Pesticide impact on aquatic invertebrates identified with Chemcatcher® passive samplers and the SPEAR(pesticides) index

Agricultural-Derived organochlorine pesticide residues impact on macroinvertebrate community in an Afrotropical Stream

This study evaluated the impact of pesticide application through agricultural activities in Chanchaga River, Nigeria, using macroinvertebrate data sets obtained for six months (September 2021-February 2022). Four (4) stations, characterized by various agricultural activities, were sampled along the river. Analysis of the water samples for organochlorine pesticide residues (OCP) using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC/MS) at the peak of the two seasons revealed a high concentration of eleven isomers of organochlorine, which ranged from 0.01 to 0.81 μg/L, and a mean concentration that was above international drinking water standards set by the World Health Organization, the Federal Environmental Protection Agency, and the European Union. The mean concentration of detected OCP was recorded as DDT (0.72 μg/L), Dieldrin (0.59 μg/L), Paraquat (0.54 μg/L), Aldrin (0.49 μg/L), Metribuzin (0.48 μg/L), Butachlor (0.47 μg/L), Alachlor (0.28 μg/L), Atrazine (0.23 μg/L), Phenol (0.10 μg/L), Endrin (0.09 μg/L), and Benzene (0.08 μg/L). Atrazine, alachlor, metribuzin, aldrin, phenol, and endrin showed significant differences across the two seasons (p < 0.05), while dieldrin, butachlor, paraquat, benzene, and DDT showed no significant differences across the two seasons (p > 0.05). A total of 622 macroinvertebrate individuals from 19 species in 18 families from 8 orders were collected. More individuals were collected during the dry season (58.17 %) and the wet season (41.83 %). Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) ordination revealed a strong relationship between species abundance and some organochlorine pesticide residues such as DDT, endrin, metribuzin, atrazine, benzene, and dieldrin. The response of macroinvertebrates to OCP indicates that Chanchaga River is a disturbed river, and the indicator organisms (Lestes sp., Coenagrion sp., Zyxomma sp., Appasus sp., Chironomus sp., Lymnaea natalensis, and Caridina nililotica) can also be used for further biomonitoring.

Passive sampling of herbicides above sediments at sites with losses of submerged macrophytes in a mesotrophic lake

Declines of submerged macrophytes (SUM) were monitored in littoral zones of the deep, mesotrophic lake Suhrer See (Northern Germany) since 2017. Drastic losses coincided with intense agriculture in sandy sub-catchments and precipitation. All lines of evidence pointed to a causal connection with subsurface discharge indicating that herbicide application might have caused the effects. Passive sampling was applied in 2022 to elucidate, whether herbicides were really present at sites of losses and if so, in ecotoxicological relevant concentrations. Samplers were exposed on top of lake sediments in 2 m depth and under worst case conditions, i.e., at sites, known for losses of the whole functional group of SUM and at the beginning of the vegetation period. At this time, SUM diaspores were most vulnerable to repression of development and the subsurface discharge was high in the same instance. The potential ecotoxicological relevance of detected herbicide concentrations was assessed with a toxic units (TU) approach, with reference to acute effect concentrations (EC50 of green algae, 72 h, growth). The TU ranged from 0.001 to 0.03. Most concentrations exceeded the threshold of relevance set by an assessment factor of 1000, i.e., TU > 0.001. Locally applied herbicides acted by suppressing developmental stages, and the sum of TU exceeded 0.02 at all sites, mainly due to diflufenican. Not applied locally, terbuthylazine and its relevant metabolites, including terbutryn, acted by inhibiting photosynthesis, and the sum of TU reached 0.005. On this base, diflufenican was assessed to be likely a main stressor, all other detected herbicides to be potentially relevant. Uncertainties and knowledge gaps were specified. The result of the chemical risk assessment was counterchecked for consistence with biological monitoring data within a whole lake perspective. Concepts of empirical and advanced causal attribution methodology were applied to get a grip to the ecological causal field and to protection.

New insight into environmental oxidation of phosmet insecticide initiated by HO˙ radicals in gas and water - a theoretical study

Phosmet is an organophosphorus insecticide widely used in agriculture to control a range of insects; recently, it was banned by the European Union in 2022 due to its harmful effects. However, its environmental degradation and fate have not yet been evident. Thus, phosmet oxidation by HO˙ radicals was theoretically studied in this work using the DFT approach at the M06-2X/6-311++G(3df,3pd)//M06-2X/6-31+G(d,p) level of theory. Three different mechanisms were considered, including formal hydrogen transfer (FHT), radical adduct formation (RAF), and single electron transfer (SET). The mechanisms, kinetics, and lifetime were studied in the gas and aqueous phases, in addition to its ecotoxicity evaluation. The results show that FHT reactions were dominant in the gas phase, while RAF was more favourable in the aqueous phase at 298 K, while SET was negligible. The branching ratio indicated that H-abstractions at the methyl and the methylene groups were the most predominant, while the most favourable HO˙-addition was observed at the phosphorus atom of the dithiophosphate group. The overall rate constant values varied from 1.2 × 109 (at 283 K) to 1.40 × 109 M-1 s-1 (at 323 K) in the aqueous phase and from 6.29 × 1010 (at 253 K) to 1.32 × 1010 M-1 s-1 (at 323 K) in the gas phase. The atmospheric lifetime of phosmet is about 6 hours at 287 K, while it can persist from a few seconds to several years depending on the temperature and [HO˙] concentration in the aqueous environment. The QSAR-based ecotoxicity evaluation indicates that phosmet and its degradation products are all dangerous to aquatic organisms, although the products are less toxic than phosmet. However, they are generally developmental toxicants and mutagenicity-negative compounds.

