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Ndiaye A, Shen Y, Kyriakou K, Karssenberg D, Schmitz O, Flückiger B, Hoogh KD, Hoek G. Hourly land-use regression modeling for NO 2 and PM 2.5 in the Netherlands. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2024; 256:119233. [PMID: 38802030 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2024.119233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2024] [Revised: 05/24/2024] [Accepted: 05/25/2024] [Indexed: 05/29/2024]
Abstract
Annual average land-use regression (LUR) models have been widely used to assess spatial patterns of air pollution exposures. However, they fail to capture diurnal variability in air pollution and consequently might result in biased dynamic exposure assessments. In this study we aimed to model average hourly concentrations for two major pollutants, NO2 and PM2.5, for the Netherlands using the LUR algorithm. We modelled the spatial variation of average hourly concentrations for the years 2016-2019 combined, for two seasons, and for two weekday types. Two modelling approaches were used, supervised linear regression (SLR) and random forest (RF). The potential predictors included population, road, land use, satellite retrievals, and chemical transport model pollution estimates variables with different buffer sizes. We also temporally adjusted hourly concentrations from a 2019 annual model using the hourly monitoring data, to compare its performance with the hourly modelling approach. The results showed that hourly NO2 models performed overall well (5-fold cross validation R2 = 0.50-0.78), while the PM2.5 performed moderately (5-fold cross validation R2 = 0.24-0.62). Both for NO2 and PM2.5 the warm season models performed worse than the cold season ones, and the weekends' worse than weekdays'. The performance of the RF and SLR models was similar for both pollutants. For both SLR and RF, variables with larger buffer sizes representing variation in background concentrations, were selected more often in the weekend models compared to the weekdays, and in the warm season compared to the cold one. Temporal adjustment of annual average models performed overall worse than both modelling approaches (NO2 hourly R2 = 0.35-0.70; PM2.5 hourly R2 = 0.01-0.15). The difference in model performance and selection of variables across hours, seasons, and weekday types documents the benefit to develop independent hourly models when matching it to hourly time activity data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aisha Ndiaye
- Division of Environmental Epidemiology, Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, Pobox 80125, 3508, TC Utrecht, the Netherlands.
| | - Youchen Shen
- Division of Environmental Epidemiology, Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, Pobox 80125, 3508, TC Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Kalliopi Kyriakou
- Division of Environmental Epidemiology, Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, Pobox 80125, 3508, TC Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Derek Karssenberg
- Department of Physical Geography, Faculty of Geosciences, Utrecht University, Princetonlaan 8a, 3584 CB Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Oliver Schmitz
- Department of Physical Geography, Faculty of Geosciences, Utrecht University, Princetonlaan 8a, 3584 CB Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Benjamin Flückiger
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Kreuzstrasse 2 CH-4123 Allschwil, Switzerland; University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, Postfach, 4001, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Kees de Hoogh
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Kreuzstrasse 2 CH-4123 Allschwil, Switzerland; University of Basel, Petersplatz 1, Postfach, 4001, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Gerard Hoek
- Division of Environmental Epidemiology, Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, Pobox 80125, 3508, TC Utrecht, the Netherlands
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Abdillah SFI, You SJ, Wang YF. Characterizing sector-oriented roadside exposure to ultrafine particles (PM 0.1) via machine learning models: Implications of covariates influences on sectors variability. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2024; 359:124595. [PMID: 39053804 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2024.124595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2024] [Revised: 07/17/2024] [Accepted: 07/21/2024] [Indexed: 07/27/2024]
Abstract
Ultrafine particles (UFPs; PM0.1) possess intensified health risk due to their smaller size and unique spatial variability. One of major emission sources for UFPs is vehicle exhaust, which varies based on the traffic composition in each type of roadside sector. The current challenge of epidemiological UFPs study is limited characterization ability due to expensive instruments. This study assessed the UFPs particle number concentrations (UFPs PNC) exposure dose for typical healthy adults and children at three different roadside sectors, including industrial roadside (IN), residential roadside (RS), and urban background (UB). Furthermore, this study also developed and utilized machine learning (ML) algorithms that could accurately characterize the UFPs exposure dose and explain the covariates effects on the model outputs, representing the intra-urban variability of UFPs between sectors. It was found that the average inhaled UFPs dose for healthy adults and children during off-peak season (warm period) were 1.71 ± 0.19 × 1010; 1.28 ± 0.22 × 1010; 1.09 ± 0.18 × 1010 #/hour and 1.33 ± 0.15 × 1010; 0.99 ± 0.17 × 1010; 0.86 ± 0.14 × 1010 #/hour at IN, RS, UB. Inhaled UFPs were mainly deposited in tracheobronchial (TB) respiratory fraction for adults (67.7%) and in alveoli (ALV) fraction for children (67.5%). Among three ML algorithms implemented in this study, XGBoost possessed the highest UFPs PNC exposure dose estimation performances with R2 = 0.965; 0.959; 0.929 & RMSE = 0.79 × 108; 0.54 × 108; 0.15 × 105 #/hour at IN, RS, and UB which then followed by multiple linear regression (MLR), and random forest (RF). Furthermore, SHAP analysis from the XGBoost model has successfully pointed out the spatial variability of each roadside sector by quantifying the approximated contributions of covariates to the model's output. Findings in this study highlighted the potential use of ML models as an alternative for preliminary particle exposure source apportionment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sultan F I Abdillah
- Department of Civil Engineering, Chung Yuan Christian University, Zhongli, Taoyuan, 32023, Taiwan; Department of Environmental Engineering, Chung Yuan Christian University, Zhongli, Taoyuan, 32023, Taiwan; Center for Environmental Risk Management, Chung Yuan Christian University, Zhongli, Taoyuan, 32023, Taiwan
| | - Sheng-Jie You
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Chung Yuan Christian University, Zhongli, Taoyuan, 32023, Taiwan; Center for Environmental Risk Management, Chung Yuan Christian University, Zhongli, Taoyuan, 32023, Taiwan
| | - Ya-Fen Wang
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Chung Yuan Christian University, Zhongli, Taoyuan, 32023, Taiwan; Sustainable Environmental Education Center, Chung Yuan Christian University, Zhongli, Taoyuan, 32023, Taiwan.
