1
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Siegel KR, Murray BR, Gearhart J, Kassotis CD. In vitro endocrine and cardiometabolic toxicity associated with artificial turf materials. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2024; 111:104562. [PMID: 39245243 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2024.104562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2024] [Revised: 08/30/2024] [Accepted: 09/02/2024] [Indexed: 09/10/2024]
Abstract
Artificial turf, a consumer product growing in usage in the United States, contains diverse chemicals, some of which are endocrine disruptive. Endocrine effects from turf material extracts have been primarily limited to one component, crumb rubber, of these multi-material products. We present in vitro bioactivities from non-weathered and weathered turf sample extracts, including multiple turf components. All weathered samples were collected from real-world turf fields. Non-weathered versus weathered differentially affected the androgen (AR), estrogen (ER), glucocorticoid (GR), and thyroid receptors (TR) in reporter bioassays. While weathered extracts more efficaciously activated peroxisome proliferator activated receptor γ (PPARγ), this did not translate to greater in vitro adipogenic potential. All turf extracts activated the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR). High AhR-efficacy extracts induced modest rat cardiomyoblast toxicity in an AhR-dependent manner. Our data demonstrate potential endocrine and cardiometabolic effects from artificial turf material extracts, warranting further investigation into potential exposures and human health effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle R Siegel
- Department of Pharmacology and Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48202, United States
| | - Brooklynn R Murray
- Department of Pharmacology and Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48202, United States
| | - Jeff Gearhart
- Research Director, Ecology Center, Ann Arbor, MI 48104, United States
| | - Christopher D Kassotis
- Department of Pharmacology and Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48202, United States.
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2
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Milan J, Jurowski K. Hazardous elements in plastic and rubber granules as infill material from sports facilities? Field Portable-XRF spectroscopy as 'white analytical technique' reveals hazardous elements in fall sports facilities in Rzeszów (Podkarpackie, Poland). THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 916:170280. [PMID: 38272072 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.170280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2023] [Revised: 01/16/2024] [Accepted: 01/17/2024] [Indexed: 01/27/2024]
Abstract
Plastic and rubber granules are commonly used as infill material in all-weather sports facilities, providing an ideal activity surface for millions of Europeans on a daily basis. However, concerns have been raised about the presence of hazardous elements in these granules, which can pose risks both to the environment and human health. Our study focusses on the elemental composition of rubber granules used in fall sports facilities in Rzeszów, (Podkarpackie, Poland) using field portable X-ray fluorescence (FP-XRF) as a non-destructive and 'white analytical technique'. The results show the content of Zn, Fe, Cr, Ba, Br, Ti, Cu, Cd, As, Au, Bi, Pb, Ni, Sb, and Sn in the rubber granule samples. This study highlights the need for stringent quality control measures and regulations to ensure the safety of all-weather sports facilities and protect the well-being of sportsman. When modern FP-XRF spectrometry is employed as a "white analytical technique," for the first time it becomes possible to identify the presence of hazardous elements, addressing the pressing concerns highlighted by the ECHA and enabling proactive measures to mitigate potential risks. This approach ensures the protection of the health and sustainability of sports facilities, contributing to the ongoing hot topics in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justyna Milan
- Laboratory of Innovative Toxicological Research and Analyzes, Institute of Medical Studies, Medical College, Rzeszów University, Al. mjr. W. Kopisto 2a, 35-959 Rzeszów, Poland
| | - Kamil Jurowski
- Laboratory of Innovative Toxicological Research and Analyzes, Institute of Medical Studies, Medical College, Rzeszów University, Al. mjr. W. Kopisto 2a, 35-959 Rzeszów, Poland; Department of Regulatory and Forensic Toxicology, Institute of Medical Expertises, Łódź, ul. Aleksandrowska 67/93, 91-205 Łódź, Poland.
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3
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Dudefoi W, Ferrari BJD, Breider F, Masset T, Leger G, Vermeirssen E, Bergmann AJ, Schirmer K. Evaluation of tire tread particle toxicity to fish using rainbow trout cell lines. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 912:168933. [PMID: 38042189 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.168933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2023] [Revised: 11/22/2023] [Accepted: 11/25/2023] [Indexed: 12/04/2023]
Abstract
Tire and road wear particles (TRWP) resulting from tire abrasion while driving raise concerns due to their potential contribution to aquatic toxicity. Our study aimed to assess cryogenically milled tire tread (CMTT) particle toxicity, used as a proxy for TRWP, and associated chemicals to fish using two Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) cell lines representing the gill (RTgill-W1) and the intestinal (RTgutGC) epithelium. CMTT toxicity was evaluated through several exposure pathways, including direct contact, leaching, and digestion, while also assessing the impact of particle aging. Following OECD TG249, cell viability was assessed after 24 h acute exposure using a multiple-endpoint assay indicative of cell metabolic activity, membrane integrity and lysosome integrity. In vitro EC50 values for the fish cell lines exceeded river TRWP concentrations (2.02 g/L and 4.65 g/L for RTgill-W1 and RTgutGC cell lines, respectively), and were similar to in vivo LC50 values estimated at 6 g/L. Although toxicity was mainly driven by the leaching of tire-associated chemicals, the presence of the particles contributed to the overall toxicity by inducing a continuous leaching, highlighting the importance of considering combined exposure scenarios. Aging and digestion conditions were also found to mediate CMTT toxicity. Thermooxidation resulted in a decreased chemical leaching and toxicity, while in vitro digestion under mimicked gastrointestinal conditions increased leaching and toxicity. Specific chemicals, especially Zn, 2-mercaptobenzothiazole, 1,3-diphenylguanidine, and N-(1,3-dimethylbutyl)-N'-phenyl-p-phenylenediamine (6PPD) were identified as contributors to the overall toxicity. Although 6PPD-quinone was detected in CMTT digestate, cytotoxicity assays with RTgill-W1 and RTgutGC cell lines showed no toxicity up to 6 mg/L, supporting the notion of a specific mode of action of this chemical. This study provides insights into the toxicological mechanisms induced by tire particles and their associated chemicals and can help in the evaluation of potential risks to aquatic life associated with TRWP.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Dudefoi
- Eawag - Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Department Environmental Toxicology, Überlandstrasse 133, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland.
| | - B J D Ferrari
- Ecotox Centre - EPFL ENAC IIE, GE, Station 2, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland; Ecotox Centre, Überlandstrasse 133, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - F Breider
- EPFL, Central Environmental Laboratory, IIE, ENAC, Station 2, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - T Masset
- EPFL, Central Environmental Laboratory, IIE, ENAC, Station 2, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - G Leger
- EPFL, Central Environmental Laboratory, IIE, ENAC, Station 2, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - E Vermeirssen
- Ecotox Centre, Überlandstrasse 133, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - A J Bergmann
- Ecotox Centre, Überlandstrasse 133, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - K Schirmer
- Eawag - Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Department Environmental Toxicology, Überlandstrasse 133, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland; EPFL, School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Lausanne 1015, Switzerland; ETHZ, Institute of Biogeochemistry and Pollutant Dynamics, Zurich 8092, Switzerland
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4
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Winz R, Yu LL, Sung LP, Tong YJ, Chen D. Assessing children's potential exposures to harmful metals in tire crumb rubber by accelerated photodegradation weathering. Sci Rep 2023; 13:13877. [PMID: 37620365 PMCID: PMC10449860 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-38574-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2023] [Accepted: 07/11/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Whether a tire crumb rubber (TCR) playground would expose children to potentially harmful chemicals such as heavy metals is an open question. The released metals available for pickup on the surface of TCR tiles was studied by accelerated 2-year aging of the TCRs in the NIST-SPHERE (National Institute of Standards and Technology Simulated Photodegradation via High Energy Radiant Exposure). The dermal contact was mimicked by a method of composite surface wiping from US Environmental Protection Agency throughout the weathering process. The surface release of ten most concerned harmful metals (Be, Cr, Cu, As, Se, Cd, Sb, Ba, Tl, Pb) was monitored through the course of aging. The cumulative release of Cu, As, Tl, and Sb reached potentially harmful levels at various times within 3 years, although only Cr was found at a harmful level on the surface of the tiles. Taking the cleansing effect of precipitation or periodic cleansing with rain into account, TCR playgrounds may still be safe for use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robyn Winz
- Environmental Metrology and Policy Program, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, 20057, USA
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 20899, USA
| | - Lee L Yu
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 20899, USA.
| | - Li-Piin Sung
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 20899, USA
| | - YuYe J Tong
- Environmental Metrology and Policy Program, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, 20057, USA
| | - Dejun Chen
- Environmental Metrology and Policy Program, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, 20057, USA.
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5
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Li K, Su H, Xiu X, Liu C, Hao W. Tire wear particles in different water environments: occurrence, behavior, and biological effects-a review and perspectives. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:90574-90594. [PMID: 37481496 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-28899-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2023] [Accepted: 07/17/2023] [Indexed: 07/24/2023]
Abstract
As an important source of microplastics, the water ecological risk of tire wear particles (TWPs) has attracted widespread attention worldwide. However, the occurrence and behavior of TWPs and their biological effects in water environments have not been clearly analyzed. For example, most contemporary studies have focused on the evaluation of the aquatic toxicity of TWPs leachate, and little attention has been paid to the behavior process and potential risks of its surface properties in water environments. In addition, most studies rely on preparing TWPs under laboratory conditions or purchasing commercial TWPs for studying their water environmental behavior or exposure. These obviously cannot meet the requirements of accurate assessment of water ecological risks of TWPs. As thus, in addition to describing the occurrence, distribution, and (aging) transformation of TWPs in different water environments, we further tried to explain the potential water environment behavior process and multiple pathways leading to potential adverse impacts of TWPs on aquatic organisms from the perspectives of particle self-toxicity and release toxicity, as well as synergistic effects of TWPs and other substances are also discussed. The existing data, such as studies on the self-characteristics of TWPs, environmental factors, and subjects, are insufficient to comprehensively evaluate the recent changes in essential water ecosystem services and multifunctions caused by TWPs, implying that the impact of TWPs on water environmental health needs to be further evaluated, and the corresponding countermeasures should be recommended. In this context, the current review provides an outlook on future research on TWPs in aquatic environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kun Li
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing, 210044, China.