Pesticide pollution associations with riverine invertebrate communities in England

Globally freshwater biodiversity has experienced major decline and chemical pollutants are believed to have played a significant role in this decline, but this has not been well quantified for most riverine invertebrate populations. Here we applied a biogeographically independent trait-based bioindicator, SPEARpesticides across sites across five regions (Northern, Midlands and Western, Anglian, Southeast, and Southwest) in England to investigate for associations specifically between pesticide use/pollution and riverine invertebrate communities over a 55-year period (1965-2019). Both spatially and temporally post-1990, the Anglian and Thames regions consistently showed the lowest SPEARpesticides scores, illustrating the presence of fewer pesticide sensitive species. The Anglian region had the highest pesticide use compared to all other regions from 1990 to 2018 and there were negative relationships between the level of pesticide/insecticide use and the regional SPEARpesticides score. Biochemical Oxygen Demand and ammonia, as measures of general water quality, were also negatively correlated with the SPEARpesticides scores across the regions, but these factors were not the driver for the lower SPEARpesticides scores seen in the Anglian region. Based on SPEARpesticides scores, riverine invertebrate communities in England have been most impacted in the Anglian region and we evidence chronic insecticide exposure is likely a significant factor in shaping the status of those invertebrate communities.

Calibration of the Chemcatcher® passive sampler and derivation of generic sampling rates for a broad application in monitoring of surface waters

We determined sampling rates for 34 pesticides, five pesticide transformation products, and 34 pharmaceutical compounds with the Chemcatcher (CC) passive sampler in a laboratory-based continuous-flow system at 40 cm/s and ambient temperature. Three different sampling phases were used: styrene divinylbenzene disks (SDB-XC), styrene divinylbenzene reversed phase sulfonate disks (SDB-RPS), and hydrophilic lipophilic balance disks (HLB), in all cases covered with a diffusion-limiting polyethersulfone membrane. The measured sampling rates range from 0.007 L/d to 0.193 L/d for CC with SDB-XC (CC-XC), from 0.055 L/d to 0.796 L/d for CC with SDB-RPS (CC-RPS), and from 0.018 L/d to 0.073 L/d for CC equipped with HLB (CC-HLB). Comparison with sampling rates from literature enabled to derive generic sampling rates that can be used for compounds with unknown uptake kinetics such as transformations products and new compounds of interest. Field trial results demonstrate that the presently derived generic sampling rates are suitable for estimating time-weighted average concentrations within reasonable uncertainty limits. In this way, Chemcatcher passive sampling can be applied approximately to a broad range of solutes without the need for deriving compound-specific sampling rates, which enable compliance checks against environmental quality standards and further risk assessment.

Pivotal role of water molecules in the photodegradation of pymetrozine: New insights for developing green pesticides

Photodegradation of the insecticide pymetrozine (PYM) was studied on surface of wax films, and in aqueous and nonaqueous phase. The half-life of PYM on the wax surface was approximately 250 times longer than in water. Scavenging experiments, laser flash photolysis, and spectra analysis indicated the first singlet excited state of PYM (S1 *_PYM) to be the most important photoinduced species initiating the photodegradation. Quantum chemistry calculations identified significant molecular torsion and changes in the structure C-CN-N of S1 *_PYM, and the absolute charges of the CN atoms increased and the bond strength weakened. Free energy surface analysis, and O¹⁸ labeling experiments further confirmed that the mechanism was two-step photoinduced hydrolysis. The first step is the hydrolysis of S1 *_PYM at CN upon reaction with 2-3 water molecules (one H₂O molecule as the catalyst). The second step is an intramolecular hydrogen transfer coupled with the cleavage of C-N bond and formation of two cyclic products. During the interactions, water molecules experience catalytic activation by transferring protons, while there is a negligible solvent effect. Clarifying the detailed photodegradation mechanisms of PYM is beneficial for the development of green pesticides that are photostable and effective on leaf surfaces, and photolabile and detoxified in the aquatic environment.

Pesticide use in sugar beet cultivation in Germany and assessment of the associated environmental risks using the risk indicator SYNOPS-GIS

BACKGROUND

The assessment of the environmental risks for pesticides is a current topic of the European Union (EU) strategy 'Farm to Fork'. Therefore, an analysis of the status quo of pesticide use from 2010 to 2015 and the associated environmental risks was performed for sugar beet cultivation in Germany. Based on this assessment, crop protection strategies should be developed that contribute to risk reduction.

RESULTS

Pesticide use data from 2314 randomly chosen sugar beet growing farms were available from annual farm surveys from 2010 until 2015. Possible environmental risks from pesticide applications were calculated with the model SYNOPS-GIS. Each pesticide application pattern was combined with several model fields. The concentrations of active ingredients in the non-target compartments, namely soil, neighboring surface waters and field margins, were used to determined risk indices (exposure toxicity ratios, ETRs) for different terrestrial and aquatic reference species. ETRs were mainly lower than a risk threshold used throughout this study (ETR = 1). The risks caused by herbicide use were studied in more detail since herbicides are applied on nearly all fields. The aquatic risks posed by herbicides were independent of specific active ingredients or application patterns. Instead, certain combinations of active ingredients, application dates and field-specific environmental conditions provoked higher risks. The aquatic risks were strongly influenced by the distance of the fields to surface waters.

CONCLUSIONS

Further risk mitigation seems possible by combining field-specific measures and technical options. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

Insecticides and Drought as a Fatal Combination for a Stream Macroinvertebrate Assemblage in a Catchment Area Exploited by Large-Scale Agriculture

This case study documents responses in a headwater macroinvertebrate assemblage to insecticide pollution and hydrological drought. In 2014, the Doubravka brook (Czech Republic) was damaged by a large overflow of a mixture of chlorpyrifos (CPS) and cypermethrin (CP). In 2016–2017, this brook was then affected by severe drought that sometimes led to an almost complete absence of surface water. We found significant relationships between the strength of both these disturbances and the deeper taxonomic levels of both the overall macroinvertebrate assemblage (classes) and the arthropod assemblage alone (orders and dipteran families), as well as the functional feeding groups (FFGs). The CPS-CP contamination was mostly negatively correlated to arthropod and non-arthropod taxa and was positively correlated only with FFG collector-gatherers; on the other hand, the drought was negatively correlated to Simuliidae, Ephemeroptera, Trichoptera, and the FFG of grazer-scrapers and passive filterers. Drought conditions correlated most positively with Isopoda, Ostracoda, Heteroptera, adult Coleoptera, and predator and active filterer FFGs. The chosen eco-indicators (SPEARpesticides, SPEARrefuge, BMWP, and EPT) used as support information reveal the poor ecological status of the whole assemblage, including the control site, the cause of which is most likely to be the exploitation of the adjacent catchment area by large-scale agriculture. This type of agricultural exploitation will undoubtedly affect macroinvertebrate assemblages as a result of agrochemical and soil inputs during run-off events and will also exacerbate the effect of droughts when precipitation levels drop.

