Identification of opioids in surface and wastewaters by LC/QTOF-MS using retrospective data analysis

Antitussive drug dextromethorphan induces developmental impairment in zebrafish

Dextromethorphan (DXM) is a common ingredient in cough and cold remedies. Despite its widespread presence in aquatic environments, the impact of DXM on fish remains largely unknown. This study evaluated the developmental impairment of zebrafish embryos exposed to DXM from 2 hours post-fertilization (hpf) to 14 days post-fertilization (dpf) at five different exposure concentrations: 0.06, 0.61, 8.12, 76.3, and 827 μg/L. Results indicated a concentration-dependent increase in bioconcentration of DXM at 7 dpf and 14 dpf. The LC50 at 14 dpf was 93.3 μg/L, demonstrating DXM has a high toxicity to zebrafish larvae. Additionally, DXM reduced body length and heart rate, and elevated malformation in a dose-dependent manner in larvae at 72 hpf, 7 dpf and 14 dpf. Biochemical analysis (DNA conformations and 8-hydroxy-2deoxyguanosine level) and transcriptomic analysis (DNA damage and cell cycle) indicated that DXM triggered DNA damage in larvae. Concurrently, DXM triggered DNA damage response (e.g., cell cycle arrest, DNA repair failure, and cell apoptosis) in larvae at 7 dpf and 14 dpf. These results help explain DXM caused severe developmental impairment via DNA damage-related pathways in zebrafish larvae, highlighting the importance of focusing on ecological and public health risks of DXM in natural environment.

Identification of emerging contaminants in greywater emitted from ships by a comprehensive LC-HRMS target and suspect screening approach

The increase in maritime traffic has led to substantial greywater discharges into the marine environment. Greywater, originating from sinks, showers, kitchen, and laundry facilities, contains a wide array of chemical contaminants influenced by on-board activities, ship size, and management practices. The lack of comprehensive regulations for greywater management, along with limited research on its chemical composition, highlights the need to characterize these waste streams. This study is one of the first to provide a comprehensive characterization of greywater samples from ships using advanced liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution-mass-spectrometry (LC-HRMS) strategies, including wide-scope target and suspect screening. The target analysis detected 86 compounds, such as pharmaceuticals, stimulants, tobacco and food-related products, personal care products, UV filters, surfactants, perfluoroalkyl compounds, plasticizers, and flame retardants, many of which are rarely measured in routine monitoring programs. Furthermore, 11 additional compounds were tentatively identified through suspect screening. A novel scoring system further highlighted 25 priority compounds posing ecological risks to marine ecosystems, including pharmaceuticals such as tapentadol, dextrorphan, citalopram, or irbesartan. This study emphasizes the significant introduction of chemicals at μg L-1 levels through greywater discharges, underscoring the urgent need for improved management practices to mitigate ecological risks to the marine ecosystem.

Occurrence of emerging contaminants in three river basins impacted by wastewater treatment plant effluents: Spatio-seasonal patterns and environmental risk assessment

The concern on the fate and distribution of contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) is a burning topic due to their widespread occurrence and potential harmful effects. Particularly, antibiotics have received great attention due to their implications in antimicrobial resistance occurrence. The impact of wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) is remarkable, being one of the main pathways for the introduction of CECs into aquatic systems. The combination of novel analytical methodologies and risk assessment strategies is a promising tool to find out environmentally relevant compounds posing major concerns in freshwater ecosystems impacted by those wastewater effluents. Within this context, a multi-target approach was applied in three Spanish river basins affected by different WWTP treated effluents for spatio-temporal monitoring of their chemical status. Solid phase extraction followed by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography were used for the quantification of a large panel of compounds (n = 270), including pharmaceuticals and other consumer products, pesticides and industrial chemicals. To this end, water samples were collected in four sampling campaigns at three locations in each basin: (i) upstream from the WWTPs; (ii) WWTP effluent discharge points (effluent outfall); and (iii) downstream from the WWTPs (500 m downriver from the effluent outfall). Likewise, 24-h composite effluent samples from each of the WWTPs were provided in all sampling periods. First the occurrence and distribution of these compounds were assessed. Diverse seasonal trends were observed depending on the group of emerging compounds, though COVID-19 outbreak affected variations of certain pharmaceuticals. Detection frequencies and concentrations in effluents generally exceeded those in river samples and concentrations measured upstream WWTPs were generally low or non-quantifiable. Finally, risks associated with maximum contamination levels were evaluated using two different approaches to account for antibiotic resistance selection as well. From all studied compounds, 89 evidenced environmental risk on at least one occasion in this study.

