1
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Deng RX, Li HL, Sheng CL, Wang W, Hu HB, Zhang XH. Characterization of Lomofungin Gene Cluster Enables the Biosynthesis of Related Phenazine Derivatives. ACS Synth Biol 2024. [PMID: 39250825 DOI: 10.1021/acssynbio.4c00394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/11/2024]
Abstract
Phenazine-based small molecules are nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compounds with diverse bioactivities and electron transfer properties that exhibit promising applications in pharmaceutical and electrochemical industries. However, the biosynthetic mechanism of highly substituted natural phenazines remains poorly understood. In this study, we report the direct cloning and heterologous expression of the lomofungin biosynthetic gene cluster (BGC) from Streptomyces lomondensis S015. Reconstruction and overexpression of the BGCs in Streptomyces coelicolor M1152 resulted in eight phenazine derivatives including two novel hybrid phenazine metabolites, and the biosynthetic pathway of lomofungin was proposed. Furthermore, gene deletion suggested that NAD(P)H-dependent oxidoreductase gene lomo14 is a nonessential gene in the biosynthesis of lomofungin. Cytotoxicity evaluation of the isolated phenazines and lomofungin was performed. Specifically, lomofungin shows substantial inhibition against two human cancer cells, HCT116 and 5637. These results provide insights into the biosynthetic mechanism of lomofungin, which will be useful for the directed biosynthesis of natural phenazine derivatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ru-Xiang Deng
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Hui-Ling Li
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Chao-Lan Sheng
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Wei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Hong-Bo Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
- National Experimental Teaching Center for Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Xue-Hong Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
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2
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Gao LL, Gao YQ, Liu WY, Stadler M, Zhu YT, Qi JZ, Han WB, Gao JM. Evaluation of Phenazine Derivatives from the Lichen-Associated Streptomyces flavidovirens as Potent Antineuroinflammatory Agents In Vitro and In Vivo. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2024; 87:1930-1940. [PMID: 39140432 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.4c00334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/15/2024]
Abstract
Eighteen nitrogen-containing compounds (1-18) were isolated from cultures of the lichen-associated Streptomyces flavidovirens collected from the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, including seven phenazine derivatives with three new ones, named subphenazines A-C (2-4), two new furan pyrrolidones (8-9), and nine known alkaloids. The structures were elucidated by spectroscopic data analysis, and absolute configurations were determined by single-crystal X-ray diffraction and ECD calculations. The phenazine-type derivatives, in particular compound 3, exhibited significantly better antineuroinflammatory activity than other isolated compounds (8-18). Compound 3 inhibited the release of proinflammatory cytokines including IL-6, TNF-α, and PGE2, and the nuclear translocation of NF-κB; it also reduced the oxidative stress and activated the Nrf2 signaling pathway in LPS-induced BV2 microglia cells. In vivo anti-inflammatory activity in zebrafish indicated that 3 inhibited LPS-stimulated ROS generation. These findings suggested that compound 3 might be a potent antineuroinflammatory agent through the regulation of the NF-κB/Nrf2 signaling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin-Lin Gao
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Natural Products & Chemical Biology, College of Chemistry & Pharmacy, Northwest A&F University, 3 Taicheng Road, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi People's Republic of China
| | - Yu-Qi Gao
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Natural Products & Chemical Biology, College of Chemistry & Pharmacy, Northwest A&F University, 3 Taicheng Road, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi People's Republic of China
| | - Wu-Yang Liu
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Natural Products & Chemical Biology, College of Chemistry & Pharmacy, Northwest A&F University, 3 Taicheng Road, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi People's Republic of China
| | - Marc Stadler
- Department Microbial Drugs, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research GmbH, Inhoffenstraße 7, 38124 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Yue-Tong Zhu
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Natural Products & Chemical Biology, College of Chemistry & Pharmacy, Northwest A&F University, 3 Taicheng Road, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi People's Republic of China
| | - Jian-Zhao Qi
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Natural Products & Chemical Biology, College of Chemistry & Pharmacy, Northwest A&F University, 3 Taicheng Road, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi People's Republic of China
| | - Wen-Bo Han
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Natural Products & Chemical Biology, College of Chemistry & Pharmacy, Northwest A&F University, 3 Taicheng Road, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi People's Republic of China
| | - Jin-Ming Gao
- Shaanxi Key Laboratory of Natural Products & Chemical Biology, College of Chemistry & Pharmacy, Northwest A&F University, 3 Taicheng Road, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi People's Republic of China
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3
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Ma Q, Zhong Y, Huang P, Li A, Jiang T, Jiang L, Yang H, Wang Z, Wu G, Huang X, Pu H, Liu J. Bioactive Naphthoquinone and Phenazine Analogs from the Endophytic Streptomyces sp. PH9030 as α-Glucosidase Inhibitors. Molecules 2024; 29:3450. [PMID: 39124856 PMCID: PMC11313965 DOI: 10.3390/molecules29153450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2024] [Revised: 07/19/2024] [Accepted: 07/20/2024] [Indexed: 08/12/2024] Open
Abstract
A talented endophytic Streptomyces sp. PH9030 is derived from the medicinal plant Kadsura coccinea (Lem.) A.C. Smith. The undescribed naphthoquinone naphthgeranine G (5) and seven previously identified compounds, 6-12, were obtained from Streptomyces sp. PH9030. The structure of 5 was identified by comprehensive examination of its HRESIMS, 1D NMR, 2D NMR and ECD data. The inhibitory activities of all the compounds toward α-glucosidase and their antibacterial properties were investigated. The α-glucosidase inhibitory activities of 5, 6, 7 and 9 were reported for the first time, with IC50 values ranging from 66.4 ± 6.7 to 185.9 ± 0.2 μM, as compared with acarbose (IC50 = 671.5 ± 0.2 μM). The molecular docking and molecular dynamics analysis of 5 with α-glucosidase further indicated that it may have a good binding ability with α-glucosidase. Both 9 and 12 exhibited moderate antibacterial activity against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values of 16 μg/mL. These results indicate that 5, together with the naphthoquinone scaffold, has the potential to be further developed as a possible inhibitor of α-glucosidase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingxian Ma
- China-Pakistan International Science and Technology Innovation Cooperation Base for Ethnic Medicine Development in Hunan Province, Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Synthetic Biology of Traditional Chinese Medicine, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hunan University of Medicine, Huaihua 418000, China; (Q.M.); (Y.Z.); (P.H.); (A.L.); (H.Y.); (Z.W.); (G.W.)
| | - Yani Zhong
- China-Pakistan International Science and Technology Innovation Cooperation Base for Ethnic Medicine Development in Hunan Province, Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Synthetic Biology of Traditional Chinese Medicine, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hunan University of Medicine, Huaihua 418000, China; (Q.M.); (Y.Z.); (P.H.); (A.L.); (H.Y.); (Z.W.); (G.W.)
| | - Pingzhi Huang
- China-Pakistan International Science and Technology Innovation Cooperation Base for Ethnic Medicine Development in Hunan Province, Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Synthetic Biology of Traditional Chinese Medicine, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hunan University of Medicine, Huaihua 418000, China; (Q.M.); (Y.Z.); (P.H.); (A.L.); (H.Y.); (Z.W.); (G.W.)
| | - Aijie Li
- China-Pakistan International Science and Technology Innovation Cooperation Base for Ethnic Medicine Development in Hunan Province, Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Synthetic Biology of Traditional Chinese Medicine, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hunan University of Medicine, Huaihua 418000, China; (Q.M.); (Y.Z.); (P.H.); (A.L.); (H.Y.); (Z.W.); (G.W.)
| | - Ting Jiang
- Jiangxi Drug Inspection Center, Nanchang 330029, China;
| | - Lin Jiang
- Hunan Engineering Technology Research Center for Bioactive Substance Discovery of Chinese Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha 410208, China;
| | - Hao Yang
- China-Pakistan International Science and Technology Innovation Cooperation Base for Ethnic Medicine Development in Hunan Province, Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Synthetic Biology of Traditional Chinese Medicine, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hunan University of Medicine, Huaihua 418000, China; (Q.M.); (Y.Z.); (P.H.); (A.L.); (H.Y.); (Z.W.); (G.W.)
| | - Zhong Wang
- China-Pakistan International Science and Technology Innovation Cooperation Base for Ethnic Medicine Development in Hunan Province, Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Synthetic Biology of Traditional Chinese Medicine, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hunan University of Medicine, Huaihua 418000, China; (Q.M.); (Y.Z.); (P.H.); (A.L.); (H.Y.); (Z.W.); (G.W.)
| | - Guangling Wu
- China-Pakistan International Science and Technology Innovation Cooperation Base for Ethnic Medicine Development in Hunan Province, Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Synthetic Biology of Traditional Chinese Medicine, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hunan University of Medicine, Huaihua 418000, China; (Q.M.); (Y.Z.); (P.H.); (A.L.); (H.Y.); (Z.W.); (G.W.)
| | - Xueshuang Huang
- China-Pakistan International Science and Technology Innovation Cooperation Base for Ethnic Medicine Development in Hunan Province, Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Synthetic Biology of Traditional Chinese Medicine, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hunan University of Medicine, Huaihua 418000, China; (Q.M.); (Y.Z.); (P.H.); (A.L.); (H.Y.); (Z.W.); (G.W.)
| | - Hong Pu
- China-Pakistan International Science and Technology Innovation Cooperation Base for Ethnic Medicine Development in Hunan Province, Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Synthetic Biology of Traditional Chinese Medicine, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hunan University of Medicine, Huaihua 418000, China; (Q.M.); (Y.Z.); (P.H.); (A.L.); (H.Y.); (Z.W.); (G.W.)
| | - Jianxin Liu
- China-Pakistan International Science and Technology Innovation Cooperation Base for Ethnic Medicine Development in Hunan Province, Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory for Synthetic Biology of Traditional Chinese Medicine, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hunan University of Medicine, Huaihua 418000, China; (Q.M.); (Y.Z.); (P.H.); (A.L.); (H.Y.); (Z.W.); (G.W.)
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4
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Baumgartner J, McKinnie SMK. Regioselective Halogenation of Lavanducyanin by a Site-Selective Vanadium-Dependent Chloroperoxidase. Org Lett 2024; 26:5725-5730. [PMID: 38934639 PMCID: PMC11250029 DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.4c01869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2024] [Revised: 06/19/2024] [Accepted: 06/21/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024]
Abstract
Halogenated phenazine meroterpenoids are a structurally unusual family of marine actinobacterial natural products that exhibit antibiotic, antibiofilm, and cytotoxic bioactivities. Despite a lack of established phenazine halogenation biochemistry, genomic analysis of Streptomyces sp. CNZ-289, a prolific lavanducyanin and C2-halogenated derivative producer, suggested the involvement of vanadium-dependent haloperoxidases. We subsequently discovered lavanducyanin halogenase (LvcH), characterized it in vitro as a regioselective vanadium-dependent chloroperoxidase, and applied it in late-stage chemoenzymatic synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jackson
T. Baumgartner
- Department of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Cruz, California 95064, United States
| | - Shaun M. K. McKinnie
- Department of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Cruz, California 95064, United States
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5
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Sfera A, Imran H, Sfera DO, Anton JJ, Kozlakidis Z, Hazan S. Novel Insights into Psychosis and Antipsychotic Interventions: From Managing Symptoms to Improving Outcomes. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:5904. [PMID: 38892092 PMCID: PMC11173215 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25115904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2024] [Revised: 05/20/2024] [Accepted: 05/24/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024] Open
Abstract
For the past 70 years, the dopamine hypothesis has been the key working model in schizophrenia. This has contributed to the development of numerous inhibitors of dopaminergic signaling and antipsychotic drugs, which led to rapid symptom resolution but only marginal outcome improvement. Over the past decades, there has been limited research on the quantifiable pathological changes in schizophrenia, including premature cellular/neuronal senescence, brain volume loss, the attenuation of gamma oscillations in electroencephalograms, and the oxidation of lipids in the plasma and mitochondrial membranes. We surmise that the aberrant activation of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor by toxins derived from gut microbes or the environment drives premature cellular and neuronal senescence, a hallmark of schizophrenia. Early brain aging promotes secondary changes, including the impairment and loss of mitochondria, gray matter depletion, decreased gamma oscillations, and a compensatory metabolic shift to lactate and lactylation. The aim of this narrative review is twofold: (1) to summarize what is known about premature cellular/neuronal senescence in schizophrenia or schizophrenia-like disorders, and (2) to discuss novel strategies for improving long-term outcomes in severe mental illness with natural senotherapeutics, membrane lipid replacement, mitochondrial transplantation, microbial phenazines, novel antioxidant phenothiazines, inhibitors of glycogen synthase kinase-3 beta, and aryl hydrocarbon receptor antagonists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adonis Sfera
- Patton State Hospital, 3102 Highland Ave., Patton, CA 92369, USA; (H.I.)