Long-term effects of a catastrophic insecticide spill on stream invertebrates

Accidental spills or illegal discharges of pesticides in aquatic ecosystems can lead to exposure levels that strongly exceed authorized pesticide concentrations, causing major impacts on aquatic ecosystems. Such short-term events often remain undetected in regular monitoring programs with infrequent sampling. In early spring 2015, we identified a catastrophic pesticide spill with the insecticide cypermethrin in the Holtemme River, Germany. Based on existing pre-event macroinvertebrate community data, we monitored the effects and recovery of the macroinvertebrate community for more than two years after the spill. Strong short-term effects were apparent for all taxa with the exception of Chironomidae and Tubificidae. Effects could also be observed on the community level as total abundance, taxa number and biomass strongly decreased. Total abundance and taxa number showed a fast recovery. Regarding long-term effects, the total biomass remained substantially below the pre-contamination level (76%) until the end of the study. Also the abundances of three taxa (Gammarus, Leuctra, Limnius Ad.) did not return to levels prior to the spill even after 26 months. This lack of the taxon-specific recovery was likely due to their long generation time and a low migration ability due to a restricted connectivity between the contaminated site and uncontaminated stream sections. These factors proved to be stronger predictors for the recovery than the pesticide tolerance. We revealed that the biological indicators SPEARpesticides and share of Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera (EPT) are not suitable for the identification of such extreme events, when nearly all taxa are eradicated. Both indicators are functioning only when repeated stressors initiate long-term competitive replacement of sensitive by insensitive taxa. We conclude that pesticide spills can have significant long-term effects on stream macroinvertebrate communities. Regular ecological monitoring is imperative to identify such ecosystem impairments, combined with analytical chemistry methods to identify the potential sources of spills.

An update of the Worldwide Integrated Assessment (WIA) on systemic insecticides. Part 1: new molecules, metabolism, fate, and transport

With the exponential number of published data on neonicotinoids and fipronil during the last decade, an updated review of literature has been conducted in three parts. The present part focuses on gaps of knowledge that have been addressed after publication of the Worldwide Integrated Assessment (WIA) on systemic insecticides in 2015. More specifically, new data on the mode of action and metabolism of neonicotinoids and fipronil, and their toxicity to invertebrates and vertebrates, were obtained. We included the newly detected synergistic effects and/or interactions of these systemic insecticides with other insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, adjuvants, honeybee viruses, and parasites of honeybees. New studies have also investigated the contamination of all environmental compartments (air and dust, soil, water, sediments, and plants) as well as bees and apicultural products, food and beverages, and the exposure of invertebrates and vertebrates to such contaminants. Finally, we review new publications on remediation of neonicotinoids and fipronil, especially in water systems. Conclusions of the previous WIA in 2015 are reinforced; neonicotinoids and fipronil represent a major threat worldwide for biodiversity, ecosystems, and all the services the latter provide.

A Review of Biological Monitoring of Aquatic Ecosystems Approaches: with Special Reference to Macroinvertebrates and Pesticide Pollution

Biological monitoring is the evaluating changes in the environment using the biological responses with the intent of using such information in quality control of the ecosystem. Biomarkers and bioindicators are two main components of the hierarchy of biomonitoring process. Bioindicators can be used to monitor changes of ecosystems and to distinguish alteration of human impact from natural variability. There is a wide range of aquatic taxa such as macroinvertebrates, fish and periphyton, planktons which are successfully used in the biomonitoring process. Among them, macroinvertebrates are an important group of aquatic organisms that involves transferring energy and material through the trophic levels of the aquatic food chain and their sensitivity to environmental changes differs among the species. The main approaches of assessing freshwater ecosystems health using macroinvertebrates include measurement of diversity indices, biotic indices, multimetric approaches, multivariate approaches, Indices of Biological Integrity (IBI), and trait-based approaches. Among these, biotic indices and multimetric approaches are commonly used to evaluate the pesticide impacts on aquatic systems. Recently developed trait-based approaches such as SPEcies At Risk of pesticides (SPEAR) index was successfully applied in temperate regions to monitor the events of pesticide pollution of aquatic ecosystems but with limited use in tropics. This paper reviews the literature on different approaches of biomonitoring of the aquatic environment giving special reference to macroinvertebrates. It also reviews the literature on how biomonitoring could be used to monitor pesticide pollution of the aquatic environment. Thus the review aims to instil the importance of current approaches of biomonitoring for the conservation and management of aquatic ecosystems especially in the regions of the world where such knowledge has not been integrated in ecosystem conservation approaches.

Using a multi-dimensional approach for catchment scale herbicide pollution assessments

Worldwide herbicide use in agriculture, whilst safeguarding yields also presents water quality issues. Controlling factors in agricultural catchments include both static and dynamic parameters. The present study investigated the occurrence of herbicides in streams and groundwater in two meso-scale catchments with contrasting flow controls and agricultural landuse (grassland and arable land). Using a multi-dimensional approach, streams were monitored from November 2018 to November 2019 using Chemcatcher® passive sampling devices and groundwater was sampled in 95 private drinking water wells. The concentrations of herbicides were larger in the stream of the Grassland catchment (8.9-472.6 ng L^-1) dominated by poorly drained soils than in the Arable catchment (0.9-169.1 ng L^-1) dominated by well-drained soils. Incidental losses of herbicides during time of application and low flows in summer caused concentrations of MCPA, Fluroxypyr, Trichlorpyr, Clopyralid and Mecoprop to exceeded the European Union (EU) drinking water standard due to a lack of dilution. Herbicides were present in the stream throughout the year and the total mass load was higher in winter flows, suggesting a persistence of primary chemical residues in soil and sub-surface environments and restricted degradation. Losses of herbicides to the streams were source limited and influenced by hydrological conditions. Herbicides were detected in 38% of surveyed drinking water wells. While most areas had concentrations below the EU drinking water standard some areas with well-drained soils in the Grassland catchment, had concentrations exceeding recommendations. Individual wells had concentrations of Clopyralid (619 ng L^-1) and Trichlorpyr (650 ng L^-1). Despite the study areas not usually associated with herbicide pollution, and annual mass loads being comparatively low, many herbicides were present in both surface and groundwater, sometimes above the recommendations for drinking water. This whole catchment assessment provides a basis to develop collaborative measures to mitigate pollution of water by herbicides.