Validation of LC-MS/MS method for opioid monitoring in Valencia City wastewater: Assessment of synthetic wastewater as potential aid

In this study, a comprehensive and sensitive method for the simultaneous detection of 17 opioids (OPs) and their human metabolites in wastewater using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry was validated. The chromatographic separations of opioids were carried out on a Kinetex® Biphenyl column (1.7 μm, 100 Å, 50 × 2.1 mm). A synthetic wastewater approach was used for recovery studies to mimic a contaminant-free matrix. Two solid-phase extraction (SPE) sorbents (hydrophilic-lipophilic balance and mixed mode with the previous phase and a weak cationic exchange) were studied to optimize sample treatment and obtain higher recoveries. The mixed mode was chosen because the recoveries of 17 target analytes at three spiked concentrations (25, 50, and 100 ng mL-1) were > 80 % for 75 % of the analytes in a simulated wastewater. The intra- and inter-day relative standard deviations (RSDs) were between ±1 % and ±20 %. The method limits of quantification ranged from 5 to 25 ng L-1, the only exceptions being heroin (275 ng L-1) and morphine-3β-glucuronide (250 ng L-1). Suppression/enhancement is comparable between the synthetic and the influent wastewater. The analytical method was applied to the OPs analysis in twenty-one influent samples collected from the treatment plants treating the wastewater of Valencia City (Spain). Twelve OPs were detected with total daily concentrations ranging from 1 ng L-1 to 2135 ng L-1. The widespread presence of these compounds in water suggests potential widespread exposure, highlighting the need for increased environmental awareness. Furthermore, the estimated daily intake results raise concerns about opioid use as a potential future health and social issue.

Wastewater reuse and pharmaceutical pollution in agriculture: Uptake, transport, accumulation and metabolism of pharmaceutical pollutants within plants

The presence of pharmaceutical pollutants in water sources has become a growing concern due to its potential impacts on human health and other organisms. The physicochemical properties of pharmaceuticals based on their intended therapeutical application, which include antibiotics, hormones, analgesics, and antidepressants, is quite diverse. Their presence in wastewater, sewerage water, surface water, ground water and even in drinking water is reported by many researchers throughout the world. Human exposure to these pollutants through drinking water or consumption of aquatic and terrestrial organisms has raised concerns about potential adverse effects, such as endocrine disruption, antibiotic resistance, and developmental abnormalities. Once in the environment, they can persist, undergo transformation, or degrade, leading to a complex mixture of contaminants. Application of treated wastewater, compost, manures or biosolids in agricultural fields introduce pharmaceutical pollutants in the environment. As pharmaceuticals are diverse in nature, significant differences are observed during their uptake and accumulation in plants. While there have been extensive studies on aquatic ecosystems, the effect on agricultural land is more disparate. As of now, there are few reports available on the potential of plant uptake and transportation of pharmaceuticals within and between plant organs. This review summarizes the occurrence of pharmaceuticals in aquatic water bodies at a range of concentrations and their uptake, accumulation, and transport within plant tissues. Research gaps on pharmaceutical pollutants' specific effect on plant growth and future research scopes are highlighted. The factors affecting uptake of pharmaceuticals including hydrophobicity, ionization, physicochemical properties (pKa, logKow, pH, Henry's law constant) are discussed. Finally, metabolism of pharmaceuticals within plant cells through metabolism phase enzymes and plant responses to pharmaceuticals are reviewed.

Predicting the new psychoactive substance activity of antitussives and evaluating their ecotoxicity to fish

The misuse of antitussives preparations is a continuing problem in the world, and imply that they might have potential new psychoactive substances (NPS) activity. However, few study focus on their ecological toxicity towards fish. In the present study, the machine learning (ML) methods gcForest and random forest (RF) were employed to predict NPS activity in 30 antitussives. The potential toxic target, mode of action (MOA), acute toxicity and chronic toxicity to fish were further investigated. The results showed that both gcForest and RF achieved optimal performance when utilizing combined features of molecular fingerprint (MF) and molecular descriptor (MD), with area under the curve (AUC) = 0.99, accuracy >0.94 and f1 score > 0.94, and were applied to screen the NPS activity in antitussives. A total of 15 antitussives exhibited potential NPS activity, including frequently-used substances like codeine and dextromethorphan. The binding affinity of these antitussives with zebrafish dopamine transporter (zDAT) was high, and even surpassing that of some traditional narcotics and NPS. Some antitussives formed hydrogen bonds or salt bridges with aspartate (Asp) 95, tyrosine (Tyr) 171 of zDAT. For the ecotoxicity, the MOA of these 15 antitussives in fish was predicted as narcosis. The prenoxdiazin, pholcodine, codeine, dextromethorphan and dextrorphan exhibited very toxic/toxic to fish. It was necessary to pay close attention to the ecotoxicity of these antitussives. In this study, the integration of ML, molecular docking and ECOSAR approaches are powerful tools for understanding the toxicity profiles and ecological hazards posed by new pollutants.

Characterization of scrubber water discharges from ships using comprehensive suspect screening strategies based on GC-APCI-HRMS

An extended suspect screening approach for the comprehensive chemical characterization of scrubber discharge waters from exhaust gas cleaning systems (EGCSs), used to reduce atmospheric shipping emissions of sulphur oxides, was developed. The suspect screening was based on gas chromatography coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometry (GC-HRMS) and focused on the identification of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and their alkylated derivatives (alkyl-PAHs), which are among the most frequent and potentially toxic organic contaminants detected in these matrices. Although alkyl-PAHs can be even more abundant than parent compounds, information regarding their occurrence in scrubber waters is scarce. For compound identification, an in-house compound database was built, with 26 suspect groups, including 25 parent PAHs and 23 alkyl-PAH homologues. With this approach, 7 PAHs and 12 clusters of alkyl-PAHs were tentatively identified, whose occurrence was finally confirmed by target analysis using GC coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS). Finally, a retrospective analysis was performed to identify other relevant (poly)cyclic aromatic compounds (PACs) of potential concern in scrubber waters. According to it, 18 suspect groups were tentatively identified, including biphenyls, dibenzofurans, dibenzothiophenes and oxygenated PAHs derivatives. All these compounds could be used as relevant markers of scrubber water contamination in heavy traffic marine areas and be considered as potential stressors when evaluating scrubber water toxicity.