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Bookstein A, Po J, Tseng C, Larson TV, Yang J, Park SSL, Wu J, Shariff-Marco S, Inamdar PP, Ihenacho U, Setiawan VW, DeRouen MC, Le Marchand L, Stram DO, Samet J, Ritz B, Fruin S, Wu AH, Cheng I. Association between Airport Ultrafine Particles and Lung Cancer Risk: The Multiethnic Cohort Study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2024; 33:703-711. [PMID: 38372643 PMCID: PMC11062824 DOI: 10.1158/1055-9965.epi-23-0924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2023] [Revised: 11/10/2023] [Accepted: 02/12/2024] [Indexed: 02/20/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ultrafine particles (UFP) are unregulated air pollutants abundant in aviation exhaust. Emerging evidence suggests that UFPs may impact lung health due to their high surface area-to-mass ratio and deep penetration into airways. This study aimed to assess long-term exposure to airport-related UFPs and lung cancer incidence in a multiethnic population in Los Angeles County. METHODS Within the California Multiethnic Cohort, we examined the association between long-term exposure to airport-related UFPs and lung cancer incidence. Multivariable Cox proportional hazards regression models were used to estimate the effect of UFP exposure on lung cancer incidence. Subgroup analyses by demographics, histology and smoking status were conducted. RESULTS Airport-related UFP exposure was not associated with lung cancer risk [per one IGR HR, 1.01; 95% confidence interval (CI), 0.97-1.05] overall and across race/ethnicity. A suggestive positive association was observed between a one IQR increase in UFP exposure and lung squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) risk (HR, 1.08; 95% CI, 1.00-1.17) with a Phet for histology = 0.05. Positive associations were observed in 5-year lag analysis for SCC (HR, 1.12; 95% CI, CI, 1.02-1.22) and large cell carcinoma risk (HR, 1.23; 95% CI, 1.01-1.49) with a Phet for histology = 0.01. CONCLUSIONS This large prospective cohort analysis suggests a potential association between airport-related UFP exposure and specific lung histologies. The findings align with research indicating that UFPs found in aviation exhaust may induce inflammatory and oxidative injury leading to SCC. IMPACT These results highlight the potential role of airport-related UFP exposure in the development of lung SCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arthur Bookstein
- Department of Population and Public Health Sciences, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA
| | - Justine Po
- Department of Population and Public Health Sciences, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA
| | - Chiuchen Tseng
- Department of Population and Public Health Sciences, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA
| | - Timothy V. Larson
- Departments of Civil & Environmental Engineering and Environmental & Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
| | - Juan Yang
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA
| | - Sung-shim L. Park
- Population Sciences in the Pacific Program (Cancer Epidemiology), University of Hawaii Cancer Center, Honolulu, HI
| | - Jun Wu
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Program in Public Health, Susan and Henry Samueli College of Health Sciences, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA
| | - Salma Shariff-Marco
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA
- University of California, San Francisco Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA
| | - Pushkar P. Inamdar
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA
| | - Ugonna Ihenacho
- Department of Population and Public Health Sciences, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA
| | - Veronica W. Setiawan
- Department of Population and Public Health Sciences, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA
| | - Mindy C. DeRouen
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA
- University of California, San Francisco Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA
| | - Loïc Le Marchand
- Population Sciences in the Pacific Program (Cancer Epidemiology), University of Hawaii Cancer Center, Honolulu, HI
| | - Daniel O. Stram
- Department of Population and Public Health Sciences, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA
| | - Jonathan Samet
- Departments of Epidemiology and of Environmental & Occupational Health, Colorado School of Public Health, Aurora, CO
| | - Beate Ritz
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA
| | - Scott Fruin
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA
| | - Anna H. Wu
- Department of Population and Public Health Sciences, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA
| | - Iona Cheng
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA
- University of California, San Francisco Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA
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VoPham T, White AJ, Jones RR. Geospatial Science for the Environmental Epidemiology of Cancer in the Exposome Era. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2024; 33:451-460. [PMID: 38566558 PMCID: PMC10996842 DOI: 10.1158/1055-9965.epi-23-1237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2023] [Revised: 12/11/2023] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Geospatial science is the science of location or place that harnesses geospatial tools, such as geographic information systems (GIS), to understand the features of the environment according to their locations. Geospatial science has been transformative for cancer epidemiologic studies through enabling large-scale environmental exposure assessments. As the research paradigm for the exposome, or the totality of environmental exposures across the life course, continues to evolve, geospatial science will serve a critical role in determining optimal practices for how to measure the environment as part of the external exposome. The objectives of this article are to provide a summary of key concepts, present a conceptual framework that illustrates how geospatial science is applied to environmental epidemiology in practice and through the lens of the exposome, and discuss the following opportunities for advancing geospatial science in cancer epidemiologic research: enhancing spatial and temporal resolutions and extents for geospatial data; geospatial methodologies to measure climate change factors; approaches facilitating the use of patient addresses in epidemiologic studies; combining internal exposome data and geospatial exposure models of the external exposome to provide insights into biological pathways for environment-disease relationships; and incorporation of geospatial data into personalized cancer screening policies and clinical decision making.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trang VoPham