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Environment Monitoring and Pollution Control, Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Atmospheric Environment and Equipment Technology, Nanjing, China.
| | - Han Su
- Changwang School of Honors, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing, 210044, China
| | - Xiaojia Xiu
- Changwang School of Honors, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing, 210044, China
| | - Chi Liu
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing, 210044, China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Environment Monitoring and Pollution Control, Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Atmospheric Environment and Equipment Technology, Nanjing, China
| | - Wanqi Hao
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing, 210044, China
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Environment Monitoring and Pollution Control, Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Atmospheric Environment and Equipment Technology, Nanjing, China
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6
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Zhang X, Gu Y, Wang Y, Liu J, Jiang Y, Tian Y, Zhang Z, Tan C, Wang Y, Li H, Hu Y. Occurrence and risk assessment of PAHs from athletic fields under typical rainfall events. WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY : A JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION ON WATER POLLUTION RESEARCH 2023; 87:2159-2171. [PMID: 37186621 PMCID: wst_2023_092 DOI: 10.2166/wst.2023.092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Six polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) including naphthalene (Nap), fluorene (Flu), phenanthrene (Phe), fluoranthene (Fla), pyrene (Pyr), and chrysene (Chr) were detected in runoff from five athletic fields during three rainfall events. The event mean concentration (EMC) of ∑6PAHs ranged from 3.96 to 23.23 μg/L, which was much higher than the EMC in urban traffic area runoff. Except for Nap, the PAH concentrations followed in the order of artificial turf > badminton court > basketball court > plastic runway > optennis court. The surface characteristics of the athletic fields, such as the composition of materials and roughness, played an essential role in the release of PAHs. ∑6PAHs concentration during the 2nd rainfall event (July 22nd) was the highest among the three rainfall events, indicating that high rainfall intensity facilitated the PAHs release. PAHs during three rainfall events showed little first flush effect except for the artificial turf during the 2nd (22nd July) and 3rd (29th July) rainfall events. The first flush effect could be affected by rainfall characters, PAH properties, and surface characteristics of athletic fields. Ecological risk assessment showed that PAHs in runoff corresponded to moderate-to-high risk, while health risk assessment showed that PAHs could pose a potential carcinogenic danger to human health via dermal contact.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoran Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Urban Stormwater System and Water Environment, Ministry of Education, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 102616, China E-mail: ; Beijing Engineering Research Center of Sustainable Urban Sewage System Construction and Risk Control, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 100044, China
| | - Yuyang Gu
- Key Laboratory of Urban Stormwater System and Water Environment, Ministry of Education, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 102616, China E-mail: ; Beijing Engineering Research Center of Sustainable Urban Sewage System Construction and Risk Control, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 100044, China
| | - Yinrui Wang
- Key Laboratory of Urban Stormwater System and Water Environment, Ministry of Education, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 102616, China E-mail:
| | - Junfeng Liu
- Department of Water Conservancy and Civil Engineering, Beijing Vocational College of Agriculture, Beijing 102442, China
| | - Yucheng Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Urban Stormwater System and Water Environment, Ministry of Education, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 102616, China E-mail:
| | - Yiran Tian
- Key Laboratory of Urban Stormwater System and Water Environment, Ministry of Education, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 102616, China E-mail: ; Beijing Engineering Research Center of Sustainable Urban Sewage System Construction and Risk Control, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 100044, China
| | - Ziyang Zhang
- Beijing Engineering Research Center of Sustainable Urban Sewage System Construction and Risk Control, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 100044, China
| | - Chaohong Tan
- Key Laboratory of Urban Stormwater System and Water Environment, Ministry of Education, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 102616, China E-mail: ; Beijing Engineering Research Center of Sustainable Urban Sewage System Construction and Risk Control, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 100044, China
| | - Yu Wang
- Key Laboratory of Urban Stormwater System and Water Environment, Ministry of Education, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 102616, China E-mail:
| | - Haiyan Li
- Key Laboratory of Urban Stormwater System and Water Environment, Ministry of Education, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 102616, China E-mail: ; Beijing Engineering Research Center of Sustainable Urban Sewage System Construction and Risk Control, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 100044, China
| | - Yuansheng Hu
- Department of Civil Engineering and Construction, Faculty of Engineering and Design, Atlantic Technological University Sligo, Sligo F91YW50, Ireland
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7
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Moreno T, Balasch A, Bartrolí R, Eljarrat E. A new look at rubber recycling and recreational surfaces: The inorganic and OPE chemistry of vulcanised elastomers used in playgrounds and sports facilities. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 868:161648. [PMID: 36669664 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.161648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2022] [Revised: 12/23/2022] [Accepted: 01/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
We revisit current understanding of the chemical complexity of different kinds of particulate vulcanised elastomers widely used in playgrounds and sports fields, adding new data on trace element and organophosphate ester contents of used tyre and EDPM crumb rubber. Enrichments in elements such as Zn, S, Co, Bi and Nd relate to the vulcanised mixtures created during manufacture. Zinc concentrations vary across an order of magnitude, being highest in our used tyre particulate samples (up to 2.4 %). In contrast, other trace element variations are due to coloured pigments causing increases in Cu and Zr (blue), Cr (green), and Fe and Sn (red and yellow) concentrations. The use of pale fillers such as CaCO3 and clay minerals (rather than carbon black) strongly influences Ca and Al concentrations, which are much higher in the coloured EPDM than in black used tyre crumb rubber. Representatives from all three of the main organophosphate ester (OPE) groups, namely chlorinated (e.g. TCEP, TCIPP, TDCPP), alkyl (e.g. TEHP, TEP, TNBP, TBOEP) and aryl (e.g. TPHP, EHDPP, TCP) were identified, confirming how these chemicals are commonly used in modern rubber compounding as flame retardants and plasticisers. Elevated concentrations of TEHP (up to 117 μg/g) in coloured-coated used tyre turf infill crumb rubbers were traced to the coating rather than the crumb rubber itself. The presence and weathering behaviour of OPEs in recreational crumb rubber materials deserve closer investigation. The ecological "onehealth" impact of potentially toxic substances present in recreational crumb rubbers will depend on if and how they are released during play and sports activities, maintenance procedures, and natural weathering. We argue that detailed chemical data on these materials should be available to buyers, as manufacturers strive to reduce ecotoxin content as part of the quest towards sustainable use and recycling of vulcanised elastomers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa Moreno
- Institute for Environmental Assessment and Water Studies (IDAEA), CSIC, 18-26 Jordi Girona, Barcelona 08034, Spain.
| | - Aleix Balasch
- Institute for Environmental Assessment and Water Studies (IDAEA), CSIC, 18-26 Jordi Girona, Barcelona 08034, Spain
| | - Rafael Bartrolí
- Institute for Environmental Assessment and Water Studies (IDAEA), CSIC, 18-26 Jordi Girona, Barcelona 08034, Spain
| | - Ethel Eljarrat
- Institute for Environmental Assessment and Water Studies (IDAEA), CSIC, 18-26 Jordi Girona, Barcelona 08034, Spain
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8
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Armada D, Martinez-Fernandez A, Celeiro M, Dagnac T, Llompart M. Assessment of the bioaccessibility of PAHs and other hazardous compounds present in recycled tire rubber employed in synthetic football fields. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 857:159485. [PMID: 36257444 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.159485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2022] [Revised: 09/07/2022] [Accepted: 10/12/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Recycled tire crumb rubber (RTCR) surfaces contain harmful and carcinogenic substances, which can be ingested by the users of these facilities, mainly athletes and children. In this work, the potential in-vitro oral bioaccessibility of eighteen polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from RTCR employed as infill in synthetic football fields was studied in human synthetic body fluids (saliva, gastric, duodenal and bile), prepared according the Unified Bioaccessibility Method. Solid-phase extraction (SPE) using commercial sorbents and a new green material based on cork (cork industry by-product) were used to isolate the bioaccessible PAHs before gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis. The method was optimized and validated attending the analytical figures of merit. The feasibility of cork biosorbent for the extraction of the compounds was demonstrated, as well as the suitability of the UBM method to perform the digestion with good precision. The application to real samples collected from football fields demonstrated the presence of 17 of the 18 target PAHs in the biofluids. Most volatile PAHs such as NAP, ACY, ACE, FLU, PHN and ANC, achieved the highest bioaccessibility percentage levels. The carcinogenic B[a]P was detected in 75 % of the samples at concentrations up to 2.5 ng g-1 (bioaccessible fraction). Children exposure assessment was carried out to identify potential risk. Other hazardous and environmentally problematic compounds such as N-(1,3-Dimethylbutyl)-N'-phenyl-p-phenylenediamine-quinone (6PPD-quinone), recently related with the dead of coho salmon, and hexamethoxymethylmelamine (HMMM), among others, were also detected. This is the first study in which the bioaccesibility from real crumb rubber samples of 15 out of the 16 PAHs considered as priority pollutants by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the presence of 6PPD-quinone and HMMM in the bioaccessible fractions is reported.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Armada
- CRETUS, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, E-15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Antia Martinez-Fernandez
- CRETUS, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, E-15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Maria Celeiro
- CRETUS, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, E-15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Thierry Dagnac
- Agronomic Research Centre (AGACAL-CIAM), Unit of Organic Contaminants, Apartado 10, E-15080 A Coruña, Spain
| | - Maria Llompart
- CRETUS, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, E-15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
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9
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Masset T, Ferrari BJD, Dudefoi W, Schirmer K, Bergmann A, Vermeirssen E, Grandjean D, Harris LC, Breider F. Bioaccessibility of Organic Compounds Associated with Tire Particles Using a Fish In Vitro Digestive Model: Solubilization Kinetics and Effects of Food Coingestion. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 56:15607-15616. [PMID: 36315940 PMCID: PMC9670851 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c04291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2022] [Revised: 10/03/2022] [Accepted: 10/24/2022] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Tire and road wear particles (TRWP) account for an important part of the polymer particles released into the environment. There are scientific knowledge gaps as to the potential bioaccessibility of chemicals associated with TRWP to aquatic organisms. This study investigated the solubilization and bioaccessibility of seven of the most widely used tire-associated organic chemicals and four of their degradation products from cryogenically milled tire tread (CMTT) into fish digestive fluids using an in vitro digestion model based on Oncorhynchus mykiss. Our results showed that 0.06-44.1% of the selected compounds were rapidly solubilized into simulated gastric and intestinal fluids within a typical gut transit time for fish (3 h in gastric and 24 h in intestinal fluids). The environmentally realistic scenario of coingestion of CMTT and fish prey was explored using ground Gammarus pulex. Coingestion caused compound-specific changes in solubilization, either increasing or decreasing the compounds' bioaccessibility in simulated gut fluids compared to CMTT alone. Our results emphasize that tire-associated compounds become accessible in a digestive milieu and should be studied further with respect to their bioaccumulation and toxicological effects upon passage of intestinal epithelial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thibault Masset
- Central Environmental
Laboratory, Institute of Environmental Engineering, ENAC, EPFL—Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale
de Lausanne, Station 2, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Benoit J. D. Ferrari
- Ecotox Centre—EPFL
ENAC IIE, GE, Station
2, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
- Ecotox Centre, Überlandstrasse 133, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - William Dudefoi
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, Eawag—Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 133, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Kristin Schirmer
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, Eawag—Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 133, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
- Institute of Environmental Engineering,
ENAC, EPFL—Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale
de Lausanne, Station
2, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
- Institute of Biogeochemistry and Pollutant
Dynamics, ETHZ, CH-8092 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Alan Bergmann
- Ecotox Centre, Überlandstrasse 133, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | | | - Dominique Grandjean
- Central Environmental
Laboratory, Institute of Environmental Engineering, ENAC, EPFL—Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale
de Lausanne, Station 2, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Luke Christopher Harris
- Institute of Chemical Sciences and Engineering,
SB, EPFL—Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale
de Lausanne, Station
6, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Florian Breider
- Central Environmental
Laboratory, Institute of Environmental Engineering, ENAC, EPFL—Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale
de Lausanne, Station 2, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
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10
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Kubota R, Obama T, Kawakami T, Sakai S, Inoue K, Ikarashi Y. Characterization of synthetic turf rubber granule infill in Japan: Total content and migration of metals. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 842:156705. [PMID: 35716741 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.156705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2022] [Revised: 06/07/2022] [Accepted: 06/10/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
We evaluated the total content of 28 metals in synthetic turf rubber granule infill and performed extraction tests using four types of simulated biofluids to assess the health effects of synthetic turf crumb rubbers used in Japan. The highest median metal concentration was obtained for Zn, with median concentrations above 100 μg/g, followed by Al, Fe, and Mn. The highest median Pb concentration was 19.9 μg/g. The metal concentrations of the samples were different depending on the origin/material. Among high-concentration metals, Al, Fe, and Mn were higher in ethylene propylene diene monomer rubber, and Zn was higher in tires. Significantly higher Sb and Sr concentrations were observed in other materials, including industrial rubber, synthetic rubber, and thermoplastic elastomer, compared with tires. However, significantly higher Sn, Co, Pb, and Cd concentrations were detected in tires compared with other materials. Metals with high concentrations independent of the origin/material were considered derived from materials added during the manufacturing process. To evaluate the bioaccessibility, extraction tests were conducted using simulated biofluids. In gastric fluid, many metals were detected in higher concentrations than in other biofluids, intestinal fluid, saliva, and sweat, and the extraction rate of most metals exceeded 10% in artificial gastric fluid. Because the amount of metals leached into the simulated biofluids was much lower than several standards on the amount of certain metals that have the potential to be extracted from the object if ingested, the risk related to the exposure to metals from synthetic turf rubber granule infill is considered low.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reiji Kubota
- Division of Environmental Chemistry, National Institute of Health Sciences, 3-25-26 Tonomachi, Kawasaki-ku, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 210-9501, Japan.