Drivers of pesticide resistance in freshwater amphipods

Aquatic invertebrates exposed to pesticides may develop pesticide resistance. Based on a meta-analysis we revealed environmental factors driving the magnitude of resistance in the freshwater amphipod Gammarus pulex in the field. We showed that (i) insecticide tolerance of G. pulex increased with pesticide contamination in agricultural streams generally by a factor of up to 4. Tolerance increased even at concentrations lower than what is considered safe in regulatory risk assessment (ii) The increase in insecticide tolerance was pronounced at high test concentrations; comparing the LC50 of populations therefore potentially underestimates the development of resistance. (iii) Insecticide resistance in agricultural streams diminished during the spraying season, suggesting that adverse effects of sublethal concentrations in the short term contrast long-term adaptation to insecticide exposure. (iv) We found that resistance was especially high in populations characterized not only by high pesticide exposure, but also by large distance (>3.3 km) from non-polluted stream sections and by low species diversity within the invertebrate community. We conclude that the test concentration, the timing of measurement, distance to refuge areas and species diversity mediate the observed response of aquatic communities to pesticide pollution and need to be considered for the sustainable management of agricultural practices.

Benthic diatom growth kinetics under combined pressures of microalgal competition, predation and chemical stressors

Pesticides are increasingly used worldwide to protect crops. However, only a small fraction of pesticides really hit their target organisms, with the remaining fraction reaching the environment by several phenomena such as leaching, and ending up in aquatic ecosystems: the final receptor of micropollutants. Chemical stressors induce changes in taxonomic composition of fauna and flora which are now the focus of many biomonitoring studies. Interspecific competition and predation are structuring factors of community composition. But the combined effects of biotic relationships (competition, predation) and pesticides are rarely accounted for. We tested four factors (Predation, Competition, Diuron (Herbicide) and Imidacloprid (insecticide)) separately on three distinct morphotypes of two diatoms species: Planothidium lanceolatum and Gomphonema gracile (normal and teratogen forms), to quantify the daily growth kinetics of each under varied pressures. The predator used was a nematode, cosmopolitan in soils and aquatic ecosystems (Aphelenchoides bicaudatus). We reproduced experiments combining the factors in binary and ternary combinations. Diuron had lower toxicity than expected, while imidacloprid affected the growth of non-target diatoms. Interalgal competition had marked negative effects on diatom growth kinetics, which increased as supplementary pressures (nematodes and/or pesticides) were added. These results demonstrate that ecological relationships in freshwater biofilms (competition, predation) have a non negligible effect on community composition, population behavior and impacts usually observed. Multistress conditions including the presence of pesticides in freshwaters are expected to affect biodiversity in ways that are hard to predict from simple toxicity assays.

Ecological risks of imidacloprid to aquatic species in the Netherlands: Measured and estimated concentrations compared to species sensitivity distributions

Recent declines of insects' biomass have been a major point of interest. While several causes, including use of neonicotinoids like imidacloprid, have been suggested, scientific underpinning is limited. The aim of our study was to assess the potential risk of imidacloprid for freshwater fauna in the Netherlands and to validate the SimpleBox model to allow application elsewhere. To this end, we compared imidacloprid concentrations estimated from emissions using the SimpleBox model to measurements obtained from monitoring databases and calculated the ecological risk based on measured concentrations for aquatic fauna. Imidacloprid concentration estimations were within the range measured, opening opportunities for application of SimpleBox to regions where measurements are limited. Aquatic insects were found to be most sensitive to imidacloprid while amphibians and fish are least sensitive to imidacloprid. In particular, the ecological risk of measured imidacloprid concentration in the Netherlands was 1%, implying that concentrations frequently exceed levels that are lethal in short-term experiments. Hence, based on lab toxicity data, the present study suggests that imidacloprid concentrations can be high enough to explain insect decline observed in the same areas.

Selective grazing behaviour of chironomids on microalgae under pesticide pressure

The herbicide diuron and the insecticide imidacloprid are amongst the most frequently detected pesticides in French rivers, and each is known to affect many aquatic organisms. However, the question of whether and how both pesticides together might induce multi-stress conditions, which could induce indirect effects such as the modification of biological interactions within freshwater microbial communities has not received much attention. This study was undertaken to determine the effect of diuron and imidacloprid alone and in combination on the feeding behaviour of chironomid larvae. An initial experiment measured the impact of the different contamination conditions at environmental concentrations (5 μg L^-1 for each pesticide) on the grazing rate of chironomids on three microalgae species, independently. Two diatom species, Gomphonema gracile (two different morphotypes: normal and teratogen) and Planothidium lanceolatum, and one green alga Desmodesmus sp. were offered as food, during 24 h. Chironomids grazing rates varied according to the pesticide and algae species. Indeed, diuron impacted algae more strongly and probably affected their palatability, leading chironomids to increase grazing pressure on less nutritionally interesting algae. Imidacloprid, by targeting insect larvae, increased or inhibited their grazing capacity depending on the food source. In a second experiment (cafeteria design), the food selectivity of chironomids on previous algae was determined under similar contamination conditions during 4 h: under diuron, larvae switched equally between the microalgae and were as mobile as in the control without pesticide. However, imidacloprid and the pesticide mixture condition altered chironomid movements and grazing behaviour. By investigating the impact of an herbicide and an insecticide, alone and in combination, on the responses of food (algae growth rate) and biological (mortality) and behavioural (mobility, food selection) responses of chironomid larvae, this study provided new insights on the direct and indirect effects of pesticide contamination on a simplified trophic web.