- University of California Riverside, Riverside 900 University Ave., Riverside, CA 92521, USA
- Loma Linda University, 11139 Anderson St., Loma Linda, CA 92350, USA
| | - Hassan Imran
- Patton State Hospital, 3102 Highland Ave., Patton, CA 92369, USA; (H.I.)
- University of California Riverside, Riverside 900 University Ave., Riverside, CA 92521, USA
- Loma Linda University, 11139 Anderson St., Loma Linda, CA 92350, USA
| | - Dan O. Sfera
- Patton State Hospital, 3102 Highland Ave., Patton, CA 92369, USA; (H.I.)
- University of California Riverside, Riverside 900 University Ave., Riverside, CA 92521, USA
- Loma Linda University, 11139 Anderson St., Loma Linda, CA 92350, USA
| | | | - Zisis Kozlakidis
- International Agency for Research on Cancer, 69372 Lyon, France;
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6
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Shende VV, Bauman KD, Moore BS. The shikimate pathway: gateway to metabolic diversity. Nat Prod Rep 2024; 41:604-648. [PMID: 38170905 PMCID: PMC11043010 DOI: 10.1039/d3np00037k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
Covering: 1997 to 2023The shikimate pathway is the metabolic process responsible for the biosynthesis of the aromatic amino acids phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan. Seven metabolic steps convert phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) and erythrose 4-phosphate (E4P) into shikimate and ultimately chorismate, which serves as the branch point for dedicated aromatic amino acid biosynthesis. Bacteria, fungi, algae, and plants (yet not animals) biosynthesize chorismate and exploit its intermediates in their specialized metabolism. This review highlights the metabolic diversity derived from intermediates of the shikimate pathway along the seven steps from PEP and E4P to chorismate, as well as additional sections on compounds derived from prephenate, anthranilate and the synonymous aminoshikimate pathway. We discuss the genomic basis and biochemical support leading to shikimate-derived antibiotics, lipids, pigments, cofactors, and other metabolites across the tree of life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vikram V Shende
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA.
| | - Katherine D Bauman
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Bradley S Moore
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA.
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
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7
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Li Y, Gong N, Zhou L, Yang Z, Zhang H, Gu Y, Ma J, Ju J. OSMAC-Based Discovery and Biosynthetic Gene Clusters Analysis of Secondary Metabolites from Marine-Derived Streptomyces globisporus SCSIO LCY30. Mar Drugs 2023; 22:21. [PMID: 38248647 PMCID: PMC10817512 DOI: 10.3390/md22010021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2023] [Revised: 12/25/2023] [Accepted: 12/26/2023] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
The one strain many compounds (OSMAC) strategy is an effective method for activating silent gene clusters by cultivating microorganisms under various conditions. The whole genome sequence of the marine-derived strain Streptomyces globisporus SCSIO LCY30 revealed that it contains 30 biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs). By using the OSMAC strategy, three types of secondary metabolites were activated and identified, including three angucyclines, mayamycin A (1), mayamycin B (2), and rabolemycin (3); two streptophenazines (streptophenazin O (4) and M (5)); and a macrolide dimeric dinactin (6), respectively. The biosynthetic pathways of the secondary metabolites in these three families were proposed based on the gene function prediction and structural information. The bioactivity assays showed that angucycline compounds 1-3 exhibited potent antitumor activities against 11 human cancer cell lines and antibacterial activities against a series of Gram-positive bacteria. Mayamycin (1) selectively exhibited potent cytotoxicity activity against triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) cell lines such as MDA-MB-231, MDA-MB-468, and Bt-549, with IC50 values of 0.60-2.22 μM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanqing Li
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-Resources and Ecology, RNAM Center for Marine Microbiology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Marine Materia Medica, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510301, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 110039, China
- Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Guangzhou), Guangzhou 511458, China
| | - Naying Gong
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Diagnostics, Institute of Laboratory Medicine, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan 523808, China (H.Z.)
| | - Le Zhou
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-Resources and Ecology, RNAM Center for Marine Microbiology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Marine Materia Medica, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510301, China
- Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Guangzhou), Guangzhou 511458, China
| | - Zhijie Yang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-Resources and Ecology, RNAM Center for Marine Microbiology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Marine Materia Medica, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510301, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 110039, China
- Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Guangzhou), Guangzhou 511458, China
| | - Hua Zhang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Diagnostics, Institute of Laboratory Medicine, Guangdong Medical University, Dongguan 523808, China (H.Z.)
| | - Yucheng Gu
- Syngenta Jealott’s Hill International Research Centre, Bracknell RG42 6EY, Berkshire, UK
| | - Junying Ma
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-Resources and Ecology, RNAM Center for Marine Microbiology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Marine Materia Medica, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510301, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 110039, China
- Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Guangzhou), Guangzhou 511458, China
| | - Jianhua Ju
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-Resources and Ecology, RNAM Center for Marine Microbiology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Marine Materia Medica, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510301, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 110039, China
- Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Guangzhou), Guangzhou 511458, China
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8
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Evans CR, Smiley MK, Asahara Thio S, Wei M, Florek LC, Dayton H, Price-Whelan A, Min W, Dietrich LEP. Spatial heterogeneity in biofilm metabolism elicited by local control of phenazine methylation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2313208120. [PMID: 37847735 PMCID: PMC10614215 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2313208120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2023] [Accepted: 09/15/2023] [Indexed: 10/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Within biofilms, gradients of electron acceptors such as oxygen stimulate the formation of physiological subpopulations. This heterogeneity can enable cross-feeding and promote drug resilience, features of the multicellular lifestyle that make biofilm-based infections difficult to treat. The pathogenic bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa produces pigments called phenazines that can support metabolic activity in hypoxic/anoxic biofilm subzones, but these compounds also include methylated derivatives that are toxic to their producer under some conditions. In this study, we uncover roles for the global regulators RpoS and Hfq/Crc in controlling the beneficial and detrimental effects of methylated phenazines in biofilms. Our results indicate that RpoS controls phenazine methylation by modulating activity of the carbon catabolite repression pathway, in which the Hfq/Crc complex inhibits translation of the phenazine methyltransferase PhzM. We find that RpoS indirectly inhibits expression of CrcZ, a small RNA that binds to and sequesters Hfq/Crc, specifically in the oxic subzone of P. aeruginosa biofilms. Deletion of rpoS or crc therefore leads to overproduction of methylated phenazines, which we show leads to increased metabolic activity-an apparent beneficial effect-in hypoxic/anoxic subpopulations within biofilms. However, we also find that under specific conditions, biofilms lacking RpoS and/or Crc show increased sensitivity to phenazines indicating that the increased metabolic activity in these mutants comes at a cost. Together, these results suggest that complex regulation of PhzM allows P. aeruginosa to simultaneously exploit the benefits and limit the toxic effects of methylated phenazines.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Marina K. Smiley
- Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY10027
| | - Sean Asahara Thio
- Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY10027
| | - Mian Wei
- Department of Chemistry, Columbia University, New York, NY10027
| | - Lindsey C. Florek
- Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY10027
| | - Hannah Dayton
- Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY10027
| | - Alexa Price-Whelan
- Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY10027
| | - Wei Min
- Department of Chemistry, Columbia University, New York, NY10027
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9
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Alatawneh N, Meijler MM. Unraveling the Antibacterial and Iron Chelating Activity of
N
‐Oxide Hydroxy‐Phenazine natural Products and Synthetic Analogs against
Staphylococcus Aureus. Isr J Chem 2023. [DOI: 10.1002/ijch.202200112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Nadeem Alatawneh
- Department of Chemistry and The National Institute for Biotechnology in the Negev Ben-Gurion University of the Negev Be'er Sheva 84105 Israel
| | - Michael M. Meijler
- Department of Chemistry and The National Institute for Biotechnology in the Negev Ben-Gurion University of the Negev Be'er Sheva 84105 Israel
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10
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Bacterial Pigments and Their Multifaceted Roles in Contemporary Biotechnology and Pharmacological Applications. Microorganisms 2023; 11:microorganisms11030614. [PMID: 36985186 PMCID: PMC10053885 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11030614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2022] [Revised: 02/06/2023] [Accepted: 02/07/2023] [Indexed: 03/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Synthetic dyes and colourants have been the mainstay of the pigment industry for decades. Researchers are eager to find a more environment friendly and non-toxic substitute because these synthetic dyes have a negative impact on the environment and people’s health. Microbial pigments might be an alternative to synthetic pigments. Microbial pigments are categorized as secondary metabolites and are mainly produced due to impaired metabolism under stressful conditions. These pigments have vibrant shades and possess nutritional and therapeutic properties compared to synthetic pigment. Microbial pigments are now widely used within the pharmaceuticals, food, paints, and textile industries. The pharmaceutical industries currently use bacterial pigments as a medicine alternative for cancer and many other bacterial infections. Their growing popularity is a result of their low cost, biodegradable, non-carcinogenic, and environmentally beneficial attributes. This audit article has made an effort to take an in-depth look into the existing uses of bacterial pigments in the food and pharmaceutical industries and project their potential future applications.
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11
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The two faces of pyocyanin - why and how to steer its production? World J Microbiol Biotechnol 2023; 39:103. [PMID: 36864230 PMCID: PMC9981528 DOI: 10.1007/s11274-023-03548-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2022] [Accepted: 02/13/2023] [Indexed: 03/04/2023]
Abstract
The ambiguous nature of pyocyanin was noted quite early after its discovery. This substance is a recognized Pseudomonas aeruginosa virulence factor that causes problems in cystic fibrosis, wound healing, and microbiologically induced corrosion. However, it can also be a potent chemical with potential use in a wide variety of technologies and applications, e.g. green energy production in microbial fuel cells, biocontrol in agriculture, therapy in medicine, or environmental protection. In this mini-review, we shortly describe the properties of pyocyanin, its role in the physiology of Pseudomonas and show the ever-growing interest in it. We also summarize the possible ways of modulating pyocyanin production. We underline different approaches of the researchers that aim either at lowering or increasing pyocyanin production by using different culturing methods, chemical additives, physical factors (e.g. electromagnetic field), or genetic engineering techniques. The review aims to present the ambiguous character of pyocyanin, underline its potential, and signalize the possible further research directions.