| | - Tomoko Obama
- Division of Environmental Chemistry, National Institute of Health Sciences, 3-25-26 Tonomachi, Kawasaki-ku, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 210-9501, Japan
| | - Tsuyoshi Kawakami
- Division of Environmental Chemistry, National Institute of Health Sciences, 3-25-26 Tonomachi, Kawasaki-ku, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 210-9501, Japan
| | - Shinobu Sakai
- Division of Environmental Chemistry, National Institute of Health Sciences, 3-25-26 Tonomachi, Kawasaki-ku, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 210-9501, Japan
| | - Kaoru Inoue
- Division of Risk Assessment, Biological Safety Research Center, National Institute of Health Sciences, 3-25-26 Tonomachi, Kawasaki-ku, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 210-9501, Japan
| | - Yoshiaki Ikarashi
- Division of Environmental Chemistry, National Institute of Health Sciences, 3-25-26 Tonomachi, Kawasaki-ku, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 210-9501, Japan
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11
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Mohajerani A, Kurmus H, Conti D, Cash L, Semcesen A, Abdurahman M, Rahman MT. Environmental impacts and leachate analysis of waste rubber incorporated in construction and road materials: A review. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 835:155269. [PMID: 35430184 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.155269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2021] [Revised: 04/09/2022] [Accepted: 04/10/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, the recycling of waste tyre rubber in construction and road materials has emerged as a potential innovative solution to the growing waste rubber tyre dilemma. However, to determine the feasibility of any recycling method, it is crucial to assess the potential environmental implications of the proposed method. The environmental conditions waste tyre rubber products are exposed to are often not accurately simulated in leachate studies, leading to incomplete findings. The Toxicity Characteristics Leaching Procedure (TCLP) (1997) and Australian Bottle Leaching Procedure (ABLP) (1992), which have been used in most leachate studies in the past, have been criticised for inadequate replication of site conditions when applied to assess the leachability of modified materials. The objective of this study is to (1) review standard leachate testing methods and subsequently investigate the adequacy of these methods, (2) review all available major research focusing on the leaching characteristics and environmental and health implications of products recycled with waste tyre rubber, (3) prepare recommendations for the improvement of future leachate studies and testing based on the assessment of existing research. The existing leachate analysis studies that assess the environmental implications of different applications of waste tyre rubber have demonstrated that considerable knowledge gaps exist in the current body of knowledge. It was found leachate studies involving the recently published ABLP (2019) and Leaching Environmental Assessment Framework (LEAF) (2017) appeared to better replicate local environmental conditions and yield results of higher integrity and precision due to improved testing procedures. This study recommends that the ABLP and LEAF testing methods be applied to assess the leachability of heavy metals and organic materials (on which minimal research has been conducted) of all currently available products incorporated with waste tyre rubber, as well as in future leachate studies of waste tyre rubber.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Halenur Kurmus
- School of Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - David Conti
- School of Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Lucinda Cash
- School of Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Adrian Semcesen
- School of Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia
| | | | - Md Tareq Rahman
- School of Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia
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12
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Effect of the Addition of Different Amounts of Aramid Fibers on Metal Friction and Wear during Mixing. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14142961. [PMID: 35890736 PMCID: PMC9318473 DOI: 10.3390/polym14142961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2022] [Revised: 07/15/2022] [Accepted: 07/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Studies show that the long-term operation of a rubber mixer results in wear at the end face of the mixer. End face wear increases the gap between the mixing chamber and the end face, resulting in leakage and a reduction in the mixing performance, affecting the final product’s quality. Therefore, it is essential to investigate the wear of the metal face during the mixing process. The present study added aramid fibers to a rubber compound using a mechanical blender to obtain a composite material. Then, the influence of the aramid fibers on the metal friction and wear of the end face of the mixer was analyzed. This article introduces the concept of the wear ratio and explores the friction and wear of metals from the perspective of formulation technology for the first time. With the addition of aramid fibers, the proportion of abrasive wear of rubber on metal decreased, and the proportion of corrosive wear increased during the mixing process; however, when the addition of aramid fibers exceeded 3 phr, the balance of abrasive wear of rubber on metal increased and the proportion of corrosive wear decreased. It was found that aramid fibers have the property of friction reduction, which reduces the wear of the rubber blend on the metal. When the amount of aramid fibers added was 3 phr, the amount of abrasion of the rubber compound on the metal was the lowest.
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13
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Graça CAL, Rocha F, Gomes FO, Rocha MR, Homem V, Alves A, Ratola N. Presence of metals and metalloids in crumb rubber used as infill of worldwide synthetic turf pitches: Exposure and risk assessment. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 299:134379. [PMID: 35339520 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.134379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2021] [Revised: 02/18/2022] [Accepted: 03/18/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Crumb rubber derived from end-of-life tires (ELTs) is frequently used as infill of synthetic turf pitches, promoting circular economy. Although important to reduce the accumulation of waste, the use of recycled ELTs can be a problem to human health and the environment, both by direct contact during pitch use and by the release of these elements to the surroundings, mostly via volatilization and leaching. The present study aimed to evaluate the distribution of metals in ELT-derived crumb rubber collected in artificial turf worldwide and assess possible trends by country, pitch age and type (indoor vs. outdoor). The concentration ranges observed are very wide, especially in outdoor fields and for the most abundant metals, namely Zn (2989-5246 mg/kg), Fe (196-5194 mg/kg), Mg (188-1795 mg/kg) and Al (159-1882 mg/kg). For Zn, the levels were mostly above the safe limits set in European directives for relatable matrices (soils and toy materials), and the same happened for Pb, a much more toxic metal at lower concentrations. A multi-pathway human exposure study was also performed, and the risk assessment shows non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks from accidental crumb rubber ingestion (with Cr and Pb as major contributors) above the acceptable values for all the receptors except adult bystanders, with a higher significance to younger individuals. These results bring a different perspective regarding most of the studies reporting low risks related with exposure to metals in crumb rubber.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cátia A L Graça
- LEPABE - Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465, Porto, Portugal
| | - Filipe Rocha
- LEPABE - Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465, Porto, Portugal
| | - Filipa O Gomes
- LEPABE - Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465, Porto, Portugal
| | - M Rosário Rocha
- LEPABE - Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465, Porto, Portugal
| | - Vera Homem
- LEPABE - Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465, Porto, Portugal
| | - Arminda Alves
- LEPABE - Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465, Porto, Portugal
| | - Nuno Ratola
- LEPABE - Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465, Porto, Portugal.
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14
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Negev M, Barnett-Itzhaki Z, Berman T, Reicher S, Cohen N, Ardi R, Shammai Y, Zohar T, Diamond ML. Hazardous chemicals in outdoor and indoor surfaces: artificial turf and laminate flooring. JOURNAL OF EXPOSURE SCIENCE & ENVIRONMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY 2022; 32:392-399. [PMID: 34697408 DOI: 10.1038/s41370-021-00396-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2021] [Revised: 10/01/2021] [Accepted: 10/01/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Synthetic materials, increasingly used for indoor and outdoor surfaces including homes and playgrounds, may contain toxic chemicals. Infants have a higher potential of exposure to chemicals in these materials, which may pose a risk to their health. OBJECTIVE To understand potential risks related to outdoor surface coverings, based on a review of the literature and regulations, and to assess levels of hazardous chemicals in surface coverings in Israel. METHODS We reviewed the literature and regulations on artificial turf. We tested 46 samples of surfaces for trace metals in synthetic playground surfaces; trace metals, phthalates, and di(2-ethylhexyl) terephthalate (DEHT) in synthetic grass, and phthalates, DEHT and formaldehyde in laminate flooring. RESULTS Twelve studies reporting high levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), and varying levels of trace metals in synthetic playground surfaces were identified, as well as five international regulations on lead with maximum acceptable concentrations in the range 40-500 mg/kg. Surface tests showed that 20 out of 30 samples of synthetic playground surfaces exceeded relevant standards for trace metals, of which five had cadmium levels ≥30 mg/kg and four had chromium levels ≥510 mg/kg. In synthetic grass, three out of eight samples exceeded relevant standards, with lead levels ≥1200 mg/kg. In Laminate flooring (n = 8) formaldehyde levels were in the range of 0.7-1.2 mg/m2 formaldehyde, and five samples contained ~5% DEHT. SIGNIFICANCE The literature on chemicals in surfaces is limited, but indicates some exceedance of regulatory limits. Trace metals in synthetic playground surfaces and synthetic grass, not regulated in Israel, exceeded relevant international standards in 72% of samples. Laminate flooring, regulated for formaldehyde, did not exceed the 3.5 mg/m2 standard, but contained DEHT, a replacement for ortho-substituted phthalates. The results of this preliminary study show that flooring surfaces may be a source of children's exposure to toxic chemicals. IMPACT STATEMENT Synthetic surfaces are increasingly being used in, for example, children's playgrounds and sports fields. Exceedances of regulatory limits from other jurisdictions, of heavy metal levels in most outdoor surfaces sampled in Israel indicates the potential for children's exposure. Domestic regulations should be implemented to reduce the risk to children from exposure to these surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maya Negev
- School of Public Health, University of Haifa, Mt. Carmel, Haifa, 3498838, Israel.