Identification of Emerging Novel Psychoactive Substances by Retrospective Analysis of Population-Scale Mass Spectrometry Data Sets

Over the last two decades, hundreds of new psychoactive substances (NPSs), also known as "designer drugs", have emerged on the illicit drug market. The toxic and potentially fatal effects of these compounds oblige laboratories around the world to screen for NPS in seized materials and biological samples, commonly using high-resolution mass spectrometry. However, unambiguous identification of a NPS by mass spectrometry requires comparison to data from analytical reference materials, acquired on the same instrument. The sheer number of NPSs that are available on the illicit market, and the pace at which new compounds are introduced, means that forensic laboratories must make difficult decisions about which reference materials to acquire. Here, we asked whether retrospective suspect screening of population-scale mass spectrometry data could provide a data-driven platform to prioritize emerging NPSs for assay development. We curated a suspect database of precursor and diagnostic fragment ion masses for 83 emerging NPSs and used this database to retrospectively screen mass spectrometry data from 12,727 urine drug screens from one Canadian province. We developed integrative computational strategies to prioritize the most reliable identifications and tracked the frequency of these identifications over a 3 year study period between August 2019 and August 2022. The resulting data were used to guide the acquisition of new reference materials, which were in turn used to validate a subset of the retrospective identifications. Last, we took advantage of matching clinical reports for all 12,727 samples to systematically benchmark the accuracy of our retrospective data analysis approach. Our work opens up new avenues to enable the rapid detection of emerging illicit drugs through large-scale reanalysis of mass spectrometry data.

Genetic analysis of the equine orthologues for human CYP2D6: unraveling the complexity of the CYP2D family in horses

Introduction

Because of their importance as companion animals or as racehorses, horses can be treated with various drugs. Although it is known that drug withdrawal times can vary for each horse, pharmacogenetics for these animals has not been adequately studied and requires further development. Since CYP2D6 is responsible for the metabolism of 25-30% of drugs in humans, including some used to treat horses, a study of the CYP2D family in horses was conducted to define its genetic structure as well as its expression pattern in the liver.

Methods

Genomic DNA extracted from venous blood and mRNA from fresh liver tissue were amplified and sequenced to analyze the genomic structure, genotype, and expression of the various enzymes that are part of the equine orthologous family for CYP2D6.

Results

Amplification and sequencing of the gDNA of CYP2D50, the major CYP2D6 orthologue identified in previous studies, revealed a novel putative genomic structure for this gene compared with that reported from the EquCab3.0 assembly, including the formation of a hybrid structure similar to what happens in human CYP2D6. At the mRNA level, transcripts from six different members of the equine CYP2D family were detected in horse liver. In addition, genotyping of CYP2D50 and CYP2D82 revealed the presence of several polymorphisms, six of which result in novel, nonsynonymous amino acid changes for each of the two genes.

Discussion

This study aimed to elucidate the pharmacogenetic analysis of the CYP2D family in horses and resulted in the identification of a novel gene structure for CYP2D50, the expression of six different members of the CYP2D family in horse liver, and several novel polymorphisms for CYP2D50 and CYP2D82.

Target and non-target analytical method for potential hazardous substances in livestock and pet hair using liquid- and gas chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry

Extraction using acetonitrile and water and quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC and GC-QTOF/MS) techniques were used to screen for potential hazardous substances in livestock and pet hair. In addition, LC-MS/MS and GC-MS/MS techniques were used for verification of the analytical method and quantitative analysis of pesticides, veterinary drugs, mycotoxins and antioxidants in hair. Optimized sample preparation involves extracting 0.05 g of sample with 0.6 mL of ACN and 0.4 mL of distilled water. In addition, the two layers were separated by adding 0.1 g of NaCl. Then, both the ACN and water layers were analyzed by LC-TOF/MS, and the ACN layer was analyzed by GC-TOF/MS. Most of the matrix effects of livestock and pet hair were less than 50%, but some matrices and components showed high results, so matrix matching correction was applied for more precise quantification. Method validation was performed for 394 constituents (293 pesticides, 93 veterinary drugs, 6 mycotoxins and 2 preservatives) in dog, cat, cow and pig hair and chicken and duck feathers. All components showed good linearity (r2 ≥0.98) in the developed assay. The quantification limit of all compounds was set at 0.02 mg/kg, which is the lowest level that satisfies the recovery rate standard. The recovery experiment was repeated 8 times at 3 concentrations. Most of the components were extracted with the ACN layer, and the recovery rate was 63.35-119.98%. In order to confirm the efficiency of extracting harmful substances from actual samples, 30 hairs of livestock and pets were screened.