- Epidemiology Program, Public Health Sciences Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, Washington
- Department of Epidemiology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Alexandra J. White
- Epidemiology Branch, Division of Intramural Research, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
| | - Rena R. Jones
- Occupational and Environmental Epidemiology Branch, Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, NCI, NIH, Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda, Maryland
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Badami MM, Tohidi R, Sioutas C. Los Angeles Basin's air quality transformation: a long-term investigation on the impacts of PM regulations on the trends of ultrafine particles and co-pollutants. JOURNAL OF AEROSOL SCIENCE 2024; 176:106316. [PMID: 38223364 PMCID: PMC10783618 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaerosci.2023.106316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2024]
Abstract
This study investigates the long-term trends of ambient ultrafine particles (UFPs) and associated airborne pollutants in the Los Angeles Basin from 2007 to 2022, focusing on the indirect effects of regulations on UFP levels. The particle number concentration (PNC) of UFPs was compiled from previous studies in the area, and associated co-pollutant data, including nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), elemental carbon (EC), organic carbon (OC), and ozone (O3), were obtained from the chemical speciation network (CSN) database. Over the study period, a general decrease was noted in the PNC of UFPs, NOx, EC, and OC, except for CO, the concentration trends of which did not exhibit a consistent pattern. UFPs, NOx, EC, and OC were positively correlated, while O3 had a negative correlation, especially with NOx. Our analysis discerned two distinct subperiods in pollutant trends: 2007-2015 and 2016-2022. For example, there was an overall decrease in the PNC of UFPs at an annual rate of -850.09 particles/cm3/year. This rate was more pronounced during the first sub-period (2007-2015) at -1814.9 particles/cm3/year and then slowed to -227.21 particles/cm3/year in the second sub-period (2016-2023). The first sub-period (2007-2015) significantly influenced pollutant level changes, exhibiting more pronounced and statistically significant changes than the second sub-period (2016-2022). Since 2016, almost all primary pollutants have stabilized, indicating a reduced impact of current regulations, and emphasizing the need for stricter standards. In addition, the study included an analysis of Vehicle Miles Traveled (VMT) trends from 2007 to 2022 within the Los Angeles Basin. Despite the general increase in VMT, current regulations and cleaner technologies seem to have successfully mitigated the potential increase in increase in PNC. Overall, while a decline in UFPs and co-pollutant levels was observed, the apparent stabilization of these levels underscores the need for more stringent regulatory measures and advanced emission standards.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Mahdi Badami
- University of Southern California, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Ramin Tohidi
- University of Southern California, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Constantinos Sioutas
- University of Southern California, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Los Angeles, California, USA
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Jones RR, Fisher JA, Hasheminassab S, Kaufman JD, Freedman ND, Ward MH, Sioutas C, Vermeulen R, Hoek G, Silverman DT. Outdoor Ultrafine Particulate Matter and Risk of Lung Cancer in Southern California. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2024; 209:307-315. [PMID: 37856832 PMCID: PMC10840777 DOI: 10.1164/rccm.202305-0902oc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2023] [Accepted: 10/19/2023] [Indexed: 10/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Rationale: Particulate matter ⩽2.5 μm in aerodynamic diameter (PM2.5) is an established cause of lung cancer, but the association with ultrafine particulate matter (UFP; aerodynamic diameter < 0.1 μm) is unclear. Objectives: To investigate the association between UFP and lung cancer overall and by histologic subtype. Methods: The Los Angeles Ultrafines Study includes 45,012 participants aged ⩾50 years in southern California at enrollment (1995-1996) followed through 2017 for incident lung cancer (n = 1,770). We estimated historical residential ambient UFP number concentrations via land use regression and back extrapolation using PM2.5. In Cox proportional hazards models adjusted for smoking and other confounders, we estimated associations between 10-year lagged UFP (per 10,000 particles/cm3 and quartiles) and lung cancer overall and by major histologic subtype (adenocarcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, and small cell carcinoma). We also evaluated relationships by smoking status, birth cohort, and historical duration at the residence. Measurements and Main Results: UFP was modestly associated with lung cancer risk overall (hazard ratio [HR], 1.03 [95% confidence interval (CI), 0.99-1.08]). For adenocarcinoma, we observed a positive trend among men; risk was increased in the highest exposure quartile versus the lowest (HR, 1.39 [95% CI, 1.05-1.85]; P for trend = 0.01) and was also increased in continuous models (HR per 10,000 particles/cm3, 1.09 [95% CI, 1.00-1.18]), but no increased risk was apparent among women (P for interaction = 0.03). Adenocarcinoma risk was elevated among men born between 1925 and 1930 (HR, 1.13 [95% CI, 1.02-1.26] per 10,000) but not for other birth cohorts, and was suggestive for men with ⩾10 years of residential duration (HR, 1.11 [95% CI, 0.98-1.26]). We found no consistent associations for women or other histologic subtypes. Conclusions: UFP exposure was modestly associated with lung cancer overall, with stronger associations observed for adenocarcinoma of the lung.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rena R. Jones