| | - Zohar Barnett-Itzhaki
- Ministry of Health, Jeremiya Street 39, Jerusalem, 9446724, Israel
- School of Engineering, Research Center for Health Informatics, Ruppin Academic Center, Emek Hefer, 4025000, Israel
| | - Tamar Berman
- Ministry of Health, Jeremiya Street 39, Jerusalem, 9446724, Israel
| | - Shay Reicher
- Ministry of Health, Jeremiya Street 39, Jerusalem, 9446724, Israel
| | - Naor Cohen
- The Standards Institution of Israel, 42 Chaim Levanon Street, Tel Aviv, 6997701, Israel
| | - Ruti Ardi
- The Standards Institution of Israel, 42 Chaim Levanon Street, Tel Aviv, 6997701, Israel
| | - Yaniv Shammai
- The Standards Institution of Israel, 42 Chaim Levanon Street, Tel Aviv, 6997701, Israel
| | - Tamar Zohar
- School of Public Health, University of Haifa, Mt. Carmel, Haifa, 3498838, Israel
| | - Miriam L Diamond
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Toronto, 22 Russell Street, Toronto, M5S 3B1, ON, Canada
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Sivaraman S, Michael Anbuselvan N, Venkatachalam P, Ramiah Shanmugam S, Selvasembian R. Waste tire particles as efficient materials towards hexavalent chromium removal: Characterisation, adsorption behaviour, equilibrium, and kinetic modelling. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 295:133797. [PMID: 35122814 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.133797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2021] [Revised: 01/08/2022] [Accepted: 01/27/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The growing demand for vehicles is increasing every year, and this paves the way for the environmental problem for the generation of the waste tire (WT) and associated disposal after their end life. On the other direction, effluent from tannery and electroplating industries contented with a higher concentration of chromium, which is a toxic pollutant, induces mutation effects. In this work, the approach of reutilization of waste tires as adsorbent is reported towards the sequestrations of hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)) from the simulated system. The waste tire sample is activated using orthophosphoric acid (H3PO4) and utilized for adsorption studies. Adsorption studies are performed with native tire sample (NTP) and activated tire sample (ATP). About 96.5% of Cr(VI) adsorption efficiency was attained using ATP and at the optimal adsorption solution pH 2.0. The adsorbent performed relatively well in wide a range of initial solution pH tested in the present research. The experimental data analysis of Cr(VI) adsorption onto NTP and ATP revealed the best fit with the kinetic model of pseudo-second-order. Further, the equilibrium data were analysed using two-parameter isotherms, relatively the Langmuir isotherm best represented in both NTP and ATP. ATP demonstrated with higher Cr(VI) removal performance with an adsorption capacity of 102.90 mg/g, according to the Langmuir model. The proposed idea of utilizing waste tire particles as adsorbents in the treatment of Cr(VI) contaminated water offers valuable guidance towards further investigations in the directions of dynamic adsorption and effluent treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Subramaniyasharma Sivaraman
- Center for Bioenergy, School of Chemical & Biotechnology, SASTRA Deemed University, Thanjavur, 613401, India
| | - Nithin Michael Anbuselvan
- Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Chemical & Biotechnology, SASTRA Deemed University, Thanjavur, 613401, India
| | - Ponnusami Venkatachalam
- Center for Bioenergy, School of Chemical & Biotechnology, SASTRA Deemed University, Thanjavur, 613401, India; Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Chemical & Biotechnology, SASTRA Deemed University, Thanjavur, 613401, India
| | - Saravanan Ramiah Shanmugam
- Center for Bioenergy, School of Chemical & Biotechnology, SASTRA Deemed University, Thanjavur, 613401, India.
| | - Rangabhashiyam Selvasembian
- Center for Bioenergy, School of Chemical & Biotechnology, SASTRA Deemed University, Thanjavur, 613401, India; Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Chemical & Biotechnology, SASTRA Deemed University, Thanjavur, 613401, India.
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16
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Tests of rubber granules used as artificial turf for football fields in terms of toxicity to human health and the environment. Sci Rep 2022; 12:6683. [PMID: 35461320 PMCID: PMC9035180 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-10691-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2022] [Accepted: 04/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Rubber waste, in the form of granules of styrene butadiene rubber and ethylene-propylene-diene-monomer with a particle size of 0.5 to 4 mm, is broadly used for the construction of synthetic surfaces of sport fields. This method of recycling may be significantly limited due to the restrictions on polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) content in rubber granules in the European Union since 2022. This also applies to the recommendations of the European Chemicals Agency in relation to the identification of other hazardous chemicals in this waste, including metal elements. The scope of the research included the identification of organotin compounds, PAHs content and 18 elements leached from recycled rubber granules in terms of substances harmful to human health and to natural environment. The research covered 84 samples of rubber granules collected from the surface of football pitches or supplied by recyclers in Poland. The test results showed an over-standard content of PAHs in rubber granules. This result confirms the need to develop alternative directions of rubber granules application: construction and hydro construction, reinforcing soil and roadsides, asphalt pavements, making retaining walls, anti-shock and anti-vibration slabs, soundproofing and damping screens, paving stones and landscaping elements.
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17
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Armada D, Celeiro M, Dagnac T, Llompart M. Green methodology based on active air sampling followed by solid phase microextraction and gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis to determine hazardous substances in different environments related to tire rubber. J Chromatogr A 2022; 1668:462911. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2022.462911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2021] [Revised: 02/09/2022] [Accepted: 02/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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18
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Fořt J, Kobetičová K, Böhm M, Podlesný J, Jelínková V, Vachtlová M, Bureš F, Černý R. Environmental Consequences of Rubber Crumb Application: Soil and Water Pollution. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14071416. [PMID: 35406290 PMCID: PMC9003429 DOI: 10.3390/polym14071416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2022] [Revised: 03/18/2022] [Accepted: 03/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
End-of-life tires are utilized for various purposes, including sports pitches and playground surfaces. However, several substances used at the manufacture of tires can be a source of concerns related to human health or environment’s adverse effects. In this context, it is necessary to map whether this approach has the desired effect in a broader relation. While the negative effects on human health were investigated thoroughly and legislation is currently being revisited, the impact on aquatic or soil organisms has not been sufficiently studied. The present study deals with the exposure of freshwater and soil organisms to rubber crumb using the analysis of heavy metal and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon concentrations. The obtained results refer to substantial concerns related to freshwater contamination specifically, since the increased concentrations of zinc (7 mg·L−1) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (58 mg·kg−1) inhibit the growth of freshwater organisms, Desmodesmus subspicatus, and Lemna minor in particular. The performed test with soil organisms points to substantial concerns associated with the mortality of earthworms as well. The acquired knowledge can be perceived as a roadmap to a consistent approach in the implementation of the circular economy, which brings with it a number of so far insufficiently described problems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Fořt
- Department of Materials Engineering and Chemistry, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Czech Technical University in Prague, Thákurova 7, 166 29 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (K.K.); (M.B.); (R.Č.)
- Institute of Technology and Business in České Budějovice, Okružní 517/10, 370 01 České Budějovice, Czech Republic; (J.P.); (V.J.); (M.V.); (F.B.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Klára Kobetičová
- Department of Materials Engineering and Chemistry, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Czech Technical University in Prague, Thákurova 7, 166 29 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (K.K.); (M.B.); (R.Č.)
| | - Martin Böhm
- Department of Materials Engineering and Chemistry, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Czech Technical University in Prague, Thákurova 7, 166 29 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (K.K.); (M.B.); (R.Č.)
| | - Jan Podlesný
- Institute of Technology and Business in České Budějovice, Okružní 517/10, 370 01 České Budějovice, Czech Republic; (J.P.); (V.J.); (M.V.); (F.B.)
| | - Veronika Jelínková
- Institute of Technology and Business in České Budějovice, Okružní 517/10, 370 01 České Budějovice, Czech Republic; (J.P.); (V.J.); (M.V.); (F.B.)
| | - Martina Vachtlová
- Institute of Technology and Business in České Budějovice, Okružní 517/10, 370 01 České Budějovice, Czech Republic; (J.P.); (V.J.); (M.V.); (F.B.)
| | - Filip Bureš
- Institute of Technology and Business in České Budějovice, Okružní 517/10, 370 01 České Budějovice, Czech Republic; (J.P.); (V.J.); (M.V.); (F.B.)
| | - Robert Černý
- Department of Materials Engineering and Chemistry, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Czech Technical University in Prague, Thákurova 7, 166 29 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (K.K.); (M.B.); (R.Č.)
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19
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Armada D, Llompart M, Celeiro M, Garcia-Castro P, Ratola N, Dagnac T, de Boer J. Global evaluation of the chemical hazard of recycled tire crumb rubber employed on worldwide synthetic turf football pitches. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 812:152542. [PMID: 34952075 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.152542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2021] [Revised: 12/15/2021] [Accepted: 12/15/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Social and environmental concern about the use of crumb rubber from end-of-life car tires in the construction of different sport and recreational facilities is increasing due to the presence of hazardous compounds. The aim of this research was the assessment of 42 organic chemicals, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), phthalates, adipates, antioxidants and vulcanisation agents in a large number of infill samples (91) from synthetic turf football pitches of diverse characteristics and geographical origin. Samples were taken worldwide, in 17 countries on 4 continents, to show the global dimension of this problem. Ultrasound assisted extraction was employed to extract the target compounds, followed by gas chromatography coupled to tandem-mass spectrometry (UAE-GC-MS/MS). Seventy-eight crumb rubber samples as well as thirteen samples of alternatives materials, such as cork granulates, thermoplastic elastomers and coconut fibre, were analyzed. The results highlight the presence of all target PAH in most rubber samples at concentrations up to μg g-1, including the eight ECHA (European Chemicals Agency) PAHs considered as carcinogenic, and anthracene (ANC), pyrene (PYR) and benzo[ghi]perylene (B[ghi]P), catalogued as substances of very high concern (SVHC). Endocrine disruptors such as some plasticizers (mainly phthalates), and other compounds like benzothiazole (BTZ) and 2-mercaptobenzothiazole (MBTZ) were found reaching the mg g-1 level. This confirms the presence of the hazardous substances in the recycled crumb rubber samples collected all around the world. Three crumb rubber samples exceeded the limit of 20 μg g-1 for the sum of the eight ECHA PAHs. Regarding the chemical composition of other infill alternatives, cork appears to be adequate, while the thermoplastic elastomers contained high levels of some plasticizers. In addition, the plastic infill as well as the crumb rubber both are microplastics. Microplastics are considered contaminants of emerging concern since they do not biodegrade and remain in the environment for a long time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Armada
- CRETUS, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, E-15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Maria Llompart
- CRETUS, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, E-15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
| | - Maria Celeiro
- CRETUS, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, E-15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Pablo Garcia-Castro
- CRETUS, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, E-15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Nuno Ratola
- LEPABE-Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
| | - Thierry Dagnac
- Agronomic Research Centre (AGACAL-CIAM), Unit of Organic Contaminants, Apartado 10, E-15080 A Coruña, Spain
| | - Jacob de Boer
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Department of Environment & Health, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081HV Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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20
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Hajiouni S, Mohammadi A, Ramavandi B, Arfaeinia H, De-la-Torre GE, Tekle-Röttering A, Dobaradaran S. Occurrence of microplastics and phthalate esters in urban runoff: A focus on the Persian Gulf coastline. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 806:150559. [PMID: 34582879 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2021] [Revised: 08/26/2021] [Accepted: 09/20/2021] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Urban runoff seems an obvious pathway for the transfer of microplastics (MPs) and phthalate acid esters (PAEs) from land-based sources to the marine environment; an issue that still lacks attention. This study presents the first results on MP and PAE levels in the urban runoff into the northern part of the Persian Gulf during the dry season. Average concentrations of MPs and PAEs in the urban runoff of eight selected sampling sites (N = 72) along the Bushehr coast were 1.86 items/L and 53.57 μg/L, respectively. MPs with a size range of 500-1000 μm had the highest abundance, and the mean levels of PAEs in MPs were 99.77 μg/g. The results of this study show that urban runoff is a main source of MP and PAE contaminants that are discharged into the Persian Gulf. Therefore, to decrease these pollutants from entering the aquatic environment, decision-makers in the area should consider this problem and stop the direct discharging of urban runoff into water bodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shamim Hajiouni
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Faculty of Health and Nutrition, Bushehr University of Medical Sciences, Bushehr, Iran
| | - Azam Mohammadi
- Department of Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - Bahman Ramavandi
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Faculty of Health and Nutrition, Bushehr University of Medical Sciences, Bushehr, Iran; Systems Environmental Health and Energy Research Center, The Persian Gulf Biomedical Sciences Research Institute, Bushehr University of Medical Sciences, Bushehr, Iran
| | - Hossein Arfaeinia
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Faculty of Health and Nutrition, Bushehr University of Medical Sciences, Bushehr, Iran; Systems Environmental Health and Energy Research Center, The Persian Gulf Biomedical Sciences Research Institute, Bushehr University of Medical Sciences, Bushehr, Iran
| | | | - Agnes Tekle-Röttering
- Westfälische Hochschule Gelsenkirchen, Neidenburger Strasse 43, Gelsenkirchen 45877, Germany
| | - Sina Dobaradaran
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Faculty of Health and Nutrition, Bushehr University of Medical Sciences, Bushehr, Iran; Systems Environmental Health and Energy Research Center, The Persian Gulf Biomedical Sciences Research Institute, Bushehr University of Medical Sciences, Bushehr, Iran; Instrumental Analytical Chemistry and Centre for Water and Environmental Research (ZWU), Faculty of Chemistry, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany.