Wastewater-Based Surveillance Does Not Belong in a Regulatory Framework Designed to Protect Waters That Receive Treated Wastewater. Comment on Wright, T.; Adhikari, A. Utilizing a National Wastewater Monitoring Program to Address the U.S. Opioid Epidemic: A Focus on Metro Atlanta, Georgia. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2023, 20, 5282

We read with great interest the work by Wright and Adhikari on "Utilizing a National Wastewater Monitoring Program to Address the U.S. Opioid Epidemic: A Focus on Metro Atlanta, Georgia" [...].

Combining Passive Sampling with Suspect and Nontarget Screening to Characterize Organic Micropollutants in Streams Draining Mixed-Use Watersheds

Organic micropollutants (OMPs) represent an anthropogenic stressor on stream ecosystems. In this work, we combined passive sampling with suspect and nontarget screening enabled by liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry to characterize complex mixtures of OMPs in streams draining mixed-use watersheds. Suspect screening identified 122 unique OMPs for target quantification in polar organic chemical integrative samplers (POCIS) and grab samples collected from 20 stream sites in upstate New York over two sampling seasons. Hierarchical clustering established the co-occurrence profiles of OMPs in connection with watershed attributes indicative of anthropogenic influences. Nontarget screening leveraging the time-integrative nature of POCIS and the cross-site variability in watershed attributes prioritized and confirmed 11 additional compounds that were ubiquitously present in monitored streams. Field sampling rates for 37 OMPs that simultaneously occurred in POCIS and grab samples spanned the range of 0.02 to 0.22 L/d with a median value of 0.07 L/d. Comparative analyses of the daily average loads, cumulative exposure-activity ratios, and multi-substance potentially affected fractions supported the feasibility of complementing grab sampling with POCIS for OMP load estimation and screening-level risk assessments. Overall, this work demonstrated a multi-watershed sampling and screening approach that can be adapted to assess OMP contamination in streams across landscapes.

Translating wastewater reuse for irrigation from OECD Guidelines: Tramadol sorption and desorption in soil-water matrices

Treated and untreated wastewater is often used for agricultural irrigation and, despite the many benefits of this practice, it poses the risk of biologically active chemical pollutants (such as pharmaceuticals, like tramadol) entering the environment. The partitioning of tramadol between soil/water at environmentally relevant concentrations is important to understand its environmental toxicity. Kinetics and isotherm sorption studies based on the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) 106 Guideline were undertaken, ensuring comparability to previous studies. Studies were undertaken in three soils of different characteristics using aqueous concentrations of tramadol from 500 ng L^-1 (environmentally relevant) to 100 μg L^-1 (comparable to previous studies). Two of the soils presented a significantly (p < 0.05) higher sorption at a lower initial tramadol concentration (5000 ng L^-1), compared to 20,000 ng L^-1. Hysteresis was observed in all studied soils, indicating the accumulation of tramadol. Higher sorption to soils correlated with higher clay content, with soil/water partitioning coefficients (K_d) of 5.5 ± 13.3, 2.5 ± 3.8 and 0.9 ± 3.0 L kg¹ for soils with clay contents of 41.9%, 24.5% and 7.4%, respectively. Cation exchange was proposed as the main sorption mechanism for tramadol to soils when the pH was below tramadol's pK_a values (9.41 and 13.08). A comparative kinetics study between tramadol in soil/calcium chloride buffer and soil/wastewater effluent demonstrated significantly higher (p < 0.05) tramadol sorption to soil from wastewater effluent. This has the environmental implication that clay soils will be able to retain tramadol from irrigation water, despite the organic content of the irrigation water. Therefore, our studies show that tramadol soil sorption is likely to be higher in agricultural environments reusing wastewater than that predicted from experiments using the OECD 106 Guideline calcium chloride buffer.

Retrospective identification of new psychoactive substances in patient samples submitted for clinical drug analysis

New psychoactive substances (NPS) are life-threatening through unpredictable toxicity and limited analytical options for clinicians. We present the retrospective identification of NPS in raw data from a liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS) based multidrug panel analysis on 14,367 clinical oral fluid samples requested during 2019 mainly by psychiatric and addiction care clinics. Retrospectively analysed NPS included 48 notified originally in 2019 by the European Union Early Warning System (EU-EWS) and 28 frequently reported in Sweden. Of 88 included NPS, 34 (mitragynine, flualprazolam, 3F/4F-α-P(i)HP, etizolam, 4F-MDMB-BINACA, cyproheptadine, 5F-MDMB-PICA, isotonitazene, isohexedrone, MDPEP, N-ethylpentedrone, tianeptine, flubromazolam, 4'-methylhexedrone, α-P(i)HP, eutylone, mephedrone, N-ethylhexedrone, 5F-MDMB-PINACA, ADB-BUTINACA, 3-methoxy PCP, 4F-furanylfentanyl, 4F-isobuturylfentanyl, acrylfentanyl, furanylfentanyl, clonazolam, norfludiazepam, 3F-phenmetrazine, 3-MMC, 4-methylpentedrone, BMDP, ethylphenidate, methylone, α-PVP) were identified as 219 findings in 84 patients. Eight NPS notified in 2019 were identified, five before EWS release. NPS occurred in 1.20% of all samples and 1.53% of samples containing traditional drugs, and in 1.87% of all patients and 2.88% of patients using traditional drugs. NPS use was more common in men and polydrug users. Legal (not scheduled) NPS were more used than comparable illegal ones. Retrospective identification could be useful when prioritizing NPS for clinical routine analysis and when studying NPS epidemiology.