Biodiversity mediates the effects of stressors but not nutrients on litter decomposition

Understanding the consequences of ongoing biodiversity changes for ecosystems is a pressing challenge. Controlled biodiversity-ecosystem function experiments with random biodiversity loss scenarios have demonstrated that more diverse communities usually provide higher levels of ecosystem functioning. However, it is not clear if these results predict the ecosystem consequences of environmental changes that cause non-random alterations in biodiversity and community composition. We synthesized 69 independent studies reporting 660 observations of the impacts of two pervasive drivers of global change (chemical stressors and nutrient enrichment) on animal and microbial decomposer diversity and litter decomposition. Using meta-analysis and structural equation modeling, we show that declines in decomposer diversity and abundance explain reduced litter decomposition in response to stressors but not to nutrients. While chemical stressors generally reduced biodiversity and ecosystem functioning, detrimental effects of nutrients occurred only at high levels of nutrient inputs. Thus, more intense environmental change does not always result in stronger responses, illustrating the complexity of ecosystem consequences of biodiversity change. Overall, these findings provide strong evidence that the consequences of observed biodiversity change for ecosystems depend on the kind of environmental change, and are especially significant when human activities decrease biodiversity.

Insecticides in agricultural streams exert pressure for adaptation but impair performance in Gammarus pulex at regulatory acceptable concentrations

Pesticide exposure in agricultural streams requires non-target species to adapt. However, pesticides may reduce performance in between exposure events due to long-term effects and physiological fitness costs of adaptation. Here, we investigated the long-term consequences of pesticide exposure to low concentrations in the widespread crustacean Gammarus pulex. We collected populations from six German streams covering no to moderate agricultural pesticide exposure. Peak concentrations ranged up to 1/400 of their acute median lethal concentration (Toxic Unit = -2.6), resulting in significant changes in the macroinvertebrate community composition (SPEAR_pesticides = up to 0.12). Acute toxicity tests revealed up to 2.5-fold increased tolerance towards the most frequently found insecticide clothianidin compared to populations from non-contaminated streams. However, populations showing increased insecticide tolerance were characterized by reduced survival, per capita growth and mating when cultured under pesticide-free conditions in the laboratory for three months. We conclude that pesticide pollution triggers adaptation both at the species and the community level even at concentrations considered to be safe according to the European pesticide legislation. In G. pulex, exposure and adaptation are associated with impaired performance which potentially affects ecosystem functions such as leaf litter degradation. These long-term impairments need to be considered in deriving safe concentrations.

Development of predictive models for silicone rubber-water partition coefficients of hydrophobic organic contaminants

The silicone rubber passive sampling technique is extensively applied to monitor the aqueous freely dissolved concentration of hydrophobic organic compounds (HOCs). The silicone rubber-water partition coefficient (Ksrw) is an important parameter to accurately measure the concentrations of chemicals using passive sampling devices. In this study, two theoretical linear solvation energy relationship (TLSER) models and a quantitative structure-property relationship (QSPR) model were developed for predicting the Ksrw of HOCs. The 119 model compounds studied here included 31 personal care products, such as musks, UV-filters, and organophosphate flame retardants, as well as "conventional" pollutants, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and polychlorinated biphenyls. The statistical parameters indicated that the final QSPR model with seven descriptors for all 119 chemicals had a satisfactory goodness-of-fit (Radj2 = 0.898), robustness (QLOO2 = 0.881) and predictive ability (Qext-F1,2,32 = 0.897-0.926). In comparison, the results of one TLSER model with four descriptors for 113 chemicals (Radj2 = 0.826, QLOO2 = 0.790, Qext-F1,2,32 = 0.805-0.837) and another TLSER model with one descriptor for 5 chemicals (Radj2 = 0.747, QLOO2 = 0.647) were also acceptable. The applicability domains of the obtained models covered chemicals containing hydroxyl, imino groups, carbonyl groups, ether bonds, halogen atoms, sulfur atoms, phosphorus atoms, nitro groups, and cyano groups. In addition, the structural features governing the partition behavior of chemicals between silicone rubber and water were explored through interpretation of appropriate mechanisms.

Pesticide contamination drives adaptive genetic variation in the endemic mayfly Andesiops torrens within a semi-arid agricultural watershed of Chile

Agrichemical contamination can provoke evolutionary responses in freshwater populations. It is a particularly relevant issue in semi-arid regions due to the sensitivity of endemic species to pollutants and to interactions with temperature stress. This paper investigates the presence of pesticides in rivers within a semi-arid agricultural watershed of Chile, testing for their effects on population genetic characteristics of the endemic mayfly Andesiops torrens (Insecta, Ephemeroptera). Pesticides were detected in sediment samples in ten out of the 30 sites analyzed throughout the upper part of the Limarí watershed. To study the evolutionary impact of such contamination on A. torrens, we used a genome-wide approach and analyzed 2056 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) loci in 551 individuals from all sites. Genetic differentiation was weak between populations, suggesting high gene flow across the study area. While we did not find evidence of pesticide effects on genetic diversity nor on population differentiation, the allele frequency of three outlier SNP loci correlated significantly with pesticide occurrence. Interrogation of genomic resources indicates that two of these SNPs are located within functional genes that encode for the low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 2 and Dumpy, both potentially involved in insect cuticle resistance processes. Such genomic signatures of local adaptation are indicative of past adverse effects of pesticide exposure on the locally adapted populations. Our results reveal that A. torrens is sensitive to pesticide exposure, but that a high gene flow may confer resilience to contamination. This research supports the contention that A. torrens is an ideal model organism to study evolutionary responses induced by pesticides on non-target, endemic species.

Environmental Stress Increases Synergistic Effects of Pesticide Mixtures on Daphnia magna

Some widely used pesticide mixtures produce more than additive effects according to conventional combined effect models. However, synergistic effects have been so far generally observed at unrealistically high pesticide concentrations. Here, we used Daphnia magna as a test organism and investigated how food limitation-a common ecological stressor-affects the mixture toxicity of a pyrethroid insecticide and azole fungicide. We also compared three models regarding the prediction of mixture effects, including concentration addition (CA), effect addition (EA), and stress addition model (SAM). We revealed that especially under low food, the strength of synergism between esfenvalerate and prochloraz increased with an increasing concentration of prochloraz independent of the null model. Under high food conditions and at concentrations of prochloraz ≥32 μg/L, we observed a marginal synergistic effect with a model deviation ratio (MDR) = 2.1 at 32 μg/L prochloraz and 2.2 at 100 μg/L prochloraz when using CA as the null model. In contrast, the combination of both pesticides and food stress caused synergistic effects shown by an MDR = 10.9 even at 1 μg/L of prochloraz that is frequently detected in the environment. The combined effects of pesticides and food stress could be predicted best with the SAM that showed the lowest mean deviation between effect observation and prediction (mean deviation SAM = 16 [SD = 28], EA = 1072 [2105], CA = 1345 [2644]). We conclude that common environmental stressors can strongly increase the synergistic effects of toxicants. This knowledge is especially relevant considering current efforts to include the additional risk of pesticide mixtures and environmental stressors into the environmental risk assessment of pesticides.