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21
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Masset T, Ferrari BJD, Oldham D, Dudefoi W, Minghetti M, Schirmer K, Bergmann A, Vermeirssen E, Breider F. In Vitro Digestion of Tire Particles in a Fish Model ( Oncorhynchus mykiss): Solubilization Kinetics of Heavy Metals and Effects of Food Coingestion. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:15788-15796. [PMID: 34807574 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c04385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Tire and road wear particles (TRWP) have been shown to represent a large part of anthropogenic particles released into the environment. Nevertheless, the potential ecological risk of TRWP in the different environmental compartments and their potential toxic impacts on terrestrial and aquatic organisms remain largely underinvestigated. Several heavy metals compose TRWP, including Zn, which is used as a catalyst during the vulcanization process of rubber. This study investigated the solubilization potential of metals from cryogenically milled tire tread (CMTT) and TRWP in simulated gastric fluids (SFGASTRIC) and simulated intestinal fluids (SFINTESTINAL) designed to mimic rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) gastrointestinal conditions. Our results indicate that the solubilization of heavy metals was greatly enhanced by gastrointestinal fluids compared to that by mineral water. After a 26 h in vitro digestion, 9.6 and 23.0% of total Zn content of CMTT and TRWP, respectively, were solubilized into the simulated gastrointestinal fluids. Coingestion of tire particles (performed with CMTT only) and surrogate prey items (Gammarus pulex) demonstrated that the animal organic matter reduced the amount of bioavailable Zn solubilized from CMTT. Contrastingly, in the coingestion scenario with vegetal organic matter (Lemna minor), high quantities of Zn were solubilized from L. minor and cumulated with Zn solubilized from CMTT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thibault Masset
- Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne─EPFL, Central Environmental Laboratory, IIE, ENAC, Station 2, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Benoit J D Ferrari
- Ecotox Centre─EPFL ENAC IIE, GE, Station 2, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
- Ecotox Centre, Überlandstrasse 133, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Dean Oldham
- Department of Integrative Biology, Oklahoma State University, 501 Life Science West, Stillwater, Oklahoma 74078, United States
| | - William Dudefoi
- Department Environmental Toxicology, Eawag─Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 133, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Matteo Minghetti
- Department of Integrative Biology, Oklahoma State University, 501 Life Science West, Stillwater, Oklahoma 74078, United States
| | - Kristin Schirmer
- Department Environmental Toxicology, Eawag─Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 133, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
- School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering, EPFL, Lausanne 1015, Switzerland
- Institute of Biogeochemistry and Pollutant Dynamics, ETHZ, Zurich 8092, Switzerland
| | - Alan Bergmann
- Ecotox Centre, Überlandstrasse 133, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | | | - Florian Breider
- Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne─EPFL, Central Environmental Laboratory, IIE, ENAC, Station 2, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
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22
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Ground Waste Tire Rubber as a Total Replacement of Natural Aggregates in Concrete Mixes: Application for Lightweight Paving Blocks. MATERIALS 2021; 14:ma14247493. [PMID: 34947089 PMCID: PMC8705843 DOI: 10.3390/ma14247493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2021] [Revised: 11/23/2021] [Accepted: 12/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The use of waste materials as alternative aggregates in cementitious mixtures is one of the most investigated practices to enhance eco-sustainability in the civil and construction sectors. For specific applications, these secondary raw materials can ensure adequate technological performance, minimizing the exploitation of natural resources and encouraging the circular disposal of industrial or municipal waste. Aiming to design and develop lightweight paving blocks for pedestrian or very light-traffic purposes (parking area, garage, sidewalk, or sports surfaces), this paper presents the material characterization of rubberized cement mortars using ground waste tire rubber (0–1 mm rubber powder and 1–3 mm rubber granules) to totally replace the mineral aggregates. Considering recommended requirements for concrete paving members in terms of mechanical strength, water drainage performance, acoustic attenuation, and dynamic and energy absorption behavior, a comprehensive laboratory testing is proposed for five different formulations varying the sand-rubber replacement level and the proportion ratio between the two rubber fractions. Tests highlighted positive and promising results to convert laboratory samples into pre-cast members. The “hot” finding of the work was to prove the feasibility of obtaining totally rubberized mortars (0 v/v% of sand) with suitable engineering performance and enhanced eco-friendly features.
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23
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Lu F, Su Y, Ji Y, Ji R. Release of Zinc and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons From Tire Crumb Rubber and Toxicity of Leachate to Daphnia magna: Effects of Tire Source and Photoaging. BULLETIN OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY 2021; 107:651-656. [PMID: 33547903 DOI: 10.1007/s00128-021-03123-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2020] [Accepted: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Tire crumb rubber (TCR) has been widely used in artificial turf fields, however, the potential environmental risk of TCR and the effect of sunlight exposure are scarcely studied. Here, we evaluated leachability of Zn and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in four types of TCRs and acute toxicity of leachates to Daphnia magna. The results showed that all types of TCRs tested released Zn (0.20-1.3 μg/g) and PAHs (9.4-17 μg/g) but only two were lethal to D. magna (mortality 73%). Notably, ultraviolet (UV) irradiation induced TCR to generate acidic leachate (pH ~ 4.8), which contained 24- and 1.2-fold higher concentrations of Zn and PAHs and therefore was more toxic to D. magna than that in the absence of UV treatment. These findings demonstrate source-dependent toxicity of TCR and highlight the need to consider the effect of photoaging when evaluating the environmental risks of TCR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fenxiao Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, China
| | - Yu Su
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, China.
| | - Yitong Ji
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, China
| | - Rong Ji
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, China
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24
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Crumb Rubber in Concrete—The Barriers for Application in the Construction Industry. INFRASTRUCTURES 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/infrastructures6080116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
This state-of-the-art review was aimed to conduct a comprehensive literature survey to summarize experiences of crumb rubber (CR) application in concrete within the last 30 years. It shows that certain gaps prevent obtaining a coherent overview of both mechanical behaviour and environmental impact of crumb rubber concrete (CRC) to object to the stereotypes which prevent to use of CR in concrete in the construction industry. Currently, four major barriers can be distinguished for a successful CR application in the concrete industry: (1) the cost of CR recycling, (2) mechanical properties reduction, (3) insufficient research about leaching criteria and ecotoxicological risks and (4) recyclability of CRC. The application of CR in concrete has certainly its advantages and in general cannot be ignored by the construction industry. CR can be applied, for example, as an alternative material to replace natural aggregates and CRC can be used as recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) in the future. A certain diversity for the CR application can be introduced in a more efficient way when surface treatment and concrete mix design optimization are properly developed for each type of CR application in concrete for possible field applications. The role of CRC should not be limited to structures that are less dependent on strength.
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25
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Lucchi J, Gluck D, Rials S, Tang L, Baudelet M. Tire Classification by Elemental Signatures Using Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy. APPLIED SPECTROSCOPY 2021; 75:747-752. [PMID: 33543647 DOI: 10.1177/0003702821995585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Tire evidence is a form of trace evidence that is often overlooked in today's forensics, while frequently found at crime or accident scenes, usually in the form of skid marks. The pattern of the tire skid mark has been used before to link a tire or car to a scene, but the widespread use of anti-lock braking systems makes this an almost impossible and abandoned route of analysis. With this in mind, using the chemical profile of a tire has potential to link a car or tire back to a scene in which its trace material is found. This study shows the successful use of the elemental profile of tire rubber to classify 32 different samples using laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy, analyzed by principal component analysis combined with linear discriminant analysis. A classification accuracy close to 99% shows the ever-growing use of laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy as a technique of choice for forensic analysis of tire rubber, opening the path for its use as a forensic evidence.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Lucchi
- National Center for Forensic Science, 6243University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
- Chemistry Department, 6243University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Dan Gluck
- National Center for Forensic Science, 6243University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
- Department of Statistics and Data Science, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Sidney Rials
- Chemistry Department, 6243University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Larry Tang
- National Center for Forensic Science, 6243University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
- Department of Statistics and Data Science, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Matthieu Baudelet
- National Center for Forensic Science, 6243University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
- Chemistry Department, 6243University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
- CREOL - The College of Optics and Photonics, 6243University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
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26
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Gomes FO, Rocha MR, Alves A, Ratola N. A review of potentially harmful chemicals in crumb rubber used in synthetic football pitches. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2021; 409:124998. [PMID: 33513533 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.124998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2020] [Revised: 12/27/2020] [Accepted: 12/28/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Recycling end-of-life tires (ELTs) reduces waste and provides a low-cost source of energy and materials such as crumb rubber, used as infill in artificial turf football pitches. However, some concerns were raised and remain about its safety. The potentially toxic human exposure to chemicals such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), metals and others (volatile organic compounds (VOCs), plasticizers, antioxidants and additives) existing in ELTs (and in the resulting crumb rubber) is being studied, with no definitive conclusions. The literature existing so far suggests the possibility of their release from synthetic turf infill into the environment as water leachates and to the air surrounding the pitches, but there is the need of further research, also to assess the contribution of other materials present in synthetic turf. The database available comprised crumb rubber infill studies from pitches in 6 countries (USA, Norway, Netherlands, Portugal, Italy, Spain) and revealed a myriad of hazardous chemicals, with benzo[a]pyrene (n.d.-4.31 ± 3.95 mg/kg) and zinc (n.d.-14150 ± 1344 mg/kg) often exceeding the established limits. A dependence on indoor/outdoor conditions and the age of the source material was evaluated, often showing significative differences. From this standpoint, this review is intended to add knowledge about the presence of contaminants in this recycled material, aiming to ensure the safety of end-users and the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filipa O Gomes
- LEPABE - Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
| | - M Rosário Rocha
- LEPABE - Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
| | - Arminda Alves
- LEPABE - Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
| | - Nuno Ratola
- LEPABE - Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal.