Developments in high-resolution mass spectrometric analyses of new psychoactive substances

The proliferation of new psychoactive substances (NPS) has necessitated the development and improvement of current practices for the detection and identification of known NPS and newly emerging derivatives. High-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) is quickly becoming the industry standard for these analyses due to its ability to be operated in data-independent acquisition (DIA) modes, allowing for the collection of large amounts of data and enabling retrospective data interrogation as new information becomes available. The increasing popularity of HRMS has also prompted the exploration of new ways to screen for NPS, including broad-spectrum wastewater analysis to identify usage trends in the community and metabolomic-based approaches to examine the effects of drugs of abuse on endogenous compounds. In this paper, the novel applications of HRMS techniques to the analysis of NPS is reviewed. In particular, the development of innovative data analysis and interpretation approaches is discussed, including the application of machine learning and molecular networking to toxicological analyses.

Screening of new psychoactive substances in human plasma by magnetic solid phase extraction and LC-QTOF-MS

The emergence of new psychoactive substances (NPSs) is an increasing challenge in forensic toxicology. There are many extraction methods in use to isolate NPSs in biological fluids, including protein precipitation (PPT), liquid-liquid extraction (LLE), and solid phase extraction (SPE). However, there is a need to develop an effective extraction method with a short extraction time and low consumption of solvent. To meet these requirements, magnetic solid phase extraction (m-SPE) was attempted to isolate 40 NPSs in human plasma in this study. Forty NPSs (13 synthetic cannabinoids, 13 phenethylamines, 4 tryptamines, 4 other substances, 3 aminoindanes, 2 piperazines, 1 phencyclidine-type substance) were spiked in plasma and analyzed by m-SPE using COOH-functionalized multi-walled carbon nanotubes with magnetic nanoparticles (COOH-mMWCNTs). A liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-QTOF-MS) method was used for screening and identification of 40 target compounds. Method validation including limits of detection, recovery, matrix effect, and precision was performed for all 40 -target compounds. The limits of detection (LOD) of the 40 analytes were between 0.002 and 0.084 mg/L. Extraction recovery ranged from 36.9% to 110.6% (average 87%). Matrix effects ranged from -29.0% (ion suppression) to 9.8% (ion enhancement). Both intra- and inter-day precision values were less than 27.5% (RSD%). The accurate mass of QTOF-MS enabled the identification of analytes by exact monoisotopic mass and isotopic pattern. m-SPE was applied to extract 40 NPSs, and revealed less time-consuming and laborious than conventional SPE. This method proved to be an advantageous procedure to extract NPSs from biological fluids.

Environmental occurrence and ecological risks of psychoactive substances

Psychoactive substances are ubiquitous in the environment at low concentrations, and tobacco, cannabis, etc. are all widely-existing examples. Given their potent biological activity, psychoactive substances are suspected to be harmful to the environment, and reports of their ecological risks are gradually increasing. Since the 1990s, the investigations into psychoactive substances have made remarkable progress, yet some research fields still need to be modernised. For example, the unification of standardised analytical methods as well as the supplementation of occurrence literature. In addition, a relatively lagging risk evaluation system caused by a lack of toxicity data is particularly in need of improvement. The purpose of this article is to develop a review of current research on psychoactive substances, including analytical methods, distribution in environmental compartments, and ecological risk assessment, as well as to point out deficiencies and development prospects and to offer motivation for enhancing the research level in this field.

The occurrence of opioid compounds in wastewater treatment plants and their receiving water bodies in Gauteng province, South Africa

The continuous influx of opioid compounds into aquatic environments has become an increasing and persistent concern, due to their extensive use. This is especially alarming as wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are unable to completely remove them. Despite the reported health concerns, the occurrence of opioid compounds in the environment has not received much attention. The present study investigates the occurrence of 19 opioids in four WWTPs and their respective receiving water bodies. All wastewater samples revealed opioids at concentration ranging from ng/L to μg/L with most influents having higher concentrations than effluents. WWTPs appeared to perform poorly (p > 0.05 between influents and effluents), and were unable to remove some opioids including Methadone (-27.3%) from the Leeuwkuil WWTP, Codeine (-21.7%) and Thebaine (-3.77%) from the Sandspruit WWTP, and Hydrocodone (-1.06%) from the Meyerton WWTP, respectively. Samples collected from the Leeuwkuil WWTP were the most contaminated, with eighteen out of nineteen opioid analogues exceeding 1 μg/L. Upstream surface water contained less opioids (most < LOQ) than downstream (p < 0.05), with Hydrocodone, Oxycodone, Hydromorphone, Fentanyl, Ketamine and Dihydrocodeine not detected. The occurrence of high concentrations of opioid analogues in downstream surface water (298 ng/L -10.8 μg/L for Klip River, 4.49 ng/L -13.1 μg/L for Vaal River, 70.5 ng/L -10.0 μg/L for Soutspruit River and 8.0 ng/L - 2.43 μg/L for Sun Spruit River) was directly linked to their mass loads in the respective wastewater effluent samples.