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12
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Evans CR, Smiley MK, Thio SA, Wei M, Price-Whelan A, Min W, Dietrich LE. Spatial heterogeneity in biofilm metabolism elicited by local control of phenazine methylation. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.02.15.528762. [PMID: 36824979 PMCID: PMC9949047 DOI: 10.1101/2023.02.15.528762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/18/2023]
Abstract
Within biofilms, gradients of electron acceptors such as oxygen stimulate the formation of physiological subpopulations. This heterogeneity can enable cross-feeding and promote drug resilience, features of the multicellular lifestyle that make biofilm-based infections difficult to treat. The pathogenic bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa produces pigments called phenazines that can support metabolic activity in hypoxic/anoxic biofilm subzones, but these compounds also include methylated derivatives that are toxic to their producer under some conditions. Here, we uncover roles for the global regulators RpoS and Hfq/Crc in controlling the beneficial and detrimental effects of methylated phenazines in biofilms. Our results indicate that RpoS controls phenazine methylation by modulating activity of the carbon catabolite repression pathway, in which the Hfq/Crc complex inhibits translation of the phenazine methyltransferase PhzM. We find that RpoS indirectly inhibits expression of CrcZ, a small RNA that binds to and sequesters Hfq/Crc, specifically in the oxic subzone of P. aeruginosa biofilms. Deletion of rpoS or crc therefore leads to overproduction of methylated phenazines, which we show leads to increased metabolic activity-an apparent beneficial effect-in hypoxic/anoxic subpopulations within biofilms. However, we also find that biofilms lacking Crc show increased sensitivity to an exogenously added methylated phenazine, indicating that the increased metabolic activity in this mutant comes at a cost. Together, these results suggest that complex regulation of PhzM allows P. aeruginosa to simultaneously exploit the benefits and limit the toxic effects of methylated phenazines.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Marina K. Smiley
- Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY 10025
| | - Sean Asahara Thio
- Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY 10025
| | - Mian Wei
- Department of Chemistry, Columbia University, New York, NY 10025
| | - Alexa Price-Whelan
- Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY 10025
| | - Wei Min
- Department of Chemistry, Columbia University, New York, NY 10025
| | - Lars E.P. Dietrich
- Department of Biological Sciences, Columbia University, New York, NY 10025
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13
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Serafim B, Bernardino AR, Freitas F, Torres CAV. Recent Developments in the Biological Activities, Bioproduction, and Applications of Pseudomonas spp. Phenazines. Molecules 2023; 28:molecules28031368. [PMID: 36771036 PMCID: PMC9919295 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28031368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2022] [Revised: 01/20/2023] [Accepted: 01/27/2023] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Phenazines are a large group of heterocyclic nitrogen-containing compounds with demonstrated insecticidal, antimicrobial, antiparasitic, and anticancer activities. These natural compounds are synthesized by several microorganisms originating from diverse habitats, including marine and terrestrial sources. The most well-studied producers belong to the Pseudomonas genus, which has been extensively investigated over the years for its ability to synthesize phenazines. This review is focused on the research performed on pseudomonads' phenazines in recent years. Their biosynthetic pathways, mechanism of regulation, production processes, bioactivities, and applications are revised in this manuscript.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruno Serafim
- Laboratory i4HB—Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, 2825-149 Caparica, Portugal
- UCIBIO—Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Department of Chemistry, School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, 2825-149 Caparica, Portugal
| | - Ana R. Bernardino
- Laboratory i4HB—Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, 2825-149 Caparica, Portugal
- UCIBIO—Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Department of Chemistry, School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, 2825-149 Caparica, Portugal
| | - Filomena Freitas
- Laboratory i4HB—Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, 2825-149 Caparica, Portugal
- UCIBIO—Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Department of Chemistry, School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, 2825-149 Caparica, Portugal
| | - Cristiana A. V. Torres
- Laboratory i4HB—Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, 2825-149 Caparica, Portugal
- UCIBIO—Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Department of Chemistry, School of Science and Technology, NOVA University Lisbon, 2825-149 Caparica, Portugal
- Correspondence:
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14
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Denise R, Babor J, Gerlt JA, de Crécy-Lagard V. Pyridoxal 5'-phosphate synthesis and salvage in Bacteria and Archaea: predicting pathway variant distributions and holes. Microb Genom 2023; 9:mgen000926. [PMID: 36729913 PMCID: PMC9997740 DOI: 10.1099/mgen.0.000926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Pyridoxal 5’-phosphate or PLP is a cofactor derived from B6 vitamers and essential for growth in all known organisms. PLP synthesis and salvage pathways are well characterized in a few model species even though key components, such as the vitamin B6 transporters, are still to be identified in many organisms including the model bacteria Escherichia coli or Bacillus subtilis. Using a comparative genomic approach, PLP synthesis and salvage pathways were predicted in 5840 bacterial and archaeal species with complete genomes. The distribution of the two known de novo biosynthesis pathways and previously identified cases of non-orthologous displacements were surveyed in the process. This analysis revealed that several PLP de novo pathway genes remain to be identified in many organisms, either because sequence similarity alone cannot be used to discriminate among several homologous candidates or due to non-orthologous displacements. Candidates for some of these pathway holes were identified using published TnSeq data, but many remain. We find that ~10 % of the analysed organisms rely on salvage but further analyses will be required to identify potential transporters. This work is a starting point to model the exchanges of B6 vitamers in communities, predict the sensitivity of a given organism to drugs targeting PLP synthesis enzymes, and identify numerous gaps in knowledge that will need to be tackled in the years to come.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rémi Denise
- Department of Microbiology and Cell Sciences, Gainesville, USA.,Present address: APC Microbiome Ireland, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Jill Babor
- Department of Microbiology and Cell Sciences, Gainesville, USA
| | | | - Valérie de Crécy-Lagard
- Department of Microbiology and Cell Sciences, Gainesville, USA.,Genetics Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
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15
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Makwana P, Hungund SP, Pradeep ANR. Dipteran endoparasitoid Exorista bombycis utilizes antihemocyte components against host defense of silkworm Bombyx mori. ARCHIVES OF INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY 2023; 112:e21976. [PMID: 36205611 DOI: 10.1002/arch.21976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2022] [Revised: 09/07/2022] [Accepted: 09/17/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Dipteran endoparasitoids avoid host immune response; however, antidefense components from the Dipterans are unknown. Infestation of commercial silkworm Bombyx mori Linnaeus (Lepidoptera: Bombycidae) by endoparasitoid Exorista bombycis Louis (Diptera: Tachinidae) induced immune reactions, cytotoxicity, granulation, degranulation, and augmented release of cytotoxic marker enzyme lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), and degranulation-mediator enzyme β-hexosaminidase in hemocytes. In this study, by reverse phase high-performance liquid chromatography, fractions of E. bombycis larval tissue protein with antihemocytic activity are separated. From the fraction, peptides of hemocyte aggregation inhibitor protein (HAIP) and pyridoxamine phosphate oxidase (PNPO) are identified by mass spectrometry. Interacting partners of HAIP and PNPO are retrieved that further enhance the virulence of the parasitoid. PNPO and HAIP genes showed a four- to seven fold increase in expression in the integument of the parasitoid larva. Together, the dipteran endoparasitoid E. bombycis exploit antihemocyte activity to inhibit host defense reactions in addition to defense evasion contemplated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pooja Makwana
- Seribiotech Research Laboratory, CSB-Kodathi Campus, Bangalore, Karnataka, India
- Biotechnology Division, Central Sericultural Research & Training Institute, Berhampore, West Bengal, India
| | - Shambhavi P Hungund
- Seribiotech Research Laboratory, CSB-Kodathi Campus, Bangalore, Karnataka, India
| | - Appukuttan Nair R Pradeep
- Seribiotech Research Laboratory, CSB-Kodathi Campus, Bangalore, Karnataka, India
- Biotechnology Division, Central Sericultural Research & Training Institute, Berhampore, West Bengal, India
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16
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Shi YM, Crames JJ, Czech L, Bozhüyük KAJ, Shi YN, Hirschmann M, Lamberth S, Claus P, Paczia N, Rückert C, Kalinowski J, Bange G, Bode HB. Genome Mining Enabled by Biosynthetic Characterization Uncovers a Class of Benzoxazolinate-Containing Natural Products in Diverse Bacteria. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2022; 61:e202206106. [PMID: 36198080 PMCID: PMC10098953 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202206106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Benzoxazolinate is a rare bis-heterocyclic moiety that interacts with proteins and DNA and confers extraordinary bioactivities on natural products, such as C-1027. However, the biosynthetic gene responsible for the key cyclization step of benzoxazolinate remains unclear. Herein, we show a putative acyl AMP-ligase responsible for the last cyclization step. We used the enzyme as a probe for genome mining and discovered that the orphan benzobactin gene cluster in entomopathogenic bacteria prevails across Proteobacteria and Firmicutes. It turns out that Pseudomonas chlororaphis produces various benzobactins, whose biosynthesis is highlighted by a synergistic effect of two unclustered genes encoding enzymes on boosting benzobactin production; the formation of non-proteinogenic 2-hydroxymethylserine by a serine hydroxymethyltransferase; and the types I and II NRPS architecture for structural diversity. Our findings reveal the biosynthetic potential of a widespread benzobactin gene cluster.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Ming Shi
- Department of Natural Products in Organismic Interactions, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, 35043, Marburg, Germany.,Molecular Biotechnology, Department of Biosciences, Goethe University Frankfurt, 60438, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Jan J Crames
- Department of Natural Products in Organismic Interactions, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, 35043, Marburg, Germany.,Molecular Biotechnology, Department of Biosciences, Goethe University Frankfurt, 60438, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Laura Czech
- Center for Synthetic Microbiology (SYNMIKRO) & Faculty of Chemistry, Philipps University of Marburg, 35043, Marburg, Germany
| | - Kenan A J Bozhüyük
- Department of Natural Products in Organismic Interactions, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, 35043, Marburg, Germany.,Molecular Biotechnology, Department of Biosciences, Goethe University Frankfurt, 60438, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Yan-Ni Shi
- Department of Natural Products in Organismic Interactions, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, 35043, Marburg, Germany.,Molecular Biotechnology, Department of Biosciences, Goethe University Frankfurt, 60438, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Merle Hirschmann
- Molecular Biotechnology, Department of Biosciences, Goethe University Frankfurt, 60438, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Stefanie Lamberth
- Molecular Biotechnology, Department of Biosciences, Goethe University Frankfurt, 60438, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Peter Claus
- Core Facility for Metabolomics and Small Molecule Mass Spectrometry, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, 35043, Marburg, Germany
| | - Nicole Paczia
- Core Facility for Metabolomics and Small Molecule Mass Spectrometry, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, 35043, Marburg, Germany
| | - Christian Rückert
- Microbial Genomics and Biotechnology, Center for Biotechnology (CeBiTec), Bielefeld University, 33615, Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Jörn Kalinowski
- Microbial Genomics and Biotechnology, Center for Biotechnology (CeBiTec), Bielefeld University, 33615, Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Gert Bange
- Center for Synthetic Microbiology (SYNMIKRO) & Faculty of Chemistry, Philipps University of Marburg, 35043, Marburg, Germany
| | - Helge B Bode
- Department of Natural Products in Organismic Interactions, Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, 35043, Marburg, Germany.,Molecular Biotechnology, Department of Biosciences, Goethe University Frankfurt, 60438, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.,Senckenberg Gesellschaft für Naturforschung, 60325, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.,Chemical Biology, Department of Chemistry, Philipps University of Marburg, 35043, Marburg, Germany
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17
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Wu J, Teng Q, Mao Y, Duan Y, Pan X, Xu S, Cai Y, Pan Y, Zhou M, Zhang Y. Cytochrome bc1 Complex: Potential Breach to Improve the Activity of Phenazines on Xanthomonas. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2022; 70:10158-10169. [PMID: 35948060 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.2c03317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The effects of the natural pesticides, phenazines, were reported to be limited by some tolerant metabolism processes within Xanthomonas. Our previous studies suggested that the functional cytochrome bc1 complex, the indispensable component of the respiration chain, might participate in tolerating phenazines in Xanthomonas. In this study, the cytochrome bc1 mutants of Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris (Xcc) and Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo), which exhibit different tolerance abilities to phenazines, were constructed, and the cytochrome bc1 complex was proven to partake a critical and conserved role in tolerating phenazines in Xanthomonas. In addition, results of the cytochrome c mutants suggested the different functions of the various cytochrome c proteins in Xanthomonas and that the electron channeled by the cytochrome bc1 complex to cytochrome C4 is the key to reveal the tolerance mechanism. In conclusion, the study of the cytochrome bc1 complex provides a potential strategy to improve the activity of phenazines against Xanthomonas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Wu