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27
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Celeiro M, Armada D, Ratola N, Dagnac T, de Boer J, Llompart M. Evaluation of chemicals of environmental concern in crumb rubber and water leachates from several types of synthetic turf football pitches. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 270:128610. [PMID: 33121811 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.128610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2020] [Revised: 10/08/2020] [Accepted: 10/11/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Nowadays concern exists about the safety for both football players and the environment of recycled tire rubber used as infill in synthetic turf football pitches. In this study 40 target compounds, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), plasticizers, antioxidants and vulcanization agents were determined in 50 synthetic football pitches of diverse characteristics to estimate environmental risks. This is the first study of crumb rubber sport facilities in Portugal. Analyses were performed by ultrasound-assisted extraction followed by gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UAE-GC-MS/MS). To evaluate the transfer of the target chemicals from the crumb rubber to the runoff water, water leachates collected from several football pitches were analyzed by solid-phase microextraction (SPME-GC-MS/MS). In addition, lab-scale runoff simulation experiments were performed to assess whether a persistent inflow of the target compounds from the football pitches into the runoff water wcould exist. Results revealed the presence of most of the target PAHs in crumb rubber at total concentrations up to 57 μg g-1, next to a high number of plasticizers and vulcanization agents. Runoff water collected from the football pitches contained up to 13 PAHs as well as other chemicals of environmental concern. In addition, continuous leaching of chemicals from the crumb rubber to the surrounding water was demonstrated. The transfer of target chemicals into the runoff water poses a potential risk for the aquatic environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Celeiro
- CRETUS Institute, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, E-15782, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Daniel Armada
- CRETUS Institute, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, E-15782, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Nuno Ratola
- LEPABE-Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias S/n, 4200-465, Porto, Portugal
| | - Thierry Dagnac
- Agronomic Research Centre (AGACAL-CIAM), Unit of Organic Contaminants, Apartado 10, E-15080, A Coruña, Spain
| | - Jacob de Boer
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Department of Environment & Health, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081HV, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Maria Llompart
- CRETUS Institute, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, E-15782, Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
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28
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Celeiro M, Armada D, Dagnac T, de Boer J, Llompart M. Hazardous compounds in recreational and urban recycled surfaces made from crumb rubber. Compliance with current regulation and future perspectives. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 755:142566. [PMID: 33039888 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2020] [Revised: 09/21/2020] [Accepted: 09/21/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Crumb rubber obtained from scrap tires is greatly employed for the construction of different facilities for sport, recreational and other uses. However, in recent years the concern about their safety and the related adult and children exposure to these surfaces is growing. This study aims a thorough chemical characterization encompassing 42 hazardous compounds, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), phthalates, adipates, antioxidants and vulcanization agents in a wide range of crumb rubber from different surfaces. For the extraction of the target compounds, a method based on ultrasound-assisted extraction followed by gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UAE-GC-MS/MS) has been validated. Forty crumb rubber samples coming from synthetic turf football pitches, outdoor and indoor playgrounds, urban pavements, commercial tiles and granulates, and scrap tires, were analyzed. In addition, green alternative materials, such as sand and artificial turf based on cork granulate infill were included to compare the levels of the target compounds with those of crumb rubber. Most of the analyzed recycled surfaces meet the recent limits proposed by the European Commission for rubber granulates and mulches, although they exceed in several cases the maximum levels allowed for rubber consumer products. Besides, most of the other target compounds, including several of them considered as endocrine disruptors, were detected in the analyzed samples, reaching parts per million concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Celeiro
- CRETUS Institute, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, E-15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Daniel Armada
- CRETUS Institute, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, E-15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Thierry Dagnac
- Agronomic Research Centre (AGACAL-CIAM) - Unit of Organic Contaminants, Apartado 10, E-15080 A Coruña, Spain
| | - Jacob de Boer
- Department of Environment and Health (E&H), Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Maria Llompart
- CRETUS Institute, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Nutrition and Food Science, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, E-15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
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29
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Bandow N, Aitken MD, Geburtig A, Kalbe U, Piechotta C, Schoknecht U, Simon FG, Stephan I. Using Environmental Simulations to Test the Release of Hazardous Substances from Polymer-Based Products: Are Realism and Pragmatism Mutually Exclusive Objectives? MATERIALS 2020; 13:ma13122709. [PMID: 32549187 PMCID: PMC7345583 DOI: 10.3390/ma13122709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2020] [Revised: 06/08/2020] [Accepted: 06/09/2020] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
The potential release of hazardous substances from polymer-based products is currently in the focus of environmental policy. Environmental simulations are applied to expose such products to selected aging conditions and to investigate release processes. Commonly applied aging exposure types such as solar and UV radiation in combination with water contact, corrosive gases, and soil contact as well as expected general effects on polymers and additional ingredients of polymer-based products are described. The release of substances is based on mass-transfer processes to the material surfaces. Experimental approaches to investigate transport processes that are caused by water contact are presented. For tailoring the tests, relevant aging exposure types and release quantification methods must be combined appropriately. Several studies on the release of hazardous substances such as metals, polyaromatic hydrocarbons, flame retardants, antioxidants, and carbon nanotubes from polymers are summarized exemplarily. Differences between natural and artificial exposure tests are discussed and demonstrated for the release of flame retardants from several polymers and for biocides from paints. Requirements and limitations to apply results from short-term artificial environmental exposure tests to predict long-term environmental behavior of polymers are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Bandow
- German Environment Agency, Corrensplatz 1, 14195 Berlin, Germany;
| | - Michael D. Aitken
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-7431, USA;
| | - Anja Geburtig
- Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und-prüfung (BAM), 12200 Berlin, Germany; (A.G.); (C.P.); (U.S.); (F.-G.S.); (I.S.)
| | - Ute Kalbe
- Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und-prüfung (BAM), 12200 Berlin, Germany; (A.G.); (C.P.); (U.S.); (F.-G.S.); (I.S.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Christian Piechotta
- Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und-prüfung (BAM), 12200 Berlin, Germany; (A.G.); (C.P.); (U.S.); (F.-G.S.); (I.S.)
| | - Ute Schoknecht
- Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und-prüfung (BAM), 12200 Berlin, Germany; (A.G.); (C.P.); (U.S.); (F.-G.S.); (I.S.)
| | - Franz-Georg Simon
- Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und-prüfung (BAM), 12200 Berlin, Germany; (A.G.); (C.P.); (U.S.); (F.-G.S.); (I.S.)
| | - Ina Stephan
- Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und-prüfung (BAM), 12200 Berlin, Germany; (A.G.); (C.P.); (U.S.); (F.-G.S.); (I.S.)
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30
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Müller A, Österlund H, Marsalek J, Viklander M. The pollution conveyed by urban runoff: A review of sources. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 709:136125. [PMID: 31905584 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.136125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 212] [Impact Index Per Article: 53.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2019] [Revised: 12/11/2019] [Accepted: 12/13/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Urban stormwater and snowmelt pollution contributes significantly to the deterioration of surface waters quality in many locations. Consequently, the sources of such pollution have been studied for the past 50 years, with the vehicular transportation sector and the atmospheric deposition identified early as the major pollution sources. In search for mitigation of this pollution, source controls, besides other measures, were recognised as effective pollution mitigation tools, whose successful implementation requires a good knowledge of pollution sources. Even though great research efforts have been exerted to document specific sources of urban runoff pollution, or specific groups of pollutants present in urban runoff, a comprehensive overview of all known contributing sources is still missing. This review contributes to closing this gap by compiling findings of previous research and critically synthesizing the current knowledge of various stormwater pollution sources. As the emphasis is placed on the sources, the related issues of implications for urban surface water quality and possible source controls for individual sources are touched upon just briefly, where required. The review showed that the atmospheric deposition, vehicular transportation-related activities and metallic building envelopes continue to be among the major pollution sources, which have been studied in a far greater detail than other sources. Furthermore, it was noted that because of the rapid advances in clean manufacturing and pollution control technologies, a large part of the body of data on stormwater quality available in the literature should be considered as historical data, which may no longer describe well the current conditions. Progressing historical data obsolescence, combined with continuing releases of new materials and chemicals, and, in some cases of new substances of potential concern, into the environment, suggests that the identification of important stormwater runoff/snowmelt pollution sources, and the associated pollutants, has been and will remain to be a work in progress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Müller
- Urban Water Engineering, Department of Civil, Environmental and Natural Resources Engineering, Luleå University of Technology, 971 87 Luleå, Sweden.
| | - Heléne Österlund
- Urban Water Engineering, Department of Civil, Environmental and Natural Resources Engineering, Luleå University of Technology, 971 87 Luleå, Sweden
| | - Jiri Marsalek
- Urban Water Engineering, Department of Civil, Environmental and Natural Resources Engineering, Luleå University of Technology, 971 87 Luleå, Sweden
| | - Maria Viklander
- Urban Water Engineering, Department of Civil, Environmental and Natural Resources Engineering, Luleå University of Technology, 971 87 Luleå, Sweden
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31
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Massey R, Pollard L, Jacobs M, Onasch J, Harari H. Artificial Turf Infill: A Comparative Assessment of Chemical Contents. New Solut 2020; 30:10-26. [PMID: 32089037 DOI: 10.1177/1048291120906206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Concerns have been raised regarding toxic chemicals found in tire crumb used as infill in artificial turf and other play surfaces. A hazard-based analysis was conducted, comparing tire crumb with other materials marketed as alternative infills. These include other synthetic polymers as well as plant- and mineral-based materials. The comparison focused on the presence, absence, number, and concentration of chemicals of concern. No infill material was clearly free of concerns, but several are likely to be somewhat safer than tire crumb. Some alternative materials contain some of the same chemicals of concern as those found in tire crumb; however, they may contain a smaller number of these chemicals, and the chemicals may be present in lower quantities. Communities making choices about playing surfaces are encouraged to examine the full range of options, including the option of organically managed natural grass.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Massey
- Toxics Use Reduction Institute, University of Massachusetts Lowell, MA, USA
| | - Lindsey Pollard
- Toxics Use Reduction Institute, University of Massachusetts Lowell, MA, USA
| | - Molly Jacobs
- Lowell Center for Sustainable Production, University of Massachusetts Lowell, MA, USA
| | - Joy Onasch
- Toxics Use Reduction Institute, University of Massachusetts Lowell, MA, USA
| | - Homero Harari
- Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
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32
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Microplastics in Urban Environments: Sources, Pathways, and Distribution. THE HANDBOOK OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/698_2020_447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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33
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Hüffer T, Wehrhahn M, Hofmann T. The molecular interactions of organic compounds with tire crumb materials differ substantially from those with other microplastics. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2020; 22:121-130. [PMID: 31691685 DOI: 10.1039/c9em00423h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Tire materials are the most commonly found elastomers in the environment and they account for a significant fraction of microplastic pollution. In the discussions on the environmental impact of microplastics tire materials and their sorption properties have been largely overlooked. In this study we used experimental sorption data from six organic probe sorbates sorbing to two tire materials and their major components, styrene butadiene rubber and carbon black, to gain a better understanding of the underlying sorption processes of tire materials. Commonly applied models used to describe non-linear sorption processes were unable to fully explain sorption to tire materials but showed that absorption into the rubber fraction dominated the sorption process. Hydrophobicity was approximated using the hexadecane-water partitioning constant, which correlated very well with the distribution data obtained for styrene rubber, whereas the correlations between hydrophobicity of sorbates and the sorption data to the tire materials were poor. Although hydrophobicity plays an important role in sorption to tire materials, additional interactions must be taken into account. Overall, the processes involved in sorption to tire materials differed significantly from those governing sorption to other microplastics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thorsten Hüffer
- Department of Environmental Geosciences, Center for Microbiology, Environmental Systems Science, Austria and Research Platform Plastics in the Environment and Society (PLENTY), University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14, 1090 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Maren Wehrhahn
- Department of Environmental Geosciences, Center for Microbiology, Environmental Systems Science, Austria
| | - Thilo Hofmann
- Department of Environmental Geosciences, Center for Microbiology, Environmental Systems Science, Austria and Research Platform Plastics in the Environment and Society (PLENTY), University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14, 1090 Vienna, Austria.