"Waste Not, Want Not" - Leveraging Sewer Systems and Wastewater-Based Epidemiology for Drug Use Trends and Pharmaceutical Monitoring

During the current global COVID-19 pandemic and opioid epidemic, wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) has emerged as a powerful tool for monitoring public health trends by analysis of biomarkers including drugs, chemicals, and pathogens. Wastewater surveillance downstream at wastewater treatment plants provides large-scale population and regional-scale aggregation while upstream surveillance monitors locations at the neighborhood level with more precise geographic analysis. WBE can provide insights into dynamic drug consumption trends as well as environmental and toxicological contaminants. Applications of WBE include monitoring policy changes with cannabinoid legalization, tracking emerging illicit drugs, and early warning systems for potent fentanyl analogues along with the resurging wave of stimulants (e.g., methamphetamine, cocaine). Beyond drug consumption, WBE can also be used to monitor pharmaceuticals and their metabolites, including antidepressants and antipsychotics. In this manuscript, we describe the basic tenets and techniques of WBE, review its current application among drugs of abuse, and propose methods to scale and develop both monitoring and early warning systems with respect to measurement of illicit drugs and pharmaceuticals. We propose new frontiers in toxicological research with wastewater surveillance including assessment of medication assisted treatment of opioid use disorder (e.g., buprenorphine, methadone) in the context of other social burdens like COVID-19 disease.

Detection of trace amounts of insoluble pharmaceuticals in water by extraction and SERS measurements in a microfluidic flow regime

Detection of trace amounts of poorly water-soluble pharmaceuticals or related (bio)solutions represents a key challenge in environment protection and clinical diagnostics. However, this task is complicated by low concentrations of pharmaceuticals, complex sample matrices, and sophisticated sample preparative routes. In this work, we present an alternative approach on the basis of an on-line flow extraction procedure and SERS measurements performed in a microfluidic regime. The advantages of our approach were demonstrated using ibuprofen (Ibu), which is considered as a common pharmaceutical contaminant in wastewater and should be monitored in various bioliquids. The extraction of Ibu from water to the dichloromethane phase was performed with an optimized microfluidic mixer architecture. As SERS tags, lipophilic functionalized gold multibranched nanoparticles (AuMs) were added to the organic phase. After microfluidic extraction, Ibu was captured by the functionalized AuM surface and recognized by on-line SERS measurements with up to 10-8 M detection limit. The main advantages of the proposed approach can be regarded as its simplicity, lack of need for preliminary sample preparation, high reliability, the absence of sample pretreatment, and low detection limits.

Enhanced activated persulfate oxidation of ciprofloxacin using a low-grade titanium ore under sunlight: influence of the irradiation source on its transformation products

In this work, the activated persulfate oxidation of ciprofloxacin (CIP) using a low-grade titanium ore under sunlight or simulated sunlight were conducted to analyze the CIP degradation efficiency and to identify the transformation products (TPs) generated during oxidation under both types of irradiation sources by using liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-QTOF-MS). All advance oxidation process experiments were performed in a 2700-mL raceway reactor at a pH value of ~ 6.5 and an initial CIP concentration of 1 mg/L, during 90 min of reaction time. The control experiments carried out under simulated sunlight achieved a 97.7 ± 0.6% degradation efficiency, using 385 W/m² of irradiation with an average temperature increase of 11.7 ± 0.6 °C. While, the experiments under sunlight reached a 91.2 ± 1.3% degradation efficiency, under an average irradiation value of 19.2 ± 0.3 W/m² in October-November 2019 at hours between 11:00 am and 3:00 pm with an average temperature increase of 1.4 ± 0.8 °C. Mass spectrometry results indicated that 14 of the 108 possible TPs reported in the literature were detected. The calculated exact mass, measured accurate mass, and its characteristic diagnostic fragment ions were listed, and two new TPs were tentative identified. The TP generation analysis showed that some specific compounds were detected in different time intervals with kinetic variations depending on the irradiation used. Consequently, two CIP degradation pathways were proposed, since the type of irradiation determines the CIP degradation mechanism. Graphical abstract.

Retrospective mass spectrometric analysis of wastewater-fed mesocosms to assess the degradation of drugs and their human metabolites