- Institute of Plant Protection and Agro Product Safety, Anhui Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hefei 230001, China
- College of Plant Protection, State & Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Green Pesticide Invention and Application, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Qingzhu Teng
- College of Plant Protection, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei 230036, China
| | - Yushuai Mao
- College of Plant Protection, State & Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Green Pesticide Invention and Application, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Yabing Duan
- College of Plant Protection, State & Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Green Pesticide Invention and Application, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Xiayan Pan
- College of Plant Protection, State & Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Green Pesticide Invention and Application, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Shu Xu
- College of Plant Protection, State & Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Green Pesticide Invention and Application, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Yiqiang Cai
- College of Plant Protection, State & Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Green Pesticide Invention and Application, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Yuemin Pan
- College of Plant Protection, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei 230036, China
| | - Mingguo Zhou
- College of Plant Protection, State & Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Green Pesticide Invention and Application, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China
| | - Yong Zhang
- Institute of Plant Protection and Agro Product Safety, Anhui Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hefei 230001, China
- College of Plant Protection, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei 230036, China
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18
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Chi X, Wang Y, Miao J, Wang W, Sun Y, Yu Z, Feng Z, Cheng S, Chen L, Ge Y. EppR, a new LysR-family transcription regulator, positively influences phenazine biosynthesis in the plant growth-promoting rhizobacterium Pseudomonas chlororaphis G05. Microbiol Res 2022; 260:127050. [DOI: 10.1016/j.micres.2022.127050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2021] [Revised: 04/13/2022] [Accepted: 04/19/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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19
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Guo S, Hu H, Wang W, Bilal M, Zhang X. Production of Antibacterial Questiomycin A in Metabolically Engineered Pseudomonas chlororaphis HT66. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2022; 70:7742-7750. [PMID: 35708224 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.2c03216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Pseudomonas chlororaphis has been demonstrated as a valuable source of antimicrobial metabolites for plant disease biocontrol and biopesticide development. Although phenazine-1-carboxylic acid (PCA) secreted by P. chlororaphis has been commercialized as an antifungal biopesticide, it shows poor antibacterial activity. Questiomycin A, with versatile antibacterial activities, is mainly discovered in some well-known phenazine-producing strains but not in Pseudomonas. Its low titer hinders practical applications. In this work, a metabolite was first identified as Questiomycin A in P. chlororaphis-derived strain HT66ΔphzBΔNat. Subsequently, Questiomycin A has been elucidated to share the same biosynthesis process with PCA by gene deletion and in vitro assays. Through rational metabolic engineering, heterologous phenoxazinone synthase introduction, and medium optimization, the titer reached 589.78 mg/L in P. chlororaphis, the highest production reported to date. This work contributes to a better understanding of Questiomycin A biosynthesis and demonstrates a promising approach to developing a new antibacterial biopesticide in Pseudomonas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuqi Guo
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, China
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Hongbo Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
- National Experimental Teaching Center for Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Wei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Muhammad Bilal
- School of Life Science and Food Engineering, Huaiyin Institute of Technology, Huaian 223003, China
| | - Xuehong Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
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20
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Dong J, He B, Wang R, Zuo X, Zhan R, Hu L, Li Y, He J. Characterization of the diastaphenazine/izumiphenazine C biosynthetic gene cluster from plant endophyte Streptomyces diastaticus W2. Microb Biotechnol 2022; 15:1168-1177. [PMID: 34487423 PMCID: PMC8966011 DOI: 10.1111/1751-7915.13909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2021] [Accepted: 07/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Two phenazine compounds, diastaphenazine and izumiphenazine C, with complex structures and promising antitumour activity have been isolated from the plant endophytic actinomycete Streptomyces diastaticus W2. Their putative biosynthetic gene cluster (dap) was identified by heterologous expression and gene knockout. There are twenty genes in the dap cluster. dap14-19 related to shikimic pathway were potentially involved in the precursor chorismic acid biosynthesis, and dapBCDEFG were confirmed to be responsible for the biosynthesis of the dibenzopyrazine ring, the nuclear structure of phenazines. Two transcriptional regulatory genes dapR and dap4 played the positive regulatory roles on the phenazine biosynthetic pathway. Most notably, the dimerization of the dibenzopyrazine ring in diastaphenazine and the loading of the complex side chain in izumiphenazine C could be catalysed by the cyclase homologous gene dap5, suggesting an unusual modification strategy tailoring complex phenazine biosynthesis. Moreover, metabolite analysis of the gene deletion mutant strain S. albus::23C5Δdap2 and substrate assay of the methyltransferase Dap2 clearly revealed the biosynthetic route of the complex side chain in izumiphenazine C.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junli Dong
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural MicrobiologyCollege of Life Science and TechnologyHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhan430070China
| | - Beibei He
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural MicrobiologyCollege of Life Science and TechnologyHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhan430070China
| | - Ruinan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural MicrobiologyCollege of Life Science and TechnologyHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhan430070China
| | - Xiuli Zuo
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural MicrobiologyCollege of Life Science and TechnologyHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhan430070China
| | - Rui Zhan
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural MicrobiologyCollege of Life Science and TechnologyHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhan430070China
| | - Linfang Hu
- Key Laboratory of Microbial Diversity in Southwest ChinaMinistry of EducationCollege of Life ScienceYunnan UniversityKunming650091China
| | - Yiqing Li
- Key Laboratory of Microbial Diversity in Southwest ChinaMinistry of EducationCollege of Life ScienceYunnan UniversityKunming650091China
| | - Jing He
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural MicrobiologyCollege of Life Science and TechnologyHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhan430070China
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21
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Santos-Aberturas J, Vior NM. Beyond Soil-Dwelling Actinobacteria: Fantastic Antibiotics and Where to Find Them. Antibiotics (Basel) 2022; 11:195. [PMID: 35203798 PMCID: PMC8868522 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics11020195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2021] [Revised: 01/27/2022] [Accepted: 01/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacterial secondary metabolites represent an invaluable source of bioactive molecules for the pharmaceutical and agrochemical industries. Although screening campaigns for the discovery of new compounds have traditionally been strongly biased towards the study of soil-dwelling Actinobacteria, the current antibiotic resistance and discovery crisis has brought a considerable amount of attention to the study of previously neglected bacterial sources of secondary metabolites. The development and application of new screening, sequencing, genetic manipulation, cultivation and bioinformatic techniques have revealed several other groups of bacteria as producers of striking chemical novelty. Biosynthetic machineries evolved from independent taxonomic origins and under completely different ecological requirements and selective pressures are responsible for these structural innovations. In this review, we summarize the most important discoveries related to secondary metabolites from alternative bacterial sources, trying to provide the reader with a broad perspective on how technical novelties have facilitated the access to the bacterial metabolic dark matter.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Natalia M. Vior
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, John Innes Centre, Norwich NR7 4UH, UK
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22
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Wan Y, Liu H, Xian M, Huang W. Biosynthetic Pathway Construction and Production Enhancement of 1-Hydroxyphenazine Derivatives in Pseudomonas chlororaphis H18. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2022; 70:1223-1231. [PMID: 35057615 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.1c07760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
1-Hydroxyphenazine derivatives are phenazine family chemicals with broad-spectrum antibacterial and potential biological activities. However, the lack of variety and low titer hinder their applications. In this research, three enzymes PhzS (monooxygenase), NaphzNO1 (N-monooxygenase), and LaphzM (methyltransferase) were heterologously expressed in a phenazine-1-carboxylic acid generating strain Pseudomonas chlororaphis H18. Four phenazines, 1-hydroxyphenazine, 1-methoxyphenazine, 1-hydroxyphenazine N' 10-oxide, and a novel phenazine derivative 1-methoxyphenazine N' 10-oxide, were isolated, characterized in the genetically modified strains, and exhibited excellent antimicrobial activities. Next, we verified the hydroxyl methylation activity of LaphzM and elucidated the biosynthetic pathway of 1-methoxyphenazine N' 10-oxide in vitro. Moreover, the titer of 1-hydroxyphenazine derivatives was engineered. The three compounds 1-methoxyphenazine, 1-hydroxyphenazine N' 10-oxide, and 1-methoxyphenazine N' 10-oxide all reach the highest titer reported to date. This work provides a promising platform for phenazine derivatives' combinatorial biosynthesis and engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yupeng Wan
- CAS Key Lab of Biobased Materials, Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266101, China
- School of Chemical Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Hongchen Liu
- CAS Key Lab of Biobased Materials, Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266101, China
| | - Mo Xian
- CAS Key Lab of Biobased Materials, Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266101, China
| | - Wei Huang
- CAS Key Lab of Biobased Materials, Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266101, China
- School of Chemical Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
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23
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Wan Y, Liu H, Xian M, Huang W. Biosynthesis and metabolic engineering of 1-hydroxyphenazine in Pseudomonas chlororaphis H18. Microb Cell Fact 2021; 20:235. [PMID: 34965873 PMCID: PMC8717658 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-021-01731-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2021] [Accepted: 12/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Background 1-Hydroxyphenazine (1-OH-PHZ) is a phenazine microbial metabolite with broad-spectrum antibacterial activities against a lot of plant pathogens. However, its use is hampered by the low yield all along. Metabolic engineering of microorganisms is an increasingly powerful method for the production of valuable organisms at high levels. Pseudomonas chlororaphis is recognized as a safe and effective plant rhizosphere growth-promoting bacterium, and faster growth rate using glycerol or glucose as a renewable carbon source. Therefore, Pseudomonas chlororaphis is particularly suitable as the chassis cell for the modification and engineering of phenazines. Results In this study, enzyme PhzS (monooxygenase) was heterologously expressed in a phenazine-1-carboxylic acid (PCA) generating strain Pseudomonas chlororaphis H18, and 1-hydroxyphenazine was isolated, characterized in the genetically modified strain. Next, the yield of 1-hydroxyphenazine was systematically engineered by the strategies including (1) semi-rational design remodeling of crucial protein PhzS, (2) blocking intermediate PCA consumption branch pathway, (3) enhancing the precursor pool, (4) engineering regulatory genes, etc. Finally, the titer of 1-hydroxyphenazine reached 3.6 g/L in 5 L fermenter in 54 h. Conclusions The 1-OH-PHZ production of Pseudomonas chlororaphis H18 was greatly improved through systematically engineering strategies, which is the highest, reported to date. This work provides a promising platform for 1-hydroxyphenazine engineering and production. Graphical Abstract ![]()
Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12934-021-01731-y.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yupeng Wan
- CAS Key Lab of Biobased Materials, Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266101, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Hongchen Liu
- CAS Key Lab of Biobased Materials, Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266101, China
| | - Mo Xian
- CAS Key Lab of Biobased Materials, Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266101, China.
| | - Wei Huang
- CAS Key Lab of Biobased Materials, Qingdao Institute of Bioenergy and Bioprocess Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, 266101, China. .,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China.