The effect of dimethoate pesticide on some biochemical biomarkers in Gammarus pulex

In this presented study, it was aimed to determine the effects of pesticides on non-target organisms on the freshwater amphipod, Gammarus pulex, by biochemical responses. Acute toxicity value (LC₅₀) in G. pulex of the dimethoate pesticide was determined. The superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione S-transferaz (GST), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and catalase (CAT) activities and malondialdehyde (MDA), glutathione (GSH) levels of the G. pulex organism exposed to the subletal concentrations were analyzed by ELISA for 24 and 96 h. In conclusion, the present study demonstrated the abilities of dimethoate pesticide induce to oxidative stress. The results revealed that MDA, GSH levels SOD, CAT, GPx, and GST activities of G. pulex can be used as an effective biomarkers.

A survey and risk assessment of neonicotinoids in water, soil and sediments of Belize

Usage of neonicotinoids is common in all agricultural regions of the world but data on environmental contamination in tropical regions is scarce. We conducted a survey of five neonicotinoids in soil, water and sediment samples along gradients from crops fields to protected lowland tropical forest, mangroves and wetlands in northern Belize, a region of high biodiversity value. Neonicotinoid frequency of detection and concentrations were highest in soil (68%) and lowest in water (12%). Imidacloprid was the most common residue reaching a maximum of 17.1 ng/g in soil samples. Concentrations in soils differed among crop types, being highest in melon fields and lowest in banana and sugarcane fields. Residues in soil declined with distance to the planted fields, with clothianidin being detected at 100 m and imidacloprid at more than 10 km from the nearest applied field. About half (47%) of the sediments collected contained residues of at least one compound up to 10 km from the source. Total neonicotinoid concentrations in sediments (range 0.014-0.348 ng/g d. w.) were about 10 times lower than in soils from the fields, with imidacloprid being the highest (0.175 ng/g). A probabilistic risk assessment of the residues in the aquatic environment indicates that 31% of sediment samples pose a risk to invertebrate aquatic and benthic organisms by chronic exposure, whereas less than 5% of sediment samples may incur a risk by acute exposure. Current residue levels in water samples do not appear to pose risks to the aquatic fauna. Fugacity modeling of the four main compounds detected suggest that most of the dissipation from the agricultural fields occurs via runoff and leaching through the porous soils of this region. We call for better monitoring of pesticide contamination and invertebrate inventories and finding alternatives to the use of neonicotinoids in agriculture.

Environmental impacts on water resources from summer crops in rainfed and irrigated systems

Irrigation is an intensification technology to increase productivity in agricultural systems, but the impacts of irrigation on the environmental performance of crops are not well understood. We evaluated impacts on water use and quality of rainfed and irrigated systems for corn and soybean production in temperate South America using nonparametric ANOVA tests for small sample sizes. We modeled blue water footprint, ecotoxicity, N and P balance, and eutrophication potential for six farms producing corn and soybean in rainfed and irrigated systems in Uruguay. Crop yields were 5948 and 7862 kg ha^-1 for corn and 2482 and 3423 kg ha^-1 for soybean, under rainfed and irrigation, respectively. The average blue water footprint for irrigated systems was 264 m³ ton^-1 and zero for rainfed systems, with no difference between corn and soybean. The ecotoxicity was greater for soybean than for corn (1679 vs 325 CTUe kg^-1) but there were no statistically significant differences in ecotoxicity between rainfed and irrigated systems. Based on Usetox methodology, insecticides had a greater ecotoxic effect (3.2 × 10⁶ CTUe ha^-1) than herbicides (7.3 × 10⁴ CTUe ha^-1), despite the lower doses applied (insecticides: 0.51 kg ha^-1; herbicides: 6.83 kg ha^-1). The aquatic eutrophication potential (based on Impact 2002 + methodology) among rainfed and irrigated systems presented no differences (29 vs 24 kgPO_4-eq ha^-1 for corn and 19 vs 27 kgPO_4-eq ha^-1 for soybean). The standardized environmental impacts for corn calculated per ha were similar than those per kg of grain when comparing rainfed vs irrigated systems. For soybean, however, standardized environmental impacts per ha were greater in the irrigated than in the rainfed systems, but were similar per kg of grain (except for water footprint). In summary, irrigation resulted in higher productivity and increased blue water footprint than rainfed, but in the set of farms analyzed it did not significantly increase inputs use, so no differences were detected in nutrient balance, eutrophication potential, or ecotoxicity. Soybeans had greater environmental impacts than corn in ecotoxicity and N excess per unit of area, but no statistically significant difference was found in the other indicators. These indicators may be useful as a predictive tool for resource management. Decision makers should consider the trade-offs between productivity, water use, and water quality when using irrigation for intensification of crop production.

Pesticide Body Burden of the Crustacean Gammarus pulex as a Measure of Toxic Pressure in Agricultural Streams

Risk assessments of toxicants in aquatic environments are typically based on the evaluation of concentrations in water or sediment. However, concentrations in water are highly variable, while the body burden may provide a better time-integrated measure of pesticide exposure and potential effects in aquatic organisms. Here, we quantified pesticide body burdens in a dominant invertebrate species from agricultural streams, Gammarus pulex, compared them with pesticide concentrations in water samples, and linked the pesticide contamination with observed ecological effects on macroinvertebrate communities. In total, 19 of 61 targeted analytes were found in the organisms, ranging from 0.037 to 93.94 ng g^-1 (wet weight). Neonicotinoids caused the highest toxic pressure among the pesticides detected in G. pulex. Using linear solvation energy relationships (LSERs), we derived equivalent pesticide concentrations in streamwater based on the body burden. These equivalent concentrations correlated with the concentrations in water samples collected after runoff (65% of variance explained). Pesticide pressure significantly affected the aquatic macroinvertebrate community structure, expressed as SPEAR_pesticides, and caused, on average, 3-fold increased insecticide tolerance in G. pulex as a result of adaptation. The toxic pressure derived from body burden and from water samples similarly explained the change in community structure (68% and 64%). However, the increased tolerance of G. pulex to pesticides was better explained by the toxicity derived from body burden (70%) than by the toxicity from water samples (53%). We conclude that the internal body burden of macroinvertebrates is suitable to assess the overall pesticide exposure and effects in agricultural streams.

