivity on individuals' third-party compensation behaviorssex. A sex-specific effect of stress-related cortisol change on prosocial behaviors was found, with men behaving more generously in the dictator game as stress-related cortisol reactivity increased. Furthermore, the level of EC was found to moderate the association between stress-related cortisol change and prosocial behaviors, that individuals with a low level of EC reported more generosity and third-party compensation behaviors. Overall, the present study contributes to a better understanding of the behavioral stress responses, that individuals whose hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis are highly activated in response to stress would exhibit tend-and-befriend responses, but only among men and those with a low level of EC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qionghan Zhang
- Department of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China.,Department of Psychology, Philipps-University of Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Jianhong Ma
- Department of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Urs M Nater
- Department of Clinical Psychology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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Li Z, Gao L, Zhao X, Li B. Deconfounding the effects of acute stress on abstract moral dilemma judgment. CURRENT PSYCHOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s12144-019-00453-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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An Attachment Theoretical Perspective on Tend-and-Befriend Stress Reactions. EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s40806-019-00197-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Singer N, Kreuzpointner L, Sommer M, Wüst S, Kudielka BM. Decision-making in everyday moral conflict situations: Development and validation of a new measure. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0214747. [PMID: 30934016 PMCID: PMC6443167 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0214747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2018] [Accepted: 03/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
In everyday life, we are often confronted with morally conflicting social interaction situations. Therefore, the main objective of the present set of studies was the development and validation of a new measure to assess decision-making in everyday moral conflict situations. All vignettes required a decision between an altruistic versus an egoistic behavioral response alternative. In three independent surveys (N = 200), we developed a 40-items measure with preferable mean rates of altruistic decisions (Study 1), clear representation of altruistic and egoistic response classes (Study 2), unambiguousness of social closeness classifications (socially close vs. socially distant protagonists; Studies 1 and 2), and high similarity to reality ratings (Studies 1 and 2). Additionally, we developed two parallelized item sets for future use in within-subjects design studies and investigated the measurement properties of our new scale (Studies 1 and 3). Results of Rasch model analyses and classical test theory fit indices showed unidimensionality and confirmed the appropriateness of the fragmentation into two parallelized item sets. Notably, in our data, there were neither effects of social closeness nor gender on the percentage of altruistic decisions. In sum, we propose the Everyday Moral Conflict Situations (EMCS) Scale as a promising new measurement tool that may facilitate further research in different research areas due to its broad applicability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nina Singer
- Department of Medical Psychology, Psychological Diagnostics and Research Methodology, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
- * E-mail:
| | - Ludwig Kreuzpointner
- Department of Medical Psychology, Psychological Diagnostics and Research Methodology, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Monika Sommer
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
- Department of Psychology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Stefan Wüst
- Institute of Experimental Psychology, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Brigitte M. Kudielka
- Department of Medical Psychology, Psychological Diagnostics and Research Methodology, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
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Women smelling men's masked body odors show enhanced harm aversion in moral dilemmas. Physiol Behav 2019; 201:212-220. [PMID: 30639588 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2019.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2018] [Revised: 01/09/2019] [Accepted: 01/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Among the most unnoticeable stimuli providing social information, body odors are powerful social tools that can modulate behavioral and neural processing. It has recently been shown that body odors can affect moral decision-making, by increasing the activations in neural areas processing social and emotional information during the decision process. The aim of the present study was twofold: 1) to test whether body odors selectively affect decisions to real dilemmatic moral scenario (incongruent) vs. fake (congruent) dilemmas, and 2) to characterize whether the impact of masked body odors is modulated by four conceptual factors: personal force, intentionality, benefit recipient and evitability. Women chose between utilitarian (sacrificing a person's life in order to save other lives) or deontological actions (deciding against the harmful action) in 64 moral dilemmas under the exposure of a neutral fragrance (masker) or a masked male body odor. Our results showed that the masked male body odor did not specifically affect the answers to real and fake dilemmas but instead, its effect is modulating whether the agent harms the victim in a direct or indirect manner (personal force) to save herself or only other people (benefit recipient). In particular, when exposed to the masked body odor participants gave more deontological answers when the harm was indirect and only other people were saved. These data support the hypothesis that body odors induce participants to perceive the individuals described in moral dilemmas as more real, triggering harm avoidance.
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Wlodarsky R. A Critical Look at the Cognition Component of Reflection. JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE EDUCATION AND PSYCHOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1891/1945-8959.17.2.151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The research study was developed to consider the influence of reflection as an element in bridging life experiences and decision making in professional contexts. The researcher wanted to find out what the reflective process looks like and how this practice might relate to the professional development and personal growth for professionals. Respondents defined reflection and discussed processes, which they used to facilitate reflection on their own professional development. A constant comparative procedure, which is a qualitative coding strategy, was used to examine the process(es) described and then initial themes and categories were established among the narrative responses. An analytic concept mapping procedure described by Novak (1998) and Novak and Gowen (1984) was employed to organize the narrative. This article was developed as a refinement of the initial model with a more nuanced and careful description of the cognitive component in the EVENT PATH model. The findings indicated that reflection for the participants is an internal, cognitive process. The participants engaged in a cognitive process whereby awareness surfaced; a sense of knowing emerged. Understanding cognition as an integral part of the reflective process cannot be overstated and therefore requires continued attention within the research on professional reflection.
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Sparrow EP, Armstrong BA, Fiocco AJ, Spaniol J. Acute stress and altruism in younger and older adults. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2019; 100:10-17. [PMID: 30268002 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2018.09.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2018] [Revised: 09/09/2018] [Accepted: 09/16/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies of aging and decision making suggests that altruism increases with age. It is unclear, however, whether this pattern holds when choices are made under stress, as is often the case in real-world scenarios. The current study used an intertemporal choice task in which younger and older adults received a financial endowment before making a series of consequential intertemporal decisions involving gains, losses and charitable donations. Preceding the choice task, participants were exposed to a laboratory stressor. Physiological stress reactivity was a predictor of altruistic decision making in younger adults, such that individuals with higher stress reactivity made more generous choices. Older adults showed higher altruism than younger adults overall, with altruism unrelated to stress reactivity in older adults. These findings are consistent with an age-related change in the mechanisms underlying altruistic behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika P Sparrow
- Department of Psychology, Ryerson University, 350 Victoria Street, Toronto, M5B 2K3, Canada
| | - Bonnie A Armstrong
- Department of Psychology, Ryerson University, 350 Victoria Street, Toronto, M5B 2K3, Canada
| | - Alexandra J Fiocco
- Department of Psychology, Ryerson University, 350 Victoria Street, Toronto, M5B 2K3, Canada
| | - Julia Spaniol
- Department of Psychology, Ryerson University, 350 Victoria Street, Toronto, M5B 2K3, Canada.
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Sapolsky RM. Doubled-Edged Swords in the Biology of Conflict. Front Psychol 2018; 9:2625. [PMID: 30619017 PMCID: PMC6306482 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2018] [Accepted: 12/05/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Considerable advances have been made in understanding the biological roots of conflict, and such understanding requires a multidisciplinary approach, recognizing the relevance of neurobiological, endocrine, genetic, developmental, and evolutionary perspectives. With these insights comes the first hints of biological interventions that may mitigate violence. However, such interventions are typically double-edged swords, with the potential to foster conflict rather than lessen it. This review constitutes a cautionary note of being careful of what one wishes for.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert M. Sapolsky
- Gilbert Laboratory MC 5020, Departments of Biology, Neurology and Neurological Sciences, and Neurosurgery, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States
- Institute of Primate Research, National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya
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