Temporary rivers become dependent on wastewater effluent for base flows, which severely impacts river ecosystems through exposure to elevated levels of nutrients, dissolved organic matter, and organic micropollutants. However, biodegradation processes occurring in these rivers can be enhanced by wastewater bacteria/biofilms. Here, we evaluated the attenuation of pharmaceuticals and their human metabolites performing retrospective analysis of 120 compounds (drugs, their metabolites and transformation products) in mesocosm channels loaded with wastewater effluents twice a week for a period of 31 days. Eighteen human metabolites and seven biotransformation products were identified with high level of confidence. Compounds were classified into five categories. Type-A: recalcitrant drugs and metabolites (diclofenac, carbamazepine and venlafaxine); Type-B: degradable drugs forming transformation products (TPs) (atenolol, sitagliptin, and valsartan); Type-C: drugs for which no known human metabolites or TPs were detected (atorvastatin, azithromycin, citalopram, clarithromycin, diltiazem, eprosartan, fluconazole, ketoprofen, lamotrigine, lormetazepam, metformin, telmisartan, and trimethoprim); Type-D: recalcitrant drug metabolites (4-hydroxy omeprazole sulfide, erythro/threo-hydrobupropion, and zolpidem carboxylic acid); Type-E: unstable metabolites whose parent drug was not detectable (norcocaine, benzolylecgonine, and erythromycin A enol ether). Noteworthy was the valsartan acid formation from valsartan with transient formation of TP-336.

Traces of tramadol in water impact behaviour in a native European fish

Tramadol is a widely used analgesic with additional antidepressant and anxiolytic effects. This compound has been reported in continental waters reaching concentrations of µg/L as a consequence of its inefficient removal in sewage treatment plants and increasing use over time. In this study, European chubs (Squalius cephalus) were exposed to 1 µg/L of tramadol in water for 42 days with a subsequent 14 days of depuration. Our results revealed that chubs exposed to this analgesic underwent changes in their behaviour as compared to the control group. The behavioural outcome was also influenced by the individual concentration of tramadol in brain tissue. In particular, experimental fish presented anxiolytic-like effects, characterized by less bold and less social individuals. Exposed animals were less frequently out of the shelter and moved a shorter distance, indicating that they explored the new environment less during the boldness test. In the novel object recognition experiment, although they distinguished the new item, they examined it less and displayed a reduced activity. Shoal cohesion was disrupted as observed in an increased distance between individuals. After the depuration phase, this alteration remained whereas the boldness effect disappeared. Moreover, the degree of behavioural changes was correlated with the concentration of the substance in brain. According to our findings, chronic presence of tramadol in the environment can impact the fitness of exposed aquatic fauna by altering evolutionary crucial behaviours.

A review on analytical methods for pharmaceutical and personal care products and their transformation products

Pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) and corresponding transformation products have caused widespread concern due to their persistent emissions and potential toxicity. They have wide octanol-water partition coefficients (K_ow) and different ionization constants (pK_a) resulting in a poor analysis accuracy and efficiency. A suitable analytical method is the first prerequisite for further research on their environmental behavior to prioritize the substances. This study reviewed a full-scale analytical protocol for environmental samples in the recent ten years: from sampling to instrumental methods. Passive sampling techniques were compared and recommended for long-term continuous and scientific observation. A quick and effective sample extraction and clean-up method are highly required. Chromatographic methods coupled to mass spectrometry for determining PPCPs with a wide range of logK_ow (-7.53 to 10.80) were summed up. High-resolution mass spectrometry was confirmed to be a promising strategy for screening unknown transformation products, which would provide a nanogram level of detection limits and more accurate mass resolution. Screening strategies and mass change principles were summarized in detail. The recovery rate was important in multiple contaminants analysis identification and factors affecting the recovery rate of PPCPs were also discussed in this review, including sample matrix, target compounds characteristics, extraction method and solid-phase adsorbent. This review provides useful information for the selection of appropriate analytical methods and future development directions.

Rapid determination of pharmaceuticals in wastewater by direct infusion HRMS using target and suspect screening analysis

A wide-scope screening of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) and their transformation products (TPs) in wastewater can yield valuable insights and pinpoint emerging contaminants that have not been previously reported. Such information is relevant to investigate their occurrence and fate in various environmental compartments. In this study, we explored the applicability of direct infusion high resolution mass spectrometry (DI-HRMS) for comprehensive and rapid detection of APIs and their TPs in wastewater samples. The method was developed using a Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (FT-ICR-MS) system and incorporated both wide-scope suspect screening and semi-quantitative determination of selected analytes. The identification strategy was based on the following criteria: narrow accurate mass window (±1.25 ppm) for two most abundant full-MS signals, isotopic pattern fit and additional confirmation on the basis of MS² spectra at three fragmentation levels. The tentative identification of suspects and target compounds relied on an in-house database containing more than 500 different APIs and TPs. The measured fragment spectra were matched against experimental MS² patterns obtained from a publicly available spectral library (MassBank of North America) and in-silico generated fragmentation features (from the CFM-ID algorithm). In total, 79 suspects were identified and 24 target compounds were semi-quantified in 72 wastewater samples. The highest detection frequencies in treated wastewater effluents were observed for diclofenac, metoprolol and telmisartan, while hydroxydiclofenac, dextrorphan, and carbamazepine metabolites were the most frequently detected TPs. The obtained API profiles were in accordance with the national consumption statistics and the origin of wastewater samples. The developed method is suitable for rapid screening of APIs in wastewater and can be used as a complementary tool to characterize API emissions from wastewater treatment facilities and to identify problematic compounds that require more rigorous monitoring.