- Occupational and Environmental Epidemiology Branch and
| | | | - Sina Hasheminassab
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Joel D. Kaufman
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Neal D. Freedman
- Metabolic Epidemiology Branch, Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, Maryland
| | - Mary H. Ward
- Occupational and Environmental Epidemiology Branch and
| | - Constantinos Sioutas
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Roel Vermeulen
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Division of Environmental Epidemiology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands; and
- University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Gerard Hoek
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Division of Environmental Epidemiology, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands; and
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Lloyd M, Ganji A, Xu J, Venuta A, Simon L, Zhang M, Saeedi M, Yamanouchi S, Apte J, Hong K, Hatzopoulou M, Weichenthal S. Predicting spatial variations in annual average outdoor ultrafine particle concentrations in Montreal and Toronto, Canada: Integrating land use regression and deep learning models. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2023; 178:108106. [PMID: 37544265 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2023.108106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2023] [Revised: 06/28/2023] [Accepted: 07/19/2023] [Indexed: 08/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Concentrations of outdoor ultrafine particles (UFP; <0.1 µm) and black carbon (BC) can vary greatly within cities and long-term exposures to these pollutants have been associated with a variety of adverse health outcomes. OBJECTIVE This study integrated multiple approaches to develop new models to estimate within-city spatial variations in annual median (i.e. average) outdoor UFP and BC concentrations as well as mean UFP size in Canada's two largest cities, Montreal and Toronto. METHODS We conducted year-long mobile monitoring campaigns in each city that included evenings and weekends. We developed generalized additive models trained on land use parameters and deep Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) models trained on satellite-view images. Using predictions from these models, we developed final combined models. RESULTS In Toronto, the median observed UFP concentration, UFP size, and BC concentration values were 16,172pt/cm3, 33.7 nm, and 1225 ng/m3, respectively. In Montreal, the median observed UFP concentration, UFP size, and BC concentration values were 14,702pt/cm3, 29.7 nm, and 1060 ng/m3, respectively. For all pollutants in both cities, the proportion of spatial variation explained (i.e., R2) was slightly greater (1-2 percentage points) for the combined models than the generalized additive models and a greater (approximately 10 percentage points) than the deep CNN models. The Toronto combined model R2 values in the test set were 0.73, 0.55, and 0.61 for UFP concentrations, UFP size, and BC concentration, respectively. The Montreal combined model R2 values were 0.60, 0.49, and 0.60 for UFP concentration, UFP size, and BC concentration models respectively. For each pollutant, predictions from the combined, deep CNN, and generalized additive models were highly correlated with each other and differences between models were explored in sensitivity analyses. CONCLUSION Predictions from these models are available to support future epidemiological research examining long-term health impacts of outdoor UFPs and BC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marshall Lloyd
- Department of Epidemiology, Biostatistics, and Occupational Health, McGill University, Montreal, Québec H3A 1G1, Canada.
| | - Arman Ganji
- Department of Civil and Mineral Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A4, Canada.
| | - Junshi Xu
- Department of Civil and Mineral Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A4, Canada.
| | - Alessya Venuta
- Department of Epidemiology, Biostatistics, and Occupational Health, McGill University, Montreal, Québec H3A 1G1, Canada.
| | - Leora Simon
- Department of Epidemiology, Biostatistics, and Occupational Health, McGill University, Montreal, Québec H3A 1G1, Canada.
| | - Mingqian Zhang
- Department of Civil and Mineral Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A4, Canada.
| | - Milad Saeedi
- Department of Civil and Mineral Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A4, Canada.
| | - Shoma Yamanouchi
- Department of Civil and Mineral Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A4, Canada.
| | - Joshua Apte
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, United States; School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, United States.
| | - Kris Hong
- Department of Epidemiology, Biostatistics, and Occupational Health, McGill University, Montreal, Québec H3A 1G1, Canada.
| | - Marianne Hatzopoulou
- Department of Civil and Mineral Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 1A4, Canada.
| | - Scott Weichenthal
- Department of Epidemiology, Biostatistics, and Occupational Health, McGill University, Montreal, Québec H3A 1G1, Canada.