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24
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Ke J, Zhao Z, Coates CR, Hadjithomas M, Kuftin A, Louie K, Weller D, Thomashow L, Mouncey NJ, Northen TR, Yoshikuni Y. Development of platforms for functional characterization and production of phenazines using a multi-chassis approach via CRAGE. Metab Eng 2021; 69:188-197. [PMID: 34890798 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymben.2021.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2021] [Revised: 11/24/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Phenazines (Phzs), a family of chemicals with a phenazine backbone, are secondary metabolites with diverse properties such as antibacterial, anti-fungal, or anticancer activity. The core derivatives of phenazine, phenazine-1-carboxylic acid (PCA) and phenazine-1,6-dicarboxylic acid (PDC), are themselves precursors for various other derivatives. Recent advances in genome mining tools have enabled researchers to identify many biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) that might produce novel Phzs. To characterize the function of these BGCs efficiently, we performed modular construct assembly and subsequent multi-chassis heterologous expression using chassis-independent recombinase-assisted genome engineering (CRAGE). CRAGE allowed rapid integration of a PCA BGC into 23 diverse γ-proteobacteria species and allowed us to identify top PCA producers. We then used the top five chassis hosts to express four partially refactored PDC BGCs. A few of these platforms produced high levels of PDC. Specifically, Xenorhabdus doucetiae and Pseudomonas simiae produced PDC at a titer of 293 mg/L and 373 mg/L, respectively, in minimal media. These titers are significantly higher than those previously reported. Furthermore, selectivity toward PDC production over PCA production was improved by up to 9-fold. The results show that these strains are promising chassis for production of PCA, PDC, and their derivatives, as well as for function characterization of Phz BGCs identified via bioinformatics mining.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Ke
- US Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Zhiying Zhao
- US Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Cameron R Coates
- US Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA; Biological Systems and Engineering Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Michalis Hadjithomas
- US Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Andrea Kuftin
- US Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Katherine Louie
- US Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - David Weller
- USDA Agricultural Research Service, Wheat Health, Genetics and Quality, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA; Department of Plant Pathology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA
| | - Linda Thomashow
- USDA Agricultural Research Service, Wheat Health, Genetics and Quality, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA; Department of Plant Pathology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA
| | - Nigel J Mouncey
- US Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA; Environmental Genomics and Systems Biology Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Trent R Northen
- US Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA; Environmental Genomics and Systems Biology Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Yasuo Yoshikuni
- US Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA; Biological Systems and Engineering Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA; Environmental Genomics and Systems Biology Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA; Center for Advanced Bioenergy and Bioproducts Innovation, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA; Global Center for Food, Land, and Water Resources, Hokkaido University, Hokkaido, 060-8589, Japan.
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25
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Froes TQ, Chaves BT, Mendes MS, Ximenes RM, da Silva IM, da Silva PBG, de Albuquerque JFC, Castilho MS. Synthesis and biological evaluation of thiazolidinedione derivatives with high ligand efficiency to P. aeruginosa PhzS. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem 2021; 36:1217-1229. [PMID: 34080514 PMCID: PMC8186431 DOI: 10.1080/14756366.2021.1931165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2021] [Revised: 04/29/2021] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The thiazolidinone ring is found in compounds that have widespan biology activity and there is mechanism-based evidence that compounds bearing this moiety inhibit P. aeruginosa PhzS (PaPzhS), a key enzyme in the biosynthesis of the virulence factor named pyocyanin. Ten novel thiazolidinone derivatives were synthesised and screened against PaPhzS, using two orthogonal assays. The biological results provided by these and 28 other compounds, whose synthesis had been described, suggest that the dihydroquinazoline ring, found in the previous hit (A- Kd = 18 µM and LE = 0.20), is not required for PaPzhS inhibition, but unsubstituted nitrogen at the thiazolidinone ring is. The molecular simplification approach, pursued in this work, afforded an optimised lead compound (13- 5-(2,4-dimethoxyphenyl)thiazolidine-2,4-dione) with 10-fold improvement in affinity (Kd= 1.68 µM) and more than 100% increase in LE (0.45), which follows the same inhibition mode as the original hit compound (competitive to NADH).Executive summaryPhzS is a key enzyme in the pyocyanin biosynthesis pathway in P. aeruginosa.Orthogonal assays (TSA and FITC) show that fragment-like thiazolidinedione derivatives bind to PaPhzS with one-digit micromolar affinity.Fragment-like thiazolidinedione derivatives bind to the cofactor (NADH) binding site in PaPhzS.The molecular simplification optimised the ligand efficiency and affinity of the lead compound.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thamires Quadros Froes
- Programa de Pós-graduação em biotecnologia da, Universidade Estadual de Feira de Santana, Feira de Santana, Brazil
| | | | - Marina Sena Mendes
- Faculdade de Farmácia da, Universidade Federal da Bahia, Salvador, Brazil
| | - Rafael Matos Ximenes
- Departamento de Antibióticos da, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco. Av. Prof. Moraes Rego, Recife-Pe, Brazil
| | - Ivanildo Mangueira da Silva
- Departamento de Antibióticos da, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco. Av. Prof. Moraes Rego, Recife-Pe, Brazil
| | | | | | - Marcelo Santos Castilho
- Programa de Pós-graduação em biotecnologia da, Universidade Estadual de Feira de Santana, Feira de Santana, Brazil
- Faculdade de Farmácia da, Universidade Federal da Bahia, Salvador, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Farmácia da, Universidade Federal da Bahia, Salvador, Brazil
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26
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Advances in Phenazines over the Past Decade: Review of Their Pharmacological Activities, Mechanisms of Action, Biosynthetic Pathways and Synthetic Strategies. Mar Drugs 2021; 19:md19110610. [PMID: 34822481 PMCID: PMC8620606 DOI: 10.3390/md19110610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2021] [Revised: 10/21/2021] [Accepted: 10/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Phenazines are a large group of nitrogen-containing heterocycles, providing diverse chemical structures and various biological activities. Natural phenazines are mainly isolated from marine and terrestrial microorganisms. So far, more than 100 different natural compounds and over 6000 synthetic derivatives have been found and investigated. Many phenazines show great pharmacological activity in various fields, such as antimicrobial, antiparasitic, neuroprotective, insecticidal, anti-inflammatory and anticancer activity. Researchers continued to investigate these compounds and hope to develop them as medicines. Cimmino et al. published a significant review about anticancer activity of phenazines, containing articles from 2000 to 2011. Here, we mainly summarize articles from 2012 to 2021. According to sources of compounds, phenazines were categorized into natural phenazines and synthetic phenazine derivatives in this review. Their pharmacological activities, mechanisms of action, biosynthetic pathways and synthetic strategies were summarized. These may provide guidance for the investigation on phenazines in the future.
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Nitrate Reduction Stimulates and Is Stimulated by Phenazine-1-Carboxylic Acid Oxidation by Citrobacter portucalensis MBL. mBio 2021; 12:e0226521. [PMID: 34465028 PMCID: PMC8437036 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.02265-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Phenazines are secreted metabolites that microbes use in diverse ways, from quorum sensing to antimicrobial warfare to energy conservation. Phenazines are able to contribute to these activities due to their redox activity. The physiological consequences of cellular phenazine reduction have been extensively studied, but the counterpart phenazine oxidation has been largely overlooked. Phenazine-1-carboxylic acid (PCA) is common in the environment and readily reduced by its producers. Here, we describe its anaerobic oxidation by Citrobacter portucalensis strain MBL, which was isolated from topsoil in Falmouth, MA, and which does not produce phenazines itself. This activity depends on the availability of a suitable terminal electron acceptor, specifically nitrate. When C. portucalensis MBL is provided reduced PCA and nitrate, it oxidizes the PCA at a rate that is environmentally relevant. We compared this terminal electron acceptor-dependent PCA-oxidizing activity of C. portucalensis MBL to that of several other gammaproteobacteria with various capacities to respire nitrate. We found that PCA oxidation by these strains in a nitrate-dependent manner is decoupled from growth and strain dependent. We infer that bacterial PCA oxidation is widespread and genetically determined. Notably, oxidizing PCA enhances the rate of nitrate reduction to nitrite by C. portucalensis MBL beyond the stoichiometric exchange of electrons from PCA to nitrate, which we attribute to C. portucalensis MBL’s ability to also reduce oxidized PCA, thereby catalyzing a complete PCA redox cycle. This bidirectionality highlights the versatility of PCA as a biological redox agent.
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28
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Impact of artificial sputum media formulation on Pseudomonas aeruginosa secondary metabolite production. J Bacteriol 2021; 203:e0025021. [PMID: 34398662 PMCID: PMC8508215 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00250-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
In vitro culture media are being developed to understand how host site-specific nutrient profiles influence microbial pathogenicity and ecology. To mimic the cystic fibrosis (CF) lung environment, a variety of artificial sputum media (ASM) have been created. However, the composition of these ASM vary in the concentration of key nutrients, including amino acids, lipids, DNA, and mucin. In this work, we used feature-based molecular networking (FBMN) to perform comparative metabolomics of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, the predominant opportunistic pathogen infecting the lungs of people with CF, cultured in nine different ASM. We found that the concentration of aromatic amino acids and iron from mucin added to the media contributes to differences in the production of P. aeruginosa virulence-associated secondary metabolites. IMPORTANCE Different media formulations aiming to replicate in vivo infection environments contain different nutrients, which affects interpretation of experimental results. Inclusion of undefined components, such as commercial porcine gastric mucin (PGM), in an otherwise chemically defined medium can alter the nutrient content of the medium in unexpected ways and influence experimental outcomes.
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Akbar S, Stevens DC. Functional genomics study of Pseudomonas putida to determine traits associated with avoidance of a myxobacterial predator. Sci Rep 2021; 11:16445. [PMID: 34385565 PMCID: PMC8360965 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-96046-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2021] [Accepted: 07/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Predation contributes to the structure and diversity of microbial communities. Predatory myxobacteria are ubiquitous to a variety of microbial habitats and capably consume a broad diversity of microbial prey. Predator-prey experiments utilizing myxobacteria have provided details into predatory mechanisms and features that facilitate consumption of prey. However, prey resistance to myxobacterial predation remains underexplored, and prey resistances have been observed exclusively from predator-prey experiments that included the model myxobacterium Myxococcus xanthus. Utilizing a predator-prey pairing that instead included the myxobacterium, Cystobacter ferrugineus, with Pseudomonas putida as prey, we observed surviving phenotypes capable of eluding predation. Comparative transcriptomics between P. putida unexposed to C. ferrugineus and the survivor phenotype suggested that increased expression of efflux pumps, genes associated with mucoid conversion, and various membrane features contribute to predator avoidance. Unique features observed from the survivor phenotype when compared to the parent P. putida include small colony variation, efflux-mediated antibiotic resistance, phenazine-1-carboxylic acid production, and increased mucoid conversion. These results demonstrate the utility of myxobacterial predator-prey models and provide insight into prey resistances in response to predatory stress that might contribute to the phenotypic diversity and structure of bacterial communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shukria Akbar
- Department of BioMolecular Sciences, University of Mississippi, University, MS, USA
| | - D Cole Stevens
- Department of BioMolecular Sciences, University of Mississippi, University, MS, USA.