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34
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Sorption of organic substances to tire wear materials: Similarities and differences with other types of microplastic. Trends Analyt Chem 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2018.11.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Perkins AN, Inayat-Hussain SH, Deziel NC, Johnson CH, Ferguson SS, Garcia-Milian R, Thompson DC, Vasiliou V. Evaluation of potential carcinogenicity of organic chemicals in synthetic turf crumb rubber. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2019; 169:163-172. [PMID: 30458352 PMCID: PMC6396308 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2018.10.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2018] [Revised: 10/15/2018] [Accepted: 10/16/2018] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Currently, there are >11,000 synthetic turf athletic fields in the United States and >13,000 in Europe. Concerns have been raised about exposure to carcinogenic chemicals resulting from contact with synthetic turf fields, particularly the infill material ("crumb rubber"), which is commonly fabricated from recycled tires. However, exposure data are scant, and the limited existing exposure studies have focused on a small subset of crumb rubber components. Our objective was to evaluate the carcinogenic potential of a broad range of chemical components of crumb rubber infill using computational toxicology and regulatory agency classifications from the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) and European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) to inform future exposure studies and risk analyses. Through a literature review, we identified 306 chemical constituents of crumb rubber infill from 20 publications. Utilizing ADMET Predictor™, a computational program to predict carcinogenicity and genotoxicity, 197 of the identified 306 chemicals met our a priori carcinogenicity criteria. Of these, 52 chemicals were also classified as known, presumed or suspected carcinogens by the US EPA and ECHA. Of the remaining 109 chemicals which were not predicted to be carcinogenic by our computational toxicology analysis, only 6 chemicals were classified as presumed or suspected human carcinogens by US EPA or ECHA. Importantly, the majority of crumb rubber constituents were not listed in the US EPA (n = 207) and ECHA (n = 262) databases, likely due to an absence of evaluation or insufficient information for a reliable carcinogenicity classification. By employing a cancer hazard scoring system to the chemicals which were predicted and classified by the computational analysis and government databases, several high priority carcinogens were identified, including benzene, benzidine, benzo(a)pyrene, trichloroethylene and vinyl chloride. Our findings demonstrate that computational toxicology assessment in conjunction with government classifications can be used to prioritize hazardous chemicals for future exposure monitoring studies for users of synthetic turf fields. This approach could be extended to other compounds or toxicity endpoints.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alaina N Perkins
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Yale School of Public Health, 60 College St, New Haven, CT 06250, USA
| | - Salmaan H Inayat-Hussain
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Yale School of Public Health, 60 College St, New Haven, CT 06250, USA; Product Stewardship and Toxicology Section, Group Health, Safety, Security and Environment, Petroliam Nasional Berhad, Kuala Lumpur 50088, Malaysia
| | - Nicole C Deziel
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Yale School of Public Health, 60 College St, New Haven, CT 06250, USA
| | - Caroline H Johnson
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Yale School of Public Health, 60 College St, New Haven, CT 06250, USA
| | - Stephen S Ferguson
- Biomolecular Screening Branch, Division of the National Toxicology Program, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Durham, NC 27709, USA
| | - Rolando Garcia-Milian
- Bioinformatics Support Program, Cushing/ Whitney Medical Library, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06250, USA
| | - David C Thompson
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045, USA
| | - Vasilis Vasiliou
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Yale School of Public Health, 60 College St, New Haven, CT 06250, USA.
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Pochron S, Nikakis J, Illuzzi K, Baatz A, Demirciyan L, Dhillon A, Gaylor T, Manganaro A, Maritato N, Moawad M, Singh R, Tucker C, Vaughan D. Exposure to aged crumb rubber reduces survival time during a stress test in earthworms (Eisenia fetida). ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2018; 25:11376-11383. [PMID: 29423690 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-018-1433-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2017] [Accepted: 01/29/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Solid waste management struggles with the sustainable disposal of used tires. One solution involves shredding used tires into crumb rubber and using the material as infill for artificial turf. However, crumb rubber contains hydrocarbons, organic compounds, and heavy metals, and it travels into the environment. Earthworms living in soil contaminated with virgin crumb rubber gained 14% less body weight than did earthworms living in uncontaminated soil, but the impact of aged crumb rubber on the earthworms is unknown. Since many athletic fields contain aged crumb rubber, we compared the body weight, survivorship, and longevity in heat and light stress for earthworms living in clean topsoil to those living in topsoil contaminated with aged crumb rubber. We also characterized levels of metals, nutrients, and micronutrients of both soil treatments and compared those to published values for soil contaminated with virgin crumb rubber. Consistent with earlier research, we found that contaminated soil did not inhibit microbial respiration rates. Aged crumb rubber, like new crumb rubber, had high levels of zinc. However, while exposure to aged crumb rubber did not reduce earthworm body weight as did exposure to new crumb rubber, exposure to aged crumb rubber reduced earthworm survival time during a stress test by a statistically significant 38 min (16.2%) relative to the survival time for worms that had lived in clean soil. Aged crumb rubber and new crumb rubber appear to pose similar toxic risks to earthworms. This study suggests an environmental cost associated with the current tire-recycling solution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharon Pochron
- Sustainability Studies Program, School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794-3352, USA.
| | | | - Kyra Illuzzi
- Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794-3352, USA
| | - Andrea Baatz
- Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794-3352, USA
| | | | | | - Thomas Gaylor
- Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794-3352, USA
| | | | | | - Michael Moawad
- Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794-3352, USA
| | | | - Clara Tucker
- Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794-3352, USA
| | - Daniel Vaughan
- Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794-3352, USA
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37
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Canepari S, Castellano P, Astolfi ML, Materazzi S, Ferrante R, Fiorini D, Curini R. Release of particles, organic compounds, and metals from crumb rubber used in synthetic turf under chemical and physical stress. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2018; 25:1448-1459. [PMID: 29090445 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-017-0377-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2016] [Accepted: 10/02/2017] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
The chemical and morphological characteristics of materials released under chemical and physical stress by different rubber granulates used as infill materials in synthetic turf (recycled scrap tires, natural rubber, and a new-generation thermoplastic elastomer) were compared.The headspace solid-phase micro-extraction GC-MS analysis evidenced that at 70 °C natural rubber and thermoplastic elastomer release amounts of organic species much higher than recycled scrap tires. In particular, the desorption of mineral oils, with a prevalence of toxicologically relevant low-viscosity alkanes in the range C17-C22, and plasticizers (diisobutyl phthalate) was clearly evidenced. The new-generation thermoplastic elastomer material also releases butylated hydroxytoluene.In slightly acidic conditions, quite high amounts of bio-accessible Zn, Cu, and Co are released from recycled scrap tires, while natural rubber releases mainly Se and Tl. In contrast, the thermoplastic elastomer does not contain significant concentrations of leachable heavy metals.The formation of small particles, also in the inhalable fraction, was evidenced by electron microscopy after mechanical or thermal treatment of natural rubber.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Canepari
- Chemistry Department, Sapienza University of Rome, P.le Aldo Moro, 5, 00185, Rome, Italy.
| | - Paola Castellano
- Local Office of Aosta, INAIL-Italian Workers' Compensation Authority, Corso Padre Lorenzo, 18, 11100, Aosta, Italy
| | - Maria Luisa Astolfi
- Chemistry Department, Sapienza University of Rome, P.le Aldo Moro, 5, 00185, Rome, Italy
| | - Stefano Materazzi
- Chemistry Department, Sapienza University of Rome, P.le Aldo Moro, 5, 00185, Rome, Italy
| | - Riccardo Ferrante
- Department of Occupational Hygiene, INAIL-Italian Workers' Compensation Authority, Research Area, via Fontana Candida 1, 00040 Monteporzio Catone, Rome, Italy
| | - Dennis Fiorini
- Chemistry Division, School of Science and Technology, University of Camerino, V. S. Agostino 1, 62032, Camerino, MC, Italy
| | - Roberta Curini
- Chemistry Department, Sapienza University of Rome, P.le Aldo Moro, 5, 00185, Rome, Italy
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Re Depaolini A, Bianchi G, Fornai D, Cardelli A, Badalassi M, Cardelli C, Davoli E. Physical and chemical characterization of representative samples of recycled rubber from end-of-life tires. CHEMOSPHERE 2017; 184:1320-1326. [PMID: 28679152 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.06.093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2017] [Revised: 06/13/2017] [Accepted: 06/20/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
A large number of end-of-life tires (ELTs) were sampled and classified by type, age and origin to obtain recycled rubber samples representative of the materials placed on the Italian market. The selected recycled tire rubber samples were physically and chemically characterized and a chemometric approach was used to determine correlations. The polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) content was correlated to the aromaticity index and a model was built to establish the H-Bay aromaticity index (H-Bay) from the PAH concentrations. ELT of different origin and age produced in non-European countries generally had higher PAH content and a higher H-Bay index. H-Bay values of all the samples were lower than the REACH limits and old tires had higher aromatic content than recent ones, possibly due to the replacement of aromatic oils in tire production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Re Depaolini
- Mass Spectrometry Laboratory, Environmental Health Sciences Department, IRCCS Istituto Mario Negri, Via La Masa 19, 20156, Milano, Italy
| | - Giancarlo Bianchi
- Mass Spectrometry Laboratory, Environmental Health Sciences Department, IRCCS Istituto Mario Negri, Via La Masa 19, 20156, Milano, Italy
| | - Daniele Fornai
- Ecopneus Scpa, Via Messina 38, Torre B, 20154, Milano, Italy
| | | | | | | | - Enrico Davoli
- Mass Spectrometry Laboratory, Environmental Health Sciences Department, IRCCS Istituto Mario Negri, Via La Masa 19, 20156, Milano, Italy.