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Tan Y, Yang Y, Zhang Y, Peng C, Zhang Y, He M, Peng A. Prenatal ambient air pollutants exposure and the risk of stillbirth in Wuhan, central of China. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2023; 228:115841. [PMID: 37028538 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2023.115841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2023] [Revised: 03/26/2023] [Accepted: 04/03/2023] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The existing studies on the relationships of prenatal ambient air pollutants exposure with stillbirth in the Chinese population are very limited and the results are inconsistent, and the susceptible windows and potential modifiers for air pollutants exposure on stillbirth remain unanswered. OBJECTIVE We aimed to determine the relationships between exposure to ambient air pollutants and stillbirth, and explored the susceptible windows and potential modifiers for air pollutants exposure on stillbirth. METHODS A population-based cohort was established through the Wuhan Maternal and Child Health Management Information System involving 509,057 mother-infant pairs in Wuhan from January 1, 2011 through September 30, 2017. Personal exposure concentrations of fine particles (PM2.5), inhalable particles (PM10), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon monoxide (CO), and ozone (O3) for mothers were estimated based on their residential address during pregnancy using the inverse distance weighted (IDW) method. We used the logistic regression models to determine the associations at different stages of pregnancy with adjustment for confounding factors. RESULTS There were 3218 stillbirths and 505,839 live births among the participants. For each 100 μg/m3 of CO and 10 μg/m3 of O3 increase in the first trimester (conception to 13+6 weeks), the risk of stillbirth increased by 1.0% (OR = 1.01, 95%CI: 1.00-1.03) and 7.0% (OR = 1.07, 95%CI: 1.05-1.09). In the second trimester (14 weeks-27+6 weeks), PM2.5, PM10, CO, and O3 exposure were closely related to the risk of stillbirth (P<0.05). In the third trimester (28 weeks to delivery), for each 10 μg/m3 increase in exposure concentrations of PM2.5, SO2, and O3, the risk of stillbirth increased by 3.4%, 5.9%, and 4.0%, respectively. O3 exposure was positively relevant to the risk of stillbirth (OR = 1.11, 95%CI: 1.08-1.14) in the whole pregnancy. Exposure to NO2 was not significantly associated with the risk of stillbirth. Stratified analyses also presented a stronger association among mothers with boy infant, living in rural areas, delivering between 2011 and 2013, and those without gestational hypertension and history of stillbirth. CONCLUSION This study provides evidence that maternal exposure to PM2.5, PM10, SO2, CO, and O3 were related to the increased risk of stillbirth. Both the second and third trimesters might be vital susceptible windows for stillbirth. Our findings expand the evidence base for the important impacts of air pollution on fetal growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yafei Tan
- Wuhan Children's Hospital (Wuhan Maternal and Child Healthcare Hospital), Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science & Technology, No. 100 Hongkong Road, Jiangan District, Wuhan, 430016, Hubei, China
| | - Yifan Yang
- Wuhan Children's Hospital (Wuhan Maternal and Child Healthcare Hospital), Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science & Technology, No. 100 Hongkong Road, Jiangan District, Wuhan, 430016, Hubei, China
| | - Yu Zhang
- Wuhan Children's Hospital (Wuhan Maternal and Child Healthcare Hospital), Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science & Technology, No. 100 Hongkong Road, Jiangan District, Wuhan, 430016, Hubei, China
| | - Chang Peng
- School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, No. 13 Hangkong Road, Qiaokou District, Wuhan, 430030, Hubei, China
| | - Yan Zhang
- Wuhan Children's Hospital (Wuhan Maternal and Child Healthcare Hospital), Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science & Technology, No. 100 Hongkong Road, Jiangan District, Wuhan, 430016, Hubei, China
| | - Meian He
- School of Public Health, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, No. 13 Hangkong Road, Qiaokou District, Wuhan, 430030, Hubei, China.
| | - Anna Peng
- Wuhan Children's Hospital (Wuhan Maternal and Child Healthcare Hospital), Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science & Technology, No. 100 Hongkong Road, Jiangan District, Wuhan, 430016, Hubei, China.
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Li K, Li C, Hu Y, Xiong Z, Wang Y. Quantitative estimation of the PM 2.5 removal capacity and influencing factors of urban green infrastructure. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 867:161476. [PMID: 36634767 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.161476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2022] [Revised: 12/27/2022] [Accepted: 01/05/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Long-term exposure to PM2.5 (fine particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter <2.5 μm) could cause great harm to human health and sustainable development. It remains a challenge to estimate the long-term PM2.5 removal capacity of nature-based green infrastructure in urban areas. In this paper, the annual PM2.5 removal capacity of urban green infrastructure (UGI) from 2000 to 2019 in Shenyang was estimated based on the PM2.5 dry deposition model. The spatial heterogeneity of annual PM2.5 removal capacity were detected Sen-MK test and local spatial autocorrelations analysis. Then the effects of landscape patterns and socioeconomic variables on PM2.5 removal capacity were explored based on linear regression model. The results illustrated that the PM2.5 removal capacity of UGI increased significantly from 2000 to 2019 in Shenyang, with the amount of PM2.5 removal, PM2.5 removal flux and removal rate increasing by 20.64 Mg/a, 0.0258 g/m2/a, and 0.377 %/a, respectively. The PM2.5 removal capacity of UGI exhibited spatial heterogeneity in the study area. Specifically, the regions experiencing the increase in PM2.5 removal capacity of UGI accounted for majority of the old urban area of Shenyang City during the study period; the lower PM2.5 removal capacity clustered in the center urban area, in which high density impervious surfaces distributed, while the higher PM2.5 removal capacity mainly gathered in the area with large scale green space; PM2.5 removal capacity were significantly higher in urban functional zones with a high proportion of green spaces. The landscape metrics representing fragmentation and shape complexity positively affected the annual PM2.5 removal flux and removal rate, while the aggregation metrics had significantly negative correlations with the PM2.5 removal flux and removal rate. Moreover, it was also found that population density and GDP negatively affected the PM2.5 removal capacity of UGI. This study provides a methodological reference and some new insights for future urban landscape planning and air pollution purification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kongming Li
- CAS Key Laboratory of Forest Ecology and Management, Institute of Applied Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenyang 110016, China; College of the Environment and Ecology, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China.