Indication of pesticide effects and recolonization in streams

The agricultural use of pesticides leads to environmentally relevant pesticide concentrations that cause adverse effects on stream ecosystems. These effects on invertebrate community composition can be identified by the bio-indicator SPEAR_pesticides. However, refuge areas have been found to partly confound the indicator. On the basis of three monitoring campaigns of 41 sites in Central Germany, we identified 11 refuge taxa. The refuge taxa, mainly characterized by dispersal-based resilience, were observed only nearby uncontaminated stream sections and independent of the level of pesticide pressure. Through incorporation of this information into the revised SPEAR_pesticides indicator, the community structure specifically identified the toxic pressure and no longer depended on the presence of refuge areas. With regard to ecosystem functions, leaf litter degradation was predicted by the revised SPEAR_pesticides and the median water temperature at a site (R² = 0.38, P = 0.003). Furthermore, we designed the bio-indicator SPEAR_refuge to quantify the magnitude of general recolonization at a given stream site. We conclude that the taxonomic composition of aquatic invertebrate communities enables a specific indication of anthropogenic stressors and resilience of ecosystems.

Adaptation of Gammarus pulex to agricultural insecticide contamination in streams

Exposure to pesticides affects non-target aquatic communities, with substantial consequences on ecosystem services. Adaptation of exposed populations may reduce the effects of pesticides. However, it is not known under which conditions adaptation occurs when only a low toxic pressure from pesticides is present. Here, we show that Gammarus pulex, a dominant macroinvertebrate species in many agricultural streams, acquires increased tolerance to pesticides when recolonization from non-contaminated refuge areas is low. Populations in the field that were exposed to pesticides at concentrations several orders of magnitude below considerable acute effects showed almost 3-fold higher tolerance to the neonicotinoid insecticide clothianidin (mean EC₅₀ 218μgL^-1) compared with non-exposed populations (mean EC₅₀ 81μgL^-1). This tolerance of exposed populations increased from 2- to 4-fold with increasing distance to the next refuge area (0 to 10km). We conclude that the development of tolerance for non-target species may occur at very low concentrations, much below those affecting sensitive test organisms and also lower than those predicted to be safe by governmental risk assessment frameworks.

Tomography of anthropogenic nitrate contribution along a mesoscale river

Elevated nitrate concentrations are a thread for water supply and ecological integrity in surface water. Nitrate fluxes obtained by standard monitoring protocols at the catchment outlet strongly integrate spatially and temporally variable processes such as mobilization and turnover. Consequently, inference of dominant nitrate sources is often problematic and challenging in terms of effective river management and prioritization of measures. Here, we combine a spatially highly resolved assessment of nitrate concentration and fluxes along a mesoscale catchment with four years of monitoring data at two representative sites. The catchment is characterized by a strong land use gradient from pristine headwaters to lowland sub-catchments with intense agricultural land use and wastewater sources. We use nitrate concentrations in combination with hydrograph separation and isotopic fingerprinting methods to characterize and quantify nitrate source contribution. The hydrological analysis revealed a clear dominance of base flow during both campaigns. However, the absolute amounts of discharge differed considerably from one another (outlet: 1.42m³s^-1 in 2014, 0.43m³s^-1 in 2015). Nitrate concentrations are generally low in the pristine headwaters (<3mgL^-1) and increase downstream (15 to 16mgL^-1) due to the contribution of agricultural and wastewater sources. While the agricultural contribution did not vary in terms of nitrate concentration and isotopic signature between the years, the wastewater contribution strongly increased with decreasing discharge. Wastewater-borne nitrate load in the entire catchment ranged between 19% (2014) and 39% (2015). Long-term monitoring of nitrate concentration and isotopic composition in two sub-catchment exhibits a good agreement with findings from spatially monitoring. In both datasets, isotopic composition indicates that denitrification plays only a minor role. The spatially highly resolved monitoring approach helped to pinpoint hot spots of nitrate inputs into the stream while the long-term information allowed to place results into the context of intra-annual variability.

Sequential exposure to low levels of pesticides and temperature stress increase toxicological sensitivity of crustaceans

Frequent pesticide-related impacts on ecosystems at concentrations considered environmentally safe indicate that the current risk assessment framework for registration of pesticides is not protective enough. Causes may include difficulties in assessing the effects of sequential pesticide pulses and their interaction with environmental stressors. By contrast to such realistic scenarios, risk assessment for registration of pesticides is typically based on tests of a single exposure period under benign laboratory conditions. Here, we investigated the toxicological sensitivity of Gammarus pulex, an ecologically relevant crustacean, from uncontaminated control streams and pesticide-contaminated agricultural streams by exposing them to pesticide contamination in the laboratory. Individuals from contaminated streams were 2.7-fold more sensitive to pesticide exposure than individuals from the reference streams. We revealed that this increase in sensitivity was the result of a synergistic interaction of sequential pesticide exposure and temperature stress. Such multiple stressor scenarios are typical for agricultural streams. We conclude that the interactive effects of sequential toxicant exposure and additional environmental stressors need to be considered in a realistic risk assessment framework.