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Pochron ST, Fiorenza A, Sperl C, Ledda B, Lawrence Patterson C, Tucker CC, Tucker W, Ho YL, Panico N. The response of earthworms (Eisenia fetida) and soil microbes to the crumb rubber material used in artificial turf fields. CHEMOSPHERE 2017; 173:557-562. [PMID: 28142114 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.01.091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2016] [Revised: 01/11/2017] [Accepted: 01/17/2017] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Municipalities have been replacing grass fields with artificial turf, which uses crumb rubber infill made from recycled tires. Crumb rubber contains hydrocarbons, organic compounds, and heavy metals. Water runoff from crumb rubber fields contains heavy metals. These components can damage the environment. We contaminated topsoil with new crumb rubber and measured its impact on earthworms and soil microbes. Specifically, we compared soil microbe activity and earthworm health, survivorship, and longevity in heat and light stress under two soil regimes: clean topsoil and clean topsoil contaminated with crumb rubber. We then characterized levels of metals, nutrients, and micronutrients of both soil treatments and compared those to published New York soil background levels and to levels set by the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) as remediation goals. We found that: 1) contaminated soil did not inhibit microbial respiration rates, 2) earthworm survivorship was not impacted by exposure to contaminated soil, 3) earthworms' ability to cope with heat and light stress remained unchanged after living in contaminated soil, but 4) earthworms living in contaminated soil gained 14% less body weight than did earthworms living in uncontaminated soil. We also found that, with the exception of zinc, heavy metals in our contaminated soil did not exceed the background levels found throughout New York State or the remediation targets set by the DEC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharon T Pochron
- Sustainability Studies Program, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794-3435, USA.
| | - Andrew Fiorenza
- Sustainability Studies Program, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794-3435, USA
| | | | - Brianne Ledda
- Miller Place High School, Miller Place, NY 11764, USA
| | | | - Clara C Tucker
- Sustainability Studies Program, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794-3435, USA
| | - Wade Tucker
- Miller Place High School, Miller Place, NY 11764, USA
| | | | - Nicholas Panico
- Sustainability Studies Program, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794-3435, USA
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40
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Cheng H, Hu Y, Reinhard M. Environmental and health impacts of artificial turf: a review. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2014; 48:2114-29. [PMID: 24467230 DOI: 10.1021/es4044193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
With significant water savings and low maintenance requirements, artificial turf is increasingly promoted as a replacement for natural grass on athletic fields and lawns. However, there remains the question of whether it is an environmentally friendly alternative to natural grass. The major concerns stem from the infill material that is typically derived from scrap tires. Tire rubber crumb contains a range of organic contaminants and heavy metals that can volatilize into the air and/or leach into the percolating rainwater, thereby posing a potential risk to the environment and human health. A limited number of studies have shown that the concentrations of volatile and semivolatile organic compounds in the air above artificial turf fields were typically not higher than the local background, while the concentrations of heavy metals and organic contaminants in the field drainages were generally below the respective regulatory limits. Health risk assessment studies suggested that users of artificial turf fields, even professional athletes, were not exposed to elevated risks. Preliminary life cycle assessment suggested that the environmental impacts of artificial turf fields were lower than equivalent grass fields. Areas that need further research to better understand and mitigate the potential negative environmental impacts of artificial turf are identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hefa Cheng
- State Key Laboratory of Organic Geochemistry Guangzhou Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences Guangzhou 510640, China
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41
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Ruffino B, Fiore S, Zanetti MC. Environmental-sanitary risk analysis procedure applied to artificial turf sports fields. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2013; 20:4980-4992. [PMID: 23329128 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-012-1390-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2012] [Accepted: 11/30/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Owing to the extensive use of artificial turfs worldwide, over the past 10 years there has been much discussion about the possible health and environmental problems originating from styrene-butadiene recycled rubber. In this paper, the authors performed a Tier 2 environmental-sanitary risk analysis on five artificial turf sports fields located in the city of Turin (Italy) with the aid of RISC4 software. Two receptors (adult player and child player) and three routes of exposure (direct contact with crumb rubber, contact with rainwater soaking the rubber mat, inhalation of dusts and gases from the artificial turf fields) were considered in the conceptual model. For all the fields and for all the routes, the cumulative carcinogenic risk proved to be lower than 10(-6) and the cumulative non-carcinogenic risk lower than 1. The outdoor inhalation of dusts and gases was the main route of exposure for both carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic substances. The results given by the inhalation pathway were compared with those of a risk assessment carried out on citizens breathing gases and dusts from traffic emissions every day in Turin. For both classes of substances and for both receptors, the inhalation of atmospheric dusts and gases from vehicular traffic gave risk values of one order of magnitude higher than those due to playing soccer on an artificial field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Ruffino
- DIATI-Department of Environment, Land and Infrastructure Engineering, Politecnico di Torino, Corso Duca degli Abruzzi, 24 10129 Torino, Italy.
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42
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Krüger O, Kalbe U, Richter E, Egeler P, Römbke J, Berger W. New approach to the ecotoxicological risk assessment of artificial outdoor sporting grounds. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2013; 175:69-74. [PMID: 23337354 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2012.12.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2012] [Revised: 12/11/2012] [Accepted: 12/20/2012] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Artificial surfaces for outdoor sporting grounds may pose environmental and health hazards that are difficult to assess due to their complex chemical composition. Ecotoxicity tests can indicate general hazardous impacts. We conducted growth inhibition (Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata) and acute toxicity tests (Daphnia magna) with leachates obtained from batch tests of granular infill material and column tests of complete sporting ground assemblies. Ethylene propylene diene monomer rubber (EPDM) leachate showed the highest effect on Daphnia magna (EC(50) < 0.4% leachate) and the leachate of scrap tires made of styrene butadiene rubber (SBR) had the highest effect on P. subcapitata (EC(10) = 4.2% leachate; EC(50) = 15.6% leachate). We found no correlations between ecotoxicity potential of leachates and zinc and PAH concentrations. Leachates obtained from column tests revealed lower ecotoxicological potential. Leachates of column tests of complete assemblies may be used for a reliable risk assessment of artificial sporting grounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- O Krüger
- BAM Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing, Division 4.4 Thermochemical Residues Treatment and Resource Recovery, Unter den Eichen 87, 12205 Berlin, Germany.
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Cho YA, Kim WI, Shin SK, Kang YY, Kim MS, Jeong SK, Yeon JM, Jin N, Lee JY. Characteristics of heavy metals's exposure from playground flooring. ANALYTICAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 2012. [DOI: 10.5806/ast.2012.25.6.416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Krüger O, Kalbe U, Berger W, Nordhauβ K, Christoph G, Walzel HP. Comparison of batch and column tests for the elution of artificial turf system components. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2012; 46:13085-13092. [PMID: 23153171 DOI: 10.1021/es301227y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Synthetic athletic tracks and turf areas for outdoor sporting grounds may release contaminants due to the chemical composition of some components. A primary example is that of zinc from reused scrap tires (main constituent, styrene butadiene rubber, SBR), which might be harmful to the environment. Thus, methods for the risk assessment of those materials are required. Laboratory leaching methods like batch and column tests are widely used to examine the soil-groundwater pathway. We tested several components for artificial sporting grounds with batch tests at a liquid to solid (LS) ratio of 2 L/kg and column tests with an LS up to 26.5 L/kg. We found a higher zinc release in the batch test eluates for all granules, ranging from 15% higher to 687% higher versus data from column tests for SBR granules. Accompanying parameters, especially the very high turbidity of one ethylene propylene diene monomer rubber (EPDM) or thermoplastic elastomer (TPE) eluates, reflect the stronger mechanical stress of batch testing. This indicates that batch test procedures might not be suitable for the risk assessment of synthetic sporting ground components. Column tests, on the other hand, represent field conditions more closely and allow for determination of time-dependent contaminants release.
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Affiliation(s)
- O Krüger
- BAM Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing , Unter den Eichen 87, 12205 Berlin, Germany.
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Rhodes EP, Ren Z, Mays DC. Zinc leaching from tire crumb rubber. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2012; 46:12856-12863. [PMID: 23145882 DOI: 10.1021/es3024379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Because tires contain approximately 1-2% zinc by weight, zinc leaching is an environmental concern associated with civil engineering applications of tire crumb rubber. An assessment of zinc leaching data from 14 studies in the published literature indicates that increasing zinc leaching is associated with lower pH and longer leaching times, but the data display a wide range of zinc concentrations, and do not address the effect of crumb rubber size or the dynamics of zinc leaching during flow through porous crumb rubber. The present study was undertaken to investigate the effect of crumb rubber size using the synthetic precipitation leaching procedure (SPLP), the effect of exposure time using quiescent batch leaching tests, and the dynamics of zinc leaching using column tests. Results indicate that zinc leaching from tire crumb rubber increases with smaller crumb rubber and longer exposure time. Results from SPLP and quiescent batch leaching tests are interpreted with a single-parameter leaching model that predicts a constant rate of zinc leaching up to 96 h. Breakthrough curves from column tests displayed an initial pulse of elevated zinc concentration (~3 mg/L) before settling down to a steady-state value (~0.2 mg/L), and were modeled with the software package HYDRUS-1D. Washing crumb rubber reduces this initial pulse but does not change the steady-state value. No leaching experiment significantly reduced the reservoir of zinc in the crumb rubber.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily P Rhodes
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of Colorado Denver, Campus Box 113, PO Box 173364, Denver, Colorado, USA
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46
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Menichini E, Abate V, Attias L, De Luca S, di Domenico A, Fochi I, Forte G, Iacovella N, Iamiceli AL, Izzo P, Merli F, Bocca B. Artificial-turf playing fields: contents of metals, PAHs, PCBs, PCDDs and PCDFs, inhalation exposure to PAHs and related preliminary risk assessment. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2011; 409:4950-7. [PMID: 21907387 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2011.07.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2011] [Revised: 07/13/2011] [Accepted: 07/18/2011] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
The artificial-turf granulates made from recycled rubber waste are of health concern due the possible exposure of users to dangerous substances present in the rubber, and especially to PAHs. In this work, we determined the contents of PAHs, metals, non-dioxin-like PCBs (NDL-PCBs), PCDDs and PCDFs in granulates, and PAH concentrations in air during the use of the field. The purposes were to identify some potential chemical risks and to roughly assess the risk associated with inhalation exposure to PAHs. Rubber granulates were collected from 13 Italian fields and analysed for 25 metals and nine PAHs. One further granulate was analysed for NDL-PCBs, PCDDs, PCDFs and 13 PAHs. Air samples were collected on filter at two fields, using respectively a high volume static sampler close to the athletes and personal samplers worn by the athletes, and at background locations outside the fields. In the absence of specific quality standards, we evaluated the measured contents with respect to the Italian standards for soils to be reclaimed as green areas. Zn concentrations (1 to 19 g/kg) and BaP concentrations (0.02 to 11 mg/kg) in granulates largely exceeded the pertinent standards, up to two orders of magnitude. No association between the origin of the recycled rubber and the contents of PAHs and metals was observed. The sums of NDL-PCBs and WHO-TE PCDDs+PCDFs were, respectively, 0.18 and 0.67×10(-5) mg/kg. The increased BaP concentrations in air, due to the use of the field, varied approximately from <0.01 to 0.4 ng/m(3), the latter referring to worst-case conditions as to the release of particle-bound PAHs. Based on the 0.4 ng/m(3) concentration, an excess lifetime cancer risk of 1×10(-6) was calculated for an intense 30-year activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edoardo Menichini
- Department of Environment and Primary Prevention, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena 299, 00161 Rome, Italy
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Gomes J, Mota H, Bordado J, Baião M, Sarmento G, Fernandes J, Pampulim V, Custódio M, Veloso I. Design of a new test chamber for evaluation of the toxicity of rubber infill. Toxicol Mech Methods 2011; 21:622-7. [DOI: 10.3109/15376516.2011.583293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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