| | - Chunlin Li
- CAS Key Laboratory of Forest Ecology and Management, Institute of Applied Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenyang 110016, China.
| | - Yuanman Hu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Forest Ecology and Management, Institute of Applied Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenyang 110016, China.
| | - Zaiping Xiong
- CAS Key Laboratory of Forest Ecology and Management, Institute of Applied Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenyang 110016, China.
| | - Yongheng Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Forest Ecology and Management, Institute of Applied Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenyang 110016, China; College of Geography and Environment, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250358, China
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10
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Abdillah SFI, Wang YF. Ambient ultrafine particle (PM 0.1): Sources, characteristics, measurements and exposure implications on human health. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2023; 218:115061. [PMID: 36525995 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2022.115061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2022] [Revised: 08/28/2022] [Accepted: 12/11/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The problem of ultrafine particles (UFPs; PM0.1) has been prevalent since the past decades. In addition to become easily inhaled by human respiratory system due to their ultrafine diameter (<100 nm), ambient UFPs possess various physicochemical properties which make it more toxic. These properties vary based on the emission source profile. The current development of UFPs studies is hindered by the problem of expensive instruments and the inexistence of standardized measurement method. This review provides detailed insights on ambient UFPs sources, physicochemical properties, measurements, and estimation models development. Implications on health impacts due to short-term and long-term exposure of ambient UFPs are also presented alongside the development progress of potentially low-cost UFPs sensors which can be used for future UFPs studies references. Current challenge and future outlook of ambient UFPs research are also discussed in this review. Based on the review results, ambient UFPs may originate from primary and secondary sources which include anthropogenic and natural activities. In addition to that, it is confirmed from various chemical content analysis that UFPs carry heavy metals, PAHs, BCs which are toxic in its nature. Measurement of ambient UFPs may be performed through stationary and mobile methods for environmental profiling and exposure assessment purposes. UFPs PNC estimation model (LUR) developed from measurement data could be deployed to support future epidemiological study of ambient UFPs. Low-cost sensors such as bipolar ion and ionization sensor from common smoke detector device may be further developed as affordable instrument to monitor ambient UFPs. Recent studies indicate that short-term exposure of UFPs can be associated with HRV change and increased cardiopulmonary effects. On the other hand, long-term UFPs exposure have positive association with COPD, CVD, CHF, pre-term birth, asthma, and also acute myocardial infarction cases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sultan F I Abdillah
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Chung Yuan Christian University, Taoyuan, 32023, Taiwan; Center for Environmental Risk Management, Chung Yuan Christian University, Taoyuan, 32023, Taiwan
| | - Ya-Fen Wang
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Chung Yuan Christian University, Taoyuan, 32023, Taiwan; Center for Environmental Risk Management, Chung Yuan Christian University, Taoyuan, 32023, Taiwan.
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11
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Yuan X, An T, Hu B, Zhou J. Analysis of spatial distribution characteristics and main influencing factors of heavy metals in road dust of Tianjin based on land use regression models. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:837-848. [PMID: 35904743 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-22151-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 07/18/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Land use regression (LUR) models are mainly used for the simulation and prediction of conventional atmospheric pollutants. Whether the LUR models can be expanded to study more toxic and hazardous pollutants (such as heavy metals) remains to be verified. Combined with the factors of road, land use type, population, pollution enterprise, meteorology, and terrain, the LUR models were used to simulate the spatial distribution characteristics of heavy metals in road dust and determine the main influencing factors. Samples of road surface dust were collected from 144 evenly distributed points in Tianjin, China, with 108 modelling points and 36 verification points. The R2 values of the LUR models of Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, and Pb contents were 0.301, 0.412, 0.399, 0.496, and 0.377, and their error rates were 2.72%, 4.96%, 4.64%, 8.91%, and 4.94%, respectively. The error rates of the kriging interpolation models were 3.33%, 6.50%, 5.14%, 18.30%, and 22.87%, which were all greater than those of the LUR models. The estimation effect of the LUR models was more refined than that of the kriging interpolation models. The contents of most heavy metals (except Ni) in road dust of the central area in Tianjin were generally higher than those of the surrounding areas. The heavy metal contents in road dust of Tianjin were mainly affected by road variables and meteorological variables. The LUR models were suitable for small-scale spatial prediction of heavy metals in urban road dust within urban areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuesong Yuan
- School of Geographic and Environmental Sciences, Tianjin Normal University, A 304, Boli Building, 393 Binshui West Road, Tianjin, 300387, China
| | - Tongtong An
- School of Geographic and Environmental Sciences, Tianjin Normal University, A 304, Boli Building, 393 Binshui West Road, Tianjin, 300387, China
| | - Beibei Hu
- School of Geographic and Environmental Sciences, Tianjin Normal University, A 304, Boli Building, 393 Binshui West Road, Tianjin, 300387, China.