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Bach E, Passaglia LMP, Jiao J, Gross H. Burkholderia in the genomic era: from taxonomy to the discovery of new antimicrobial secondary metabolites. Crit Rev Microbiol 2021; 48:121-160. [PMID: 34346791 DOI: 10.1080/1040841x.2021.1946009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Species of Burkholderia are highly versatile being found not only abundantly in soil, but also as plants and animals' commensals or pathogens. Their complex multireplicon genomes harbour an impressive number of polyketide synthase (PKS) and nonribosomal peptide-synthetase (NRPS) genes coding for the production of antimicrobial secondary metabolites (SMs), which have been successfully deciphered by genome-guided tools. Moreover, genome metrics supported the split of this genus into Burkholderia sensu stricto (s.s.) and five new other genera. Here, we show that the successful antimicrobial SMs producers belong to Burkholderia s.s. Additionally, we reviewed the occurrence, bioactivities, modes of action, structural, and biosynthetic information of thirty-eight Burkholderia antimicrobial SMs shedding light on their diversity, complexity, and uniqueness as well as the importance of genome-guided strategies to facilitate their discovery. Several Burkholderia NRPS and PKS display unusual features, which are reflected in their structural diversity, important bioactivities, and varied modes of action. Up to now, it is possible to observe a general tendency of Burkholderia SMs being more active against fungi. Although the modes of action and biosynthetic gene clusters of many SMs remain unknown, we highlight the potential of Burkholderia SMs as alternatives to fight against new diseases and antibiotic resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evelise Bach
- Departamento de Genética and Programa de Pós-graduação em Genética e Biologia Molecular, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Luciane Maria Pereira Passaglia
- Departamento de Genética and Programa de Pós-graduação em Genética e Biologia Molecular, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Junjing Jiao
- Department for Pharmaceutical Biology, Pharmaceutical Institute, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Harald Gross
- Department for Pharmaceutical Biology, Pharmaceutical Institute, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
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31
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Chukwubuikem A, Berger C, Mady A, Rosenbaum MA. Role of phenazine-enzyme physiology for current generation in a bioelectrochemical system. Microb Biotechnol 2021; 14:1613-1626. [PMID: 34000093 PMCID: PMC8313257 DOI: 10.1111/1751-7915.13827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2021] [Revised: 04/14/2021] [Accepted: 04/27/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Pseudomonas aeruginosa produces phenazine-1-carboxylic acid (PCA) and pyocyanin (PYO), which aid its anaerobic survival by mediating electron transfer to distant oxygen. These natural secondary metabolites are being explored in biotechnology to mediate electron transfer to the anode of bioelectrochemical systems. A major challenge is that only a small fraction of electrons from microbial substrate conversion is recovered. It remained unclear whether phenazines can re-enter the cell and thus, if the electrons accessed by the phenazines arise mainly from cytoplasmic or periplasmic pathways. Here, we prove that the periplasmic glucose dehydrogenase (Gcd) of P. aeruginosa and P. putida is involved in the reduction of natural phenazines. PYO displayed a 60-fold faster enzymatic reduction than PCA; PCA was, however, more stable for long-term electron shuttling to the anode. Evaluation of a Gcd knockout and overexpression strain showed that up to 9% of the anodic current can be designated to this enzymatic reaction. We further assessed phenazine uptake with the aid of two molecular biosensors, which experimentally confirm the phenazines' ability to re-enter the cytoplasm. These findings significantly advance the understanding of the (electro) physiology of phenazines for future tailoring of phenazine electron discharge in biotechnological applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony Chukwubuikem
- Bio Pilot PlantLeibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology – Hans‐Knöll‐Institute (HKI)JenaGermany
- Faculty of Biological SciencesFriedrich Schiller University (FSU)JenaGermany
| | - Carola Berger
- Faculty of Biological SciencesFriedrich Schiller University (FSU)JenaGermany
| | - Ahmed Mady
- Faculty of Biological SciencesFriedrich Schiller University (FSU)JenaGermany
| | - Miriam A. Rosenbaum
- Bio Pilot PlantLeibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology – Hans‐Knöll‐Institute (HKI)JenaGermany
- Faculty of Biological SciencesFriedrich Schiller University (FSU)JenaGermany
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32
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Functional Analysis of Phenazine Biosynthesis Genes in Burkholderia spp. Appl Environ Microbiol 2021; 87:AEM.02348-20. [PMID: 33741619 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02348-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2020] [Accepted: 03/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Burkholderia encompasses a group of ubiquitous Gram-negative bacteria that includes numerous saprophytes as well as species that cause infections in animals, immunocompromised patients, and plants. Some species of Burkholderia produce colored, redox-active secondary metabolites called phenazines. Phenazines contribute to competitiveness, biofilm formation, and virulence in the opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa, but knowledge of their diversity, biosynthesis, and biological functions in Burkholderia is lacking. In this study, we screened publicly accessible genome sequence databases and identified phenazine biosynthesis genes in multiple strains of the Burkholderia cepacia complex, some isolates of the B. pseudomallei clade, and the plant pathogen B. glumae We then focused on B. lata ATCC 17760 to reveal the organization and function of genes involved in the production of dimethyl 4,9-dihydroxy-1,6-phenazinedicarboxylate. Using a combination of isogenic mutants and plasmids carrying different segments of the phz locus, we characterized three novel genes involved in the modification of the phenazine tricycle. Our functional studies revealed a connection between the presence and amount of phenazines and the dynamics of biofilm growth in flow cell and static experimental systems but at the same time failed to link the production of phenazines with the capacity of Burkholderia to kill fruit flies and rot onions.IMPORTANCE Although the production of phenazines in Burkholderia was first reported almost 70 years ago, the role these metabolites play in the biology of these economically important microorganisms remains poorly understood. Our results revealed that the phenazine biosynthetic pathway in Burkholderia has a complex evolutionary history, which likely involved horizontal gene transfers among several distantly related groups of organisms. The contribution of phenazines to the formation of biofilms suggests that Burkholderia, like fluorescent pseudomonads, may benefit from the unique redox-cycling properties of these versatile secondary metabolites.
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33
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Zhang Z, Ortega D, Rush A, Blankenship LR, Cheng ZJ, Moore RE, Tran MLN, Sandoval LG, Aboulhosn K, Watanabe S, Cortez KS, Perlman DH, Semmelhack MF, Miller Conrad LC. Antibiotic Adjuvant Activity Revealed in a Photoaffinity Approach to Determine the Molecular Target of Antipyocyanin Compounds. ACS Infect Dis 2021; 7:535-543. [PMID: 33587590 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.0c00160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Infections with Pseudomonas aeruginosa are a looming threat to public health. New treatment strategies are needed to combat this pathogen, for example, by blocking the production of virulence factors like pyocyanin. A photoaffinity analogue of an antipyocyanin compound was developed to interrogate the inhibitor's molecular mechanism of action. While we sought to develop antivirulence inhibitors, the proteomics results suggested that the compounds had antibiotic adjuvant activity. Unexpectedly, we found that these compounds amplify the bactericidal activity of colistin, a well-characterized antibiotic, suggesting they may represent a first-in-class antibiotic adjuvant therapy. Analogues have the potential not only to widen the therapeutic index of cationic antimicrobial peptides like colistin, but also to be effective against colistin-resistant strains, strengthening our arsenal to combat P. aeruginosa infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zinan Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, Princeton University, Washington Road, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, United States
| | - Dominic Ortega
- Department of Chemistry, San José State University, 1 Washington Square, San Jose, California 95192, United States
| | - Anthony Rush
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, 443 Via Ortega, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Lauren R. Blankenship
- Department of Chemistry, San José State University, 1 Washington Square, San Jose, California 95192, United States
| | - Zi Jun Cheng
- Department of Chemistry, San José State University, 1 Washington Square, San Jose, California 95192, United States
| | - Rebecca E. Moore
- Department of Chemistry, San José State University, 1 Washington Square, San Jose, California 95192, United States
| | - Minh L. N. Tran
- Department of Chemistry, San José State University, 1 Washington Square, San Jose, California 95192, United States
| | - Lucero G. Sandoval
- Department of Chemistry, San José State University, 1 Washington Square, San Jose, California 95192, United States
| | - Kareem Aboulhosn
- Department of Chemistry, San José State University, 1 Washington Square, San Jose, California 95192, United States
| | - Seiichiro Watanabe
- Department of Chemistry, San José State University, 1 Washington Square, San Jose, California 95192, United States
| | - Kendra S. Cortez
- Department of Chemistry, San José State University, 1 Washington Square, San Jose, California 95192, United States
| | - David H. Perlman
- Princeton Proteomics and Mass Spectrometry Center, Princeton University, Washington Road, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, United States
| | - Martin F. Semmelhack
- Department of Chemistry, Princeton University, Washington Road, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, United States
| | - Laura C. Miller Conrad
- Department of Chemistry, San José State University, 1 Washington Square, San Jose, California 95192, United States
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34
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Yashkin A, Rayo J, Grimm L, Welch M, Meijler MM. Short-chain reactive probes as tools to unravel the Pseudomonas aeruginosa quorum sensing regulon. Chem Sci 2021; 12:4570-4581. [PMID: 34163722 PMCID: PMC8179429 DOI: 10.1039/d0sc04444j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2020] [Accepted: 01/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, the world has seen a troubling increase in antibiotic resistance among bacterial pathogens. In order to provide alternative strategies to combat bacterial infections, it is crucial deepen our understanding into the mechanisms that pathogens use to thrive in complex environments. Most bacteria use sophisticated chemical communication systems to sense their population density and coordinate gene expression in a collective manner, a process that is termed "quorum sensing" (QS). The human pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa uses several small molecules to regulate QS, and one of them is N-butyryl-l-homoserine lactone (C4-HSL). Using an activity-based protein profiling (ABPP) strategy, we designed biomimetic probes with a photoreactive group and a 'click' tag as an analytical handle. Using these probes, we have identified previously uncharacterized proteins that are part of the P. aeruginosa QS network, and we uncovered an additional role for this natural autoinducer in the virulence regulon of P. aeruginosa, through its interaction with PhzB1/2 that results in inhibition of pyocyanin production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex Yashkin
- Dept. of Chemistry, The National Institute for Biotechnology in the Negev, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev Be'er Sheva 8410501 Israel
| | - Josep Rayo
- Dept. of Chemistry, The National Institute for Biotechnology in the Negev, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev Be'er Sheva 8410501 Israel
| | - Larson Grimm
- Dept. of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge UK
| | - Martin Welch
- Dept. of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge UK
| | - Michael M Meijler
- Dept. of Chemistry, The National Institute for Biotechnology in the Negev, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev Be'er Sheva 8410501 Israel
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35
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Schmitz S, Rosenbaum MA. Controlling the Production of Pseudomonas Phenazines by Modulating the Genetic Repertoire. ACS Chem Biol 2020; 15:3244-3252. [PMID: 33258592 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.0c00805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Microbial phenazines are getting increasing attention for antimicrobial and biotechnological applications. Phenazine production of the most well-known producer Pseudomonas aeruginosa is subject to a highly complex regulation network involving both quorum sensing and catabolite repression. These networks affect the expression of the two redundant phz gene operons responsible for phenazine-1-carboxylate (PCA) production and two specific genes phzM and phzS necessary for pyocyanin production. To decipher the specific functionality of these genes, in this study, specific phenazine gene deletion mutants of P. aeruginosa PA14 were generated and characterized in glucose and 2,3-butanediol media. Phenazine concentration and expression levels of the remaining genes were analyzed in parallel experiments. The findings suggest a strong dominance of operon phzA2-G2 resulting in a 10-fold higher expression of phz2 compared to phzA1-G1 and almost exclusive production of PCA from this operon. The genes phzM and phzS seem to exhibit antagonistic function in phenazine production. An upregulation of phzM explains the documented enhanced pyocyanin production in a 2,3-butanediol medium. Applied to a bioelectrochemical system, the altered phenazine production of the mutant strains is directly translated into current generation. Additionally, the deletion of the phenazine genes induced the activation of alternative energy pathways, which resulted in the accumulation of various fermentation products. Overall, modulating the genetic repertoire of the phenazine genes tremendously affects phenazine production levels, which are naturally kept in tight homeostasis in the P. aeruginosa wildtype. This important information can be directly utilized for ongoing efforts of heterologous biotechnological phenazine production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone Schmitz
- Institute of Applied Microbiology iAMB, Aachen Biology and Biotechnology ABBt, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Miriam A. Rosenbaum
- Bio Pilot Plant, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology − Hans-Knöll-Institute, Beutenbergstrasse 11a, Jena, Germany
- Faculty of Biological Sciences, Friedrich Schiller University, Jena, Germany
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36
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Inhibition of cholinesterases by safranin O: Integration of inhibition kinetics with molecular docking simulations. Arch Biochem Biophys 2020; 698:108728. [PMID: 33345803 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2020.108728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2020] [Revised: 12/03/2020] [Accepted: 12/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
In the present study, the inhibitory mechanisms and effects of a synthetic phenazine dye, safranin O (SO) on human plasma butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), human erythrocyte acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and recombinant BChE mutants were investigated. Kinetic studies showed the following information: SO leaded to linear competitive inhibition of human plasma BChE with Ki = 0.44 ± 0.085 μM; α = ∞. It acted as a hyperbolic noncompetitive inhibitor of human erythrocyte AChE with Ki = 0.69 ± 0.13; α = 1; β = 0.08 ± 0.02. On the other hand, the inhibitory effects of SO on two BChE mutants, where A328 was modified to either F or Y, revealed differences in terms of inhibitory patterns and Ki values, compared to the obtained results with recombinant wild type BChE. SO was found to act as a linear competitive inhibitor of A328F and A328Y BChE mutants. Compared to recombinant wild type BChE, A328Y and A328F BChE mutants caused a 4- and 10-fold decrease in Ki value for SO, respectively. These findings were supported by molecular modelling studies. In conclusion, SO is a potent inhibitor of human cholinesterases and may be useful in the design and development of new drugs for the treatment of AD.