Pesticides from wastewater treatment plant effluents affect invertebrate communities

We quantified pesticide contamination and its ecological impact up- and downstream of seven wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in rural and suburban areas of central Germany. During two sampling campaigns, time-weighted average pesticide concentrations (c_TWA) were obtained using Chemcatcher® passive samplers; pesticide peak concentrations were quantified with event-driven samplers. At downstream sites, receiving waters were additionally grab sampled for five selected pharmaceuticals. Ecological effects on macroinvertebrate structure and ecosystem function were assessed using the biological indicator system SPEAR_pesticides (SPEcies At Risk) and leaf litter breakdown rates, respectively. WWTP effluents substantially increased insecticide and fungicide concentrations in receiving waters; in many cases, treated wastewater was the exclusive source for the neonicotinoid insecticides acetamiprid and imidacloprid in the investigated streams. During the ten weeks of the investigation, five out of the seven WWTPs increased in-stream pesticide toxicity by a factor of three. As a consequence, at downstream sites, SPEAR values and leaf litter degradation rates were reduced by 40% and 53%, respectively. The reduced leaf litter breakdown was related to changes in the macroinvertebrate communities described by SPEAR_pesticides and not to altered microbial activity. Neonicotinoids showed the highest ecological relevance for the composition of invertebrate communities, occasionally exceeding the Regulatory Acceptable Concentrations (RACs). In general, considerable ecological effects of insecticides were observed above and below regulatory thresholds. Fungicides, herbicides and pharmaceuticals contributed only marginally to acute toxicity. We conclude that pesticide retention of WWTPs needs to be improved.

Passive sampling for spatial and temporal monitoring of organic pollutants in surface water of a rural-urban river in Kenya

Passive sampling is an emerging monitoring strategy for surface waters and can be applied in a range of environments including remote locations. Silicone rubber (SR) as a robust single-phase passive sampler was applied to characterize the spatial and temporal variability of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and three phthalates, namely, dibutyl phthalate (DBP), benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP) and bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) in a tropical river traversing rural and urban catchments. OCPs and PCBs were not detected. Up to 31.8ng/L of freely dissolved concentrations of PAHs were quantified and were dominated by the lower molecular weight members. Mean concentrations of DBP, BBP and DEHP were 72.6ng/L, 3.9ng/L and 7.1ng/L respectively. However, in sampling for phthalates using SR, quality control and assurance remains the key challenge and must always be ensured. Spatial variability in concentrations was evident and could be related to land use. Temporal variability was not significant.

Species Diversity Hinders Adaptation to Toxicants

Environmental toxicants such as pesticides exert strong selection pressure on many species. While the resulting development of pesticide resistance in agricultural pest species is well-known, reports on the extent of adaptation in exposed nontarget species are contradictory. These contradictory reports highlight a continuing challenge in understanding the relevant ecological mechanisms that facilitate or hinder adaptation to toxicants in the field. Here we show that species diversity hinders the adaptation to toxicants. In agricultural streams with low diversity, we observed an up to 8-fold increase in insecticide tolerance in a total of 17 macroinvertebrate species that was not observed in more diverse communities under similar contamination. High species diversity occurred independently from adjacent nonpolluted refuge areas. Therefore, the low level of adaptation in diverse streams cannot be explained by an increased recolonization of sensitive individuals from refuge areas. Instead, high intraspecific competition may facilitate the selection for increased tolerance in low-diverse communities. In diverse communities, by contrast, species interactions may reduce intraspecific competition and, thus, the potential for developing toxicant resistance. We suggest that this mechanism may be the general case in adaptation to environmental stressors. Additionally, we conclude that the current framework for risk assessment of pesticides is not protective against selection for tolerant organisms and the associated risk of genetic erosion.

Metal toxicity affects predatory stream invertebrates less than other functional feeding groups

Ecosystem effects of heavy metals need to be identified for a retrospective risk assessment, and potential impacts need to be predicted for a prospective risk assessment. In this study, we established a strong correlation between the toxic pressure of dissolved metals and invertebrate species. We compiled available data from a wide geographical range of Australian streams that were contaminated with heavy metals [mainly copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn)] and the corresponding invertebrate communities. Heavy metal toxicity is positively related to the proportion of predators within the invertebrate community, represented by the predator_ratio, with an effect threshold range of 2.6 μg/L - 26 μg/L for Cu and 62 μg/L - 617 μg/L for Zn. These effect concentrations are in the ranges of the concentrations identified in model ecosystems and other field investigations and are just above the existing guideline limits. Heavy metals also affects the taxa richness negatively. Other community measures, such as the evenness, number of EPT (Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera) taxa, SPEcies At Risk (SPEAR)_pesticides or SPEAR_salinity were relatively poorly correlated with heavy metal toxicity in the streams. Therefore, we suggest applying the predator_ratio within the community as a starting point for an indicator of the dissolved metal toxicity, the SPEAR_metals.

Species at Risk (SPEAR) index indicates effects of insecticides on stream invertebrate communities in soy production regions of the Argentine Pampas

We investigated relationships among insecticides and aquatic invertebrate communities in 22 streams of two soy production regions of the Argentine Pampas over three growing seasons. Chlorpyrifos, endosulfan, cypermethrin, and lambda-cyhalothrin were the insecticides most frequently detected in stream sediments. The Species at Risk (SPEAR) pesticide bioassessment index (SPEARpesticides) was adapted and applied to evaluate relationships between sediment insecticide toxic units (TUs) and invertebrate communities associated with both benthic habitats and emergent vegetation habitats. SPEARpesticides was the only response metric that was significantly correlated with total insecticide TU values for all three averaged data sets, consistently showing a trend of decreasing values with increasing TU values (r2=0.35 to 0.42, p-value=0.001 to 0.03). Although pyrethroids were the insecticides that contributed the highest TU values, toxicity calculated based on all insecticides was better at predicting changes in invertebrate communities than toxicity of pyrethroids alone. Crustaceans, particularly the amphipod Hyalella spp., which are relatively sensitive to pesticides, played a large role in the performance of SPEARpesticides, and the relative abundance of all crustaceans also showed a significant decreasing trend with increasing insecticide TUs for two of three data sets (r2=0.30 to 0.57, p-value=0.003 to 0.04) examined. For all data sets, total insecticide TU was the most important variable in explaining variance in the SPEARpesticides index. The present study was the first application of the SPEAR index in South America, and the first one to use it to evaluate effects of pesticides on invertebrate communities associated with aquatic vegetation. Although the SPEAR index was developed in Europe, it performed well in the Argentine Pampas with only minor modifications, and would likely improve in performance as more data are obtained on traits of South American taxa, such as pesticide sensitivity and generation time.