| | - Jun Zhou
- School of Geographic and Environmental Sciences, Tianjin Normal University, A 304, Boli Building, 393 Binshui West Road, Tianjin, 300387, China
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12
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Kerckhoffs J, Khan J, Hoek G, Yuan Z, Hertel O, Ketzel M, Jensen SS, Al Hasan F, Meliefste K, Vermeulen R. Hyperlocal variation of nitrogen dioxide, black carbon, and ultrafine particles measured with Google Street View cars in Amsterdam and Copenhagen. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2022; 170:107575. [PMID: 36306551 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2022.107575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2022] [Revised: 10/03/2022] [Accepted: 10/07/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Hyperlocal air quality maps are becoming increasingly common, as they provide useful insights into the spatial variation and sources of air pollutants. In this study, we produced several high-resolution concentration maps to assess the spatial differences of three traffic-related pollutants, Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), Black Carbon (BC) and Ultrafine Particles (UFP), in Amsterdam, the Netherlands, and Copenhagen, Denmark. All maps were based on a mixed-effect model approach by using state-of-the-art mobile measurements conducted by Google Street View (GSV) cars, during October 2018 - March 2020, and Land-use Regression (LUR) models based on several land-use and traffic predictor variables. We then explored the concentration ratio between the different normalised pollutants to understand possible contributing sources to the observed hyperlocal variations. The maps developed in this work reflect, (i) expected elevated pollution concentrations along busy roads, and (ii) similar concentration patterns on specific road types, e.g., motorways, for both cities. In the ratio maps, we observed a clear pattern of elevated concentrations of UFP near the airport in both cities, compared to BC and NO2. This is the first study to produce hyperlocal maps for BC and UFP using high-quality mobile measurements. These maps are important for policymakers and health-effect studies, trying to disentangle individual effects of key air pollutants of interest (e.g., UFP).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jules Kerckhoffs
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands.
| | - Jibran Khan
- Department of Environmental Science, Aarhus University, Roskilde, Denmark; Danish Big Data Centre for Environment and Health (BERTHA), Aarhus University, Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Gerard Hoek
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Zhendong Yuan
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Ole Hertel
- Department of Ecoscience, Aarhus University, Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Matthias Ketzel
- Department of Environmental Science, Aarhus University, Roskilde, Denmark; Global Centre for Clean Air Research (GCARE), University of Surrey, Guildford, United Kingdom
| | | | - Fares Al Hasan
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Kees Meliefste
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Roel Vermeulen
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands; Julius Centre for Health Sciences and Primary Care, University Medical Centre, University of Utrecht, the Netherlands
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13
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Liu J, Banerjee S, Oroumiyeh F, Shen J, Del Rosario I, Lipsitt J, Paulson S, Ritz B, Su J, Weichenthal S, Lakey P, Shiraiwa M, Zhu Y, Jerrett M. Co-kriging with a low-cost sensor network to estimate spatial variation of brake and tire-wear metals and oxidative stress potential in Southern California. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2022; 168:107481. [PMID: 36037546 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2022.107481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2022] [Revised: 07/22/2022] [Accepted: 08/16/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Due to regulations and technological advancements reducing tailpipe emissions, an increasing proportion of emissions arise from brake and tire wear particulate matter (PM). PM from these non-tailpipe sources contains heavy metals capable of generating oxidative stress in the lung. Although important, these particles remain understudied because the high cost of actively collecting filter samples. Improvements in electrical engineering, internet connectivity, and an increased public concern over air pollution have led to a proliferation of dense low-cost air sensor networks such as the PurpleAir monitors, which primarily measure unspeciated fine particulate matter (PM2.5). In this study, we model the concentrations of Ba, Zn, black carbon, reactive oxygen species concentration in the epithelial lining fluid, dithiothreitol (DTT) loss, and OH formation. We use a co-kriging approach, incorporating data from the PurpleAir network as a secondary predictor variable and a land-use regression (LUR) as an external drift. For most pollutant species, co-kriging models produced more accurate predictions than an LUR model, which did not incorporate data from the PurpleAir monitors. This finding suggests that low-cost sensors can enhance predictions of pollutants that are costly to measure extensively in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Liu
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Jonathan and Karin Fielding School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, 650 Charles E Young Dr S, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States.
| | - Sudipto Banerjee
- Department of Biostatistics, Jonathan and Karin Fielding School of Public Health, 650 Charles E Young Dr S, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States.
| | - Farzan Oroumiyeh
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Jonathan and Karin Fielding School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, 650 Charles E Young Dr S, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States.
| | - Jiaqi Shen
- Department of Atomospheric and Oceanic Sciences, University of Caifornia Los Angeles, 520 Portola Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States.
| | - Irish Del Rosario
- Department of Epidemiology, Jonathan and Karin Fielding School of Public Health, 650 Charles E Young Dr S, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States.
| | - Jonah Lipsitt
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Jonathan and Karin Fielding School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, 650 Charles E Young Dr S, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States.
| | - Suzanne Paulson
- Department of Atomospheric and Oceanic Sciences, University of Caifornia Los Angeles, 520 Portola Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States.
| | - Beate Ritz
- Department of Epidemiology, Jonathan and Karin Fielding School of Public Health, 650 Charles E Young Dr S, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States.
| | - Jason Su
- Division of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of California at Berkeley, 2121 Berkeley Way, Berkeley, CA, United States.
| | - Scott Weichenthal
- Department of Epidemiology, Biostatistics, and Occupational Health, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, McGill Unviersity, 2001 McGill College, Suite 1200, Montreal, QC H3A 1G1, Canada.
| | - Pascale Lakey
- Deaprtment of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, Natural Sciences II, 1102, Irvine, CA 92617, United States.
| | - Manabu Shiraiwa
- Deaprtment of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, Natural Sciences II, 1102, Irvine, CA 92617, United States.
| | - Yifang Zhu
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Jonathan and Karin Fielding School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, 650 Charles E Young Dr S, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States.
| | - Michael Jerrett
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Jonathan and Karin Fielding School of Public Health, University of California, Los Angeles, 650 Charles E Young Dr S, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States.