Determination of dextromethorphan and dextrorphan solar photo-transformation products by LC/Q-TOF-MS: Laboratory scale experiments and real water samples analysis

This work discusses the identification of the transformation products (TPs) generated during the photolytic degradation of dextromethorphan (DXM) and its metabolite dextrorphan (DXO), under simulated solar radiation in aqueous solutions (Milli-Q water and river water) in order to determinate its behavior into the aquatic environment. Tentative identification of the TPs was performed by liquid chromatography/quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC/QTOF-MS), following a suspect screening approach. The use of high resolution-mass spectrometry (HRMS) allowed the tentative identification of DXM and DXO photoproducts based on the structure proposed by an in silico software, the accurate mass measurement, the MS/MS fragmentation pattern and the molecular formula finding. A total of 19 TPs were found to match some of the accurate masses included in a suspect list, and they were all tentatively identified by their characteristic MS-MS fragments. Most of the TPs identified showed a minor modified molecular structure like the introduction of hydroxyl groups, or demethylation. The time-evolution of precursors and TPs were monitored throughout the experiments, and degradation kinetics were presented for each analyte. Finally, the occurrence of DXM, DXO, and their tentatively proposed photodegradation TPs was evaluated in both surface and wastewater. In all real matrices, the results showed that the highest concentration was detected for DXO, followed by TP-244 (N-desmethyldextrorphan) and DXM.

Occurrence and Mass Loading of Synthetic Opioids, Synthetic Cathinones, and Synthetic Cannabinoids in Wastewater Treatment Plants in Four U.S. Communities

A few new psychoactive substances (NPS) that mimic the effects of controlled neuropsychiatric and illicit drugs have been forensically identified in the U.S. Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) can provide a comprehensive and more cost- and time-effective method of determining the prevalence of NPSs in communities. In this study, an analytical method capable of simultaneous determination of trace-level 40 NPS residues (synthetic opioids, synthetic cannabinoids, synthetic cathinones, piperazines, indole, and amphetamine) in wastewater was developed and validated. The developed analytical method was utilized to determine the occurrence of NPSs in four rural communities in southern Illinois. Nine NPSs (carfentanil, furanyl fentanyl, methoxyacetyl fentanyl, MAB-CHMINACA, methcathinone, 4-methyl pentedrone, 2-methyl-4'-(methylthio)-2-morpholinopropiophenone (MMMP), 1-(3-chlorophenyl) piperazine (mCPP), and 5-(2-Aminopropyl) Indole (5IT) were quantified. Methcathinone was the most frequently detected NPS (detection frequency, df = 100%) followed closely by the MMMP and mCPP (df = 91%). The mass loading of methcathinone, mCPP, and 5-IT using ammoniacal nitrogen-based population were up to 21.1 ± 1.3 mg/d/1000 people, 15.0 ± 0.5 mg/d/1000 people, and 9.75 ± 2.72 mg/d/1000 people, respectively. This is the first study to determine the occurrence of NPSs including synthetic opioids, synthetic cannabinoids, synthetic cathinones, and piperazines in the U.S. communities.

Interpol review of controlled substances 2016-2019

This review paper covers the forensic-relevant literature in controlled substances from 2016 to 2019 as a part of the 19th Interpol International Forensic Science Managers Symposium. The review papers are also available at the Interpol website at: https://www.interpol.int/content/download/14458/file/Interpol%20Review%20Papers%202019.pdf.

Learning from the past and considering the future of chemicals in the environment

Knowledge of the hazards and associated risks from chemicals discharged to the environment has grown considerably over the past 40 years. This improving awareness stems from advances in our ability to measure chemicals at low environmental concentrations, recognition of a range of effects on organisms, and a worldwide growth in expertise. Environmental scientists and companies have learned from the experiences of the past; in theory, the next generation of chemicals will cause less acute toxicity and be less environmentally persistent and bioaccumulative. However, researchers still struggle to establish whether the nonlethal effects associated with some modern chemicals and substances will have serious consequences for wildlife. Obtaining the resources to address issues associated with chemicals in the environment remains a challenge.

Application of the fentanyl analog screening kit toward the identification of emerging synthetic opioids in human plasma and urine by LC-QTOF

Human exposures to fentanyl analogs, which significantly contribute to the ongoing U.S. opioid overdose epidemic, can be confirmed through the analysis of clinical samples. Our laboratory has developed and evaluated a qualitative approach coupling liquid chromatography and quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-QTOF) to address novel fentanyl analogs and related compounds using untargeted, data-dependent acquisition. Compound identification was accomplished by searching against a locally-established mass spectral library of 174 fentanyl analogs and metabolites. Currently, our library can identify 150 fentanyl-related compounds from the Fentanyl Analog Screening (FAS) Kit), plus an additional 25 fentanyl-related compounds from individual purchases. Plasma and urine samples fortified with fentanyl-related compounds were assessed to confirm the capabilities and intended use of this LC-QTOF method. For fentanyl, 8 fentanyl-related compounds and naloxone, lower reportable limits (LRL₁₀₀), defined as the lowest concentration with 100 % true positive rate (n = 12) within clinical samples, were evaluated and range from 0.5 ng/mL to 5.0 ng/mL for urine and 0.25 ng/mL to 2.5 ng/mL in plasma. The application of this high resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) method enables the real-time detection of known and emerging synthetic opioids present in clinical samples.