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Velmurugan P, Venil CK, Veera Ravi A, Dufossé L. Marine Bacteria Is the Cell Factory to Produce Bioactive Pigments: A Prospective Pigment Source in the Ocean. FRONTIERS IN SUSTAINABLE FOOD SYSTEMS 2020. [DOI: 10.3389/fsufs.2020.589655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The course of investigations of bioactive compounds like bacterial pigments from the marine environment has greatly expanded in the recent decades. Despite the huge concern in secluding and collecting marine bacteria, microbial metabolites are progressively alluring to science due to their wide ranging applications in various fields, particularly those with distinctive color pigments. This review is a short appraisal of the studies undertaken over the past 5 years on the bacterial pigments sourced from the marine environment. Herein, we have reviewed the potential of different bacterial species isolated from marine environment in diverse studies that are producing bioactive pigments that have potential commercial applications.
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Elhady HA, El-Mekawy RE, Fadda AA. Valuable Chemistry of Phenazine Derivatives: Synthesis, Reactions and, Applications. Polycycl Aromat Compd 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/10406638.2020.1833051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Heba A. Elhady
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Al-Azhar University (Girls Branch), Youssef Abbas Str. Cairo, Egypt
| | - Rasha E. El-Mekawy
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Applied Sciences, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Petrochemicals, Egyptian Petroleum Research Institute, Nasr City, Cairo, Egypt
| | - A. A. Fadda
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt
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Daura-Pich O, Hernández I, Pinyol-Escala L, Lara JM, Martínez-Servat S, Fernández C, López-García B. No antibiotic and toxic metabolites produced by the biocontrol agent Pseudomonas putida strain B2017. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2020; 367:5826813. [DOI: 10.1093/femsle/fnaa075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2019] [Accepted: 04/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
ABSTRACTPseudomonas putida and closely-related species such as Pseudomonas fluorescens and Pseudomonas brassicacearum have been reported as potential biocontrol agents and plant growth-promoters. Recently, we have described the biocontrol activity of P. putida B2017 against several phytopathogens of agricultural relevance. In this study, its ability to produce potential antibiotic / toxic metabolites was assessed by functional, chromatography-mass spectrometry and genomic analysis. Our results show that B2017 is not able to synthesize surfactants and common antibiotics produced by Pseudomonas spp., i.e. pyrrolnitrin, 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol, pyoluteorin and pyocyanin, but it produces pyoverdine, a siderophore which is involved in its biocontrol activity. The non-production of other metabolites, such as cyanide, safracin, promysalin and lipopeptides between others, is also discussed. Our data suggest that the mode of action of B2017 is not mainly due to the production of antimicrobial / toxic metabolites. Moreover, these features make P. putida B2017 a promising biocontrol microorganism for plant protection without side effects on environment, non-target organisms and human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oriol Daura-Pich
- Futureco Bioscience S. A., Avinguda del Cadí 19–23, 08799 Olérdola (Barcelona), Spain
| | - Iker Hernández
- Futureco Bioscience S. A., Avinguda del Cadí 19–23, 08799 Olérdola (Barcelona), Spain
| | - Lola Pinyol-Escala
- Futureco Bioscience S. A., Avinguda del Cadí 19–23, 08799 Olérdola (Barcelona), Spain
| | - Jose M Lara
- Futureco Bioscience S. A., Avinguda del Cadí 19–23, 08799 Olérdola (Barcelona), Spain
| | - Sonia Martínez-Servat
- Futureco Bioscience S. A., Avinguda del Cadí 19–23, 08799 Olérdola (Barcelona), Spain
| | - Carolina Fernández
- Futureco Bioscience S. A., Avinguda del Cadí 19–23, 08799 Olérdola (Barcelona), Spain
| | - Belén López-García
- Futureco Bioscience S. A., Avinguda del Cadí 19–23, 08799 Olérdola (Barcelona), Spain
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40
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Yan L, Li Y, Yang B, Gao W. InBr3-Catalyzed Synthesis of Highly Functionalized Piperidines and Benzo[a]Pyrano[2,3-c] Phenazines. Polycycl Aromat Compd 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/10406638.2020.1744026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Li Yan
- School of Engineering, Honghe University, Mengzi, China
| | - Yingfang Li
- School of Engineering, Honghe University, Mengzi, China
| | - Bo Yang
- School of Engineering, Honghe University, Mengzi, China
| | - Wei Gao
- School of Information Science and Technology, Yunnan Normal University, Kunming, China
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41
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Structure and Bioactive Properties of Novel Textile Dyes Synthesised by Fungal Laccase. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21062052. [PMID: 32192097 PMCID: PMC7139866 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21062052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2020] [Revised: 03/11/2020] [Accepted: 03/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Novel sustainable processes involving oxidative enzymatic catalysts are considered as an alternative for classical organic chemistry. The unique physicochemical and bioactive properties of novel bio-products can be obtained using fungal laccase as catalyst. Among them are textile biodyes synthesised during oxidation of substrates belonging to the amine and methoxy organic derivatives. The process of synthesis occurs in mild conditions of pH, temperature, and pressure, and without using harmful oxidants. The effect of fungal laccase activity on the substrates mixture transformation efficiency was analysed in terms of antimicrobial dye synthesis on a large scale. Three new phenazine dyes, obtained in the presence of laccase from Cerrena unicolor, were studied for their structure and properties. The phenazine core structure of the products was a result of tri-molecular transformation of aminomethoxybenzoic acid and aminonaphthalene sulfonic acid isomers. One of the compounds from the synthesised dye, namely 10-((2-carboxy-6-methoxyphenyl)amino)-11-methoxybenzo[a]phenazine-8-carboxylic acid, was able to inhibit the growth of Staphylococcus aureus. The high concentration of substrates (5 g/L) was efficiently transformed during 72 h in the mild conditions of pH 4 with the use of laccase with an activity of 200 U per g of the substrates mixture. The new bioactive dye exhibited excellent dyeing properties with concomitant antibacterial and antioxidative activity. The proposed enzyme-mediated synthesis represents an alternative eco-friendly route for the synthesis of novel antimicrobial compounds with high importance for the medical textile industry.
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Froes TQ, Baldini RL, Vajda S, Castilho MS. Structure-based Druggability Assessment of Anti-virulence Targets from Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Curr Protein Pept Sci 2020; 20:1189-1203. [PMID: 31038064 DOI: 10.2174/1389203720666190417120758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2018] [Revised: 02/12/2019] [Accepted: 02/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) represents a serious threat to health and the global economy. However, interest in antibacterial drug development has decreased substantially in recent decades. Meanwhile, anti-virulence drug development has emerged as an attractive alternative to fight AMR. Although several macromolecular targets have been explored for this goal, their druggability is a vital piece of information that has been overlooked. This review explores this subject by showing how structure- based freely available in silico tools, such as PockDrug and FTMap, might be useful for designing novel inhibitors of the pyocyanin biosynthesis pathway and improving the potency/selectivity of compounds that target the Pseudomonas aeruginosa quorum sensing mechanism. The information provided by hotspot analysis, along with binding site features, reveals novel druggable targets (PhzA and PhzS) that remain largely unexplored. However, it also highlights that in silico druggability prediction tools have several limitations that might be overcome in the near future. Meanwhile, anti-virulence drug targets should be assessed by complementary methods, such as the combined use of FTMap/PockDrug, once the consensus druggability classification reduces the risk of wasting resources on undruggable proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thamires Q Froes
- Programa de Pos-Graduacao em Biotecnologia da Universidade Estadual de Feira de Santana, Feira de Santana, BA, Brazil.,aculdade de Farmácia da Universidade Federal da Bahia, Bahia, Salvador, BA, Brazil
| | - Regina L Baldini
- Departamento de Bioquimica, Instituto de Quimica, Universidade de Sao Paulo. Sao Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Sandor Vajda
- College of Engineering, Boston University, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Marcelo S Castilho
- Programa de Pos-Graduacao em Biotecnologia da Universidade Estadual de Feira de Santana, Feira de Santana, BA, Brazil.,aculdade de Farmácia da Universidade Federal da Bahia, Bahia, Salvador, BA, Brazil.,College of Engineering, Boston University, Boston, MA, United States
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43
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DeBritto S, Gajbar TD, Satapute P, Sundaram L, Lakshmikantha RY, Jogaiah S, Ito SI. Isolation and characterization of nutrient dependent pyocyanin from Pseudomonas aeruginosa and its dye and agrochemical properties. Sci Rep 2020; 10:1542. [PMID: 32005900 PMCID: PMC6994680 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-58335-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2019] [Accepted: 11/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Pyocyanin is a blue green phenazine pigment produced in large quantities by active cultures of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, with advantageous applications in medicine, agriculture and for the environment. Hence, in the present study, a potent bacterium was isolated from agricultural soil and was identified morphologically and by 16S rRNA sequencing as P. aeruginosa (isolate KU_BIO2). When the influence of nutrient supplements in both King’s A and Nutrient media as amended was investigated, an enhanced pyocyanin production of 2.56 µg ml−1 was achieved in King’s A medium amended with soya bean followed by 1.702 µg ml−1 of pyocyanin from the nutrient medium amended with sweet potato. Purified pyocyanin was characterized by UV-Vis Spectrophotometer and Fourier-Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Furthermore, Liquid Chromatography Mass Spectrum (LCMS) and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) confirmed its mass value at 211 and as N-CH3 protons resonating at 3.363 ppm as a singlet respectively. The isolated pyocyanin displayed remarkable dye property by inducing color change in cotton cloth from white to pink. Lastly, the antifungal activity of test pyocyanin showed inhibition of growth of rice blast fungus, Magnaporthe grisea and bacterial blight of rice, Xanthomonas oryzae at concentrations of 150 and 200 ppm, respectively. Thus, this investigation provides evidence for diverse actions of pyocyanin which are nutrient dependent and are capable of acting on a large scale, by utilizing microbes existing in agriculture wastes, and thus could be used as an alternative source in the making of natural textile dyes with strong durability and a broad spectrum of ecofriendly agrochemicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Savitha DeBritto
- Laboratory of Plant Healthcare and Diagnostics, P.G. Department of Biotechnology and Microbiology, Karnatak University, Dharwad, Karnataka, 580003, India.,Division of Biological Sciences, School of Science and Technology, The University of Goroka, Goroka, 441, Papua New Guinea
| | - Tanzeembanu D Gajbar
- Laboratory of Plant Healthcare and Diagnostics, P.G. Department of Biotechnology and Microbiology, Karnatak University, Dharwad, Karnataka, 580003, India
| | - Praveen Satapute
- Laboratory of Plant Healthcare and Diagnostics, P.G. Department of Biotechnology and Microbiology, Karnatak University, Dharwad, Karnataka, 580003, India
| | - Lalitha Sundaram
- Department of Botany, Periyar Palkalai Nagar, Periyar University, Salem, 636011, Tamil Nadu, India
| | | | - Sudisha Jogaiah
- Laboratory of Plant Healthcare and Diagnostics, P.G. Department of Biotechnology and Microbiology, Karnatak University, Dharwad, Karnataka, 580003, India.
| | - Shin-Ichi Ito
- Laboratory of Molecular Plant Pathology, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Graduate School of Sciences and Technology for Innovation, Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, 753-8515, Japan. .,Research Center for Thermotolerant Microbial Resources (RCTMR), Yamaguchi University, Yamaguchi, 753-8515, Japan.
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44
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Onder S, Biberoglu K, Tacal O. The kinetics of inhibition of human acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase by methylene violet 3RAX. Chem Biol Interact 2019; 314:108845. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2019.108845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2019] [Revised: 09/26/2019] [Accepted: 10/04/2019] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
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45
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Yadav S, Kapley A. Exploration of activated sludge resistome using metagenomics. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 692:1155-1164. [PMID: 31539947 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.07.267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2019] [Revised: 07/17/2019] [Accepted: 07/17/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Antibiotic resistance is a global problem. In India poor waste management and inadequate sanitary are key factors which encourage the dissemination of antimicrobial resistance. Microbial biodiversity serves as an invaluable source for diverse types of bioactive compounds that encompass most of the pharmaceuticals to date. Therefore, in this study, we used the metagenomic approach for the surveillance of antibiotic resistance genes, drug resistant microbes and mobile-genetic elements in two activated sludge metagenome samples collected from Ankleshwar, Gujarat, India. Proteobacteria were found to be the most abundant bacteria among the metagenome analyzed. Twenty-four genes conferring resistance to antibiotics and heavy metals were found. Multidrug resistant "ESKAPE pathogens" were also abundant in the sludge metagenome. Mobile genetic elements like IncP-1 plasmid pKJK5, IncP-1beta multi resistance plasmid and pB8 were also noticed in the higher abundance. These plasmids play an important role in the spread of antibiotic resistance by the horizontal gene transfer. Statistical analysis of both metagenome using STAMP software confirmed presence of mobile genetic elements such as gene transfer agents, phages, Prophages etc. which also play important role in the dissemination of antibiotic resistant genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shailendra Yadav
- Director's Research Cell, National Environmental, Engineering Research Institute (CSIR-NEERI), Nehru Marg, Nagpur 440020, India
| | - Atya Kapley
- Director's Research Cell, National Environmental, Engineering Research Institute (CSIR-NEERI), Nehru Marg, Nagpur 440020, India.
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Thomashow LS, Kwak YS, Weller DM. Root-associated microbes in sustainable agriculture: models, metabolites and mechanisms. PEST MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2019; 75:2360-2367. [PMID: 30868729 DOI: 10.1002/ps.5406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2018] [Revised: 03/04/2019] [Accepted: 03/05/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Since the discovery of penicillin in 1928 and throughout the 'age of antibiotics' from the 1940s until the 1980s, the detection of novel antibiotics was restricted by lack of knowledge about the distribution and ecology of antibiotic producers in nature. The discovery that a phenazine compound produced by Pseudomonas bacteria could suppress soilborne plant pathogens, and its recovery from rhizosphere soil in 1990, provided the first incontrovertible evidence that natural metabolites could control plant pathogens in the environment and opened a new era in biological control by root-associated rhizobacteria. More recently, the advent of genomics, the availability of highly sensitive bioanalytical instrumentation, and the discovery of protective endophytes have accelerated progress toward overcoming many of the impediments that until now have limited the exploitation of beneficial plant-associated microbes to enhance agricultural sustainability. Here, we present key developments that have established the importance of these microbes in the control of pathogens, discuss concepts resulting from the exploration of classical model systems, and highlight advances emerging from ongoing investigations. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda S Thomashow
- USDA, Agricultural Research Service, Wheat Health, Genetics and Quality Research Unit, Department of Plant Pathology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA
| | - Youn-Sig Kwak
- Department of Plant Medicine and Institute of Agriculture and Life Science, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, Republic of Korea
| | - David M Weller
- USDA, Agricultural Research Service, Wheat Health, Genetics and Quality Research Unit, Department of Plant Pathology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA
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Askitosari TD, Boto ST, Blank LM, Rosenbaum MA. Boosting Heterologous Phenazine Production in Pseudomonas putida KT2440 Through the Exploration of the Natural Sequence Space. Front Microbiol 2019; 10:1990. [PMID: 31555229 PMCID: PMC6722869 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2019.01990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2019] [Accepted: 08/13/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Phenazine-1-carboxylic acid (PCA) and its derivative pyocyanin (PYO) are natural redox mediators in bioelectrochemical systems and have the potential to enable new bioelectrochemical production strategies. The native producer Pseudomonas aeruginosa harbors two identically structured operons in its genome, which encode the enzymes responsible for PCA synthesis [phzA1-G1 (operon 1), phzA2-G2 (operon 2)]. To optimize heterologous phenazines production in the biotech host Pseudomonas putida KT2440, we compared PCA production from both operons originating from P. aeruginosa strain PAO1 (O1.phz1 and O1.phz2) as well as from P. aeruginosa strain PA14 (14.phz1 and 14.phz2). Comparisons of phenazine synthesis and bioelectrochemical activity were performed between heterologous constructs with and without the combination with the genes phzM and phzS required to convert PCA to PYO. Despite a high amino acid homology of all enzymes of more than 97%, P. putida harboring 14.phz2 produced 4-times higher PCA concentrations (80 μg/mL), which resulted in 3-times higher current densities (12 μA/cm2) compared to P. putida 14.phz1. The respective PCA/PYO producer containing the 14.phz2 operon was the best strain with 80 μg/mL PCA, 11 μg/mL PYO, and 22 μA/cm2 current density. Tailoring phenazine production also resulted in improved oxygen-limited metabolic activity of the bacterium through enhanced anodic electron discharge. To elucidate the reason for this superior performance, a detailed structure comparison of the PCA-synthesizing proteins has been performed. The here presented characterization and optimization of these new strains will be useful to improve electroactivity in P. putida for oxygen-limited biocatalysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theresia D Askitosari
- Institute of Applied Microbiology - iAMB, Aachen Biology and Biotechnology - ABBt, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Santiago T Boto
- Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology - Hans Knöll Institute, Jena, Germany.,Faculty of Biological Sciences, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Lars M Blank
- Institute of Applied Microbiology - iAMB, Aachen Biology and Biotechnology - ABBt, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Miriam A Rosenbaum
- Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology - Hans Knöll Institute, Jena, Germany.,Faculty of Biological Sciences, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany
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48
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Synthesis and characterization of spinel FeAl2O4 (hercynite) magnetic nanoparticles and their application in multicomponent reactions. RESEARCH ON CHEMICAL INTERMEDIATES 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s11164-019-03930-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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49
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Wang X, Abbas M, Zhang Y, Elshahawi SI, Ponomareva LV, Cui Z, Van Lanen SG, Sajid I, Voss SR, Shaaban KA, Thorson JS. Baraphenazines A-G, Divergent Fused Phenazine-Based Metabolites from a Himalayan Streptomyces. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2019; 82:1686-1693. [PMID: 31117525 PMCID: PMC6630045 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.9b00289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
The structures and bioactivities of three unprecedented fused 5-hydroxyquinoxaline/alpha-keto acid amino acid metabolites (baraphenazines A-C, 1-3), two unique diastaphenazine-type metabolites (baraphenazines D and E, 4 and 5) and two new phenazinolin-type (baraphenazines F and G, 6 and 7) metabolites from the Himalayan isolate Streptomyces sp. PU-10A are reported. This study highlights the first reported bacterial strain capable of producing diastaphenazine-type, phenazinolin-type, and izumiphenazine A-type metabolites and presents a unique opportunity for the future biosynthetic interrogation of late-stage phenazine-based metabolite maturation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiachang Wang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Functional Substances of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing 210023, People’s Republic of China
- Center for Pharmaceutical Research and Innovation, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536, United States
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536, United States
| | - Muhammad Abbas
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of the Punjab, Quid-i-Azam campus, Lahore 54590, Pakistan
| | - Yinan Zhang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Functional Substances of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing 210023, People’s Republic of China
- Center for Pharmaceutical Research and Innovation, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536, United States
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536, United States
| | - Sherif I. Elshahawi
- Center for Pharmaceutical Research and Innovation, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536, United States
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536, United States
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chapman University School of Pharmacy, Irvine, California 92618, United States
| | - Larissa V. Ponomareva
- Center for Pharmaceutical Research and Innovation, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536, United States
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536, United States
| | - Zheng Cui
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536, United States
| | - Steven G. Van Lanen
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536, United States
| | - Imran Sajid
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of the Punjab, Quid-i-Azam campus, Lahore 54590, Pakistan
| | - S. Randal Voss
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506, United States
- Ambystoma Genetic Stock Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506, United States
- Spinal Cord and Brain Injury Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506, United States
| | - Khaled A. Shaaban
- Center for Pharmaceutical Research and Innovation, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536, United States
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536, United States
- Corresponding Authors.,
| | - Jon S. Thorson
- Center for Pharmaceutical Research and Innovation, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536, United States
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536, United States
- Corresponding Authors.,
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50
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Bauman KD, Li J, Murata K, Mantovani SM, Dahesh S, Nizet V, Luhavaya H, Moore BS. Refactoring the Cryptic Streptophenazine Biosynthetic Gene Cluster Unites Phenazine, Polyketide, and Nonribosomal Peptide Biochemistry. Cell Chem Biol 2019; 26:724-736.e7. [PMID: 30853419 PMCID: PMC6525064 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2019.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2018] [Revised: 01/02/2019] [Accepted: 01/31/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The disconnect between the genomic prediction of secondary metabolite biosynthetic potential and the observed laboratory production profile of microorganisms is well documented. While heterologous expression of biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) is often seen as a potential solution to bridge this gap, it is not immune to many challenges including impaired regulation, the inability to recruit essential building blocks, and transcriptional and/or translational silence of the biosynthetic genes. Here we report the discovery, cloning, refactoring, and heterologous expression of a cryptic hybrid phenazine-type BGC (spz) from the marine actinomycete Streptomyces sp. CNB-091. Overexpression of the engineered spz pathway resulted in increased production and chemical diversity of phenazine natural products belonging to the streptophenazine family, including bioactive members containing an unprecedented N-formylglycine attachment. An atypical discrete adenylation enzyme in the spz cluster is required to introduce the formylglycine moiety and represents a phylogenetically distinct class of adenylation proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine D Bauman
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Jie Li
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Kazuya Murata
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Simone M Mantovani
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Samira Dahesh
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Victor Nizet
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA; Collaborative to Halt Antibiotic Resistant Microbes, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA; Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Hanna Luhavaya
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.
| | - Bradley S Moore
- Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA; Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA.
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