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14
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Rovira J, Paredes-Ahumada JA, Barceló-Ordinas JM, García-Vidal J, Reche C, Sola Y, Fung PL, Petäjä T, Hussein T, Viana M. Non-linear models for black carbon exposure modelling using air pollution datasets. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2022; 212:113269. [PMID: 35427594 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2022.113269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2022] [Revised: 04/01/2022] [Accepted: 04/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Black carbon (BC) is a product of incomplete combustion, present in urban aerosols and sourcing mainly from road traffic. Epidemiological evidence reports positive associations between BC and cardiovascular and respiratory disease. Despite this, BC is currently not regulated by the EU Air Quality Directive, and as a result BC data are not available in urban areas from reference air quality monitoring networks in many countries. To fill this gap, a machine learning approach is proposed to develop a BC proxy using air pollution datasets as an input. The proposed BC proxy is based on two machine learning models, support vector regression (SVR) and random forest (RF), using observations of particle mass and number concentrations (N), gaseous pollutants and meteorological variables as the input. Experimental data were collected from a reference station in Barcelona (Spain) over a 2-year period (2018-2019). Two months of additional data were available from a second urban site in Barcelona, for model validation. BC concentrations estimated by SVR showed a high degree of correlation with the measured BC concentrations (R2 = 0.828) with a relatively low error (RMSE = 0.48 μg/m3). Model performance was dependent on seasonality and time of the day, due to the influence of new particle formation events. When validated at the second station, performance indicators decreased (R2 = 0.633; RMSE = 1.19 μg/m3) due to the lack of N data and PM2.5 and the smaller size of the dataset (2 months). New particle formation events critically impacted model performance, suggesting that its application would be optimal in environments where traffic is the main source of ultrafine particles. Due to its flexibility, it is concluded that the model can act as a BC proxy, even based on EU-regulatory air quality parameters only, to complement experimental measurements for exposure assessment in urban areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Rovira
- Barcelona University, Barcelona, Spain
| | - J A Paredes-Ahumada
- Department of Computer Architecture, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, UPC, Barcelona, Spain
| | - J M Barceló-Ordinas
- Department of Computer Architecture, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, UPC, Barcelona, Spain
| | - J García-Vidal
- Department of Computer Architecture, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, UPC, Barcelona, Spain
| | - C Reche
- Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research, Spanish Research Council, IDAEA-CSIC, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Y Sola
- Barcelona University, Barcelona, Spain
| | - P L Fung
- University of Helsinki, Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research (INAR/Physics), UHEL, Helsinki, Finland
| | - T Petäjä
- University of Helsinki, Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research (INAR/Physics), UHEL, Helsinki, Finland
| | - T Hussein
- University of Helsinki, Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research (INAR/Physics), UHEL, Helsinki, Finland; The University of Jordan, School of Science, Department of Physics, Amman, Jordan
| | - M Viana
- Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research, Spanish Research Council, IDAEA-CSIC, Barcelona, Spain.
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15
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Xu J, Yang W, Bai Z, Zhang R, Zheng J, Wang M, Zhu T. Modeling spatial variation of gaseous air pollutants and particulate matters in a Metropolitan area using mobile monitoring data. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2022; 210:112858. [PMID: 35149107 PMCID: PMC9203245 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2022.112858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2021] [Revised: 01/04/2022] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Geo-statistical models have been applied to assess fine-scale air pollution exposures in epidemiological studies. Many of the models were developed for criteria air pollutants rather than others that have not been regulated (e.g., ultrafine particles, black carbon, and benzene) which may also be harmful to human health. We aim to develop spatial models for regulated and non-regulated air pollutants using 6 algorithms and compare their prediction performances. A mobile platform with fast-response monitors was used to measure gaseous air pollutants (nitrogen dioxides, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxides, ozone, benzene, toluene, methanol) and particulate matters (black carbon, surface area, count- and volume-concentrations of ultrafine particles) in Beijing, China for 30 days from July to October 2008. Mobile monitoring data for model building were spatially aggregated into 130 road segments of approximately 600-m interval on the sampling routes after temporal adjustment of background concentrations. The best models for the air pollutants were dominated by traffic variables, which explained more than 60% of the spatial variations (range: 0.61 for methanol to 0.88 for ozone) based on the highest cross-validation R2 and the lowest root mean square error among different algorithms. Amongst the 6 algorithms, the spatial models using partial least squares regression (PLS, a dimension reduction algorithm) and random forest (RF, a machine learning algorithm) algorithms outperformed the models with other algorithms. Exposure predictions from the best models varied substantially with distinct spatial patterns between the air pollutants. Predictions with multiple modeling algorithms were moderately correlated with each other for the same pollutant at the fine-scale grids across the city. Exposure models, especially based on PLS and RF algorithms, captured the spatial variation of short-term average concentrations, had adequate predictive validity, and could be applied to assess toxic air pollutant exposures in human health studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, China; Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Wen Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Zhipeng Bai
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Renyi Zhang
- Department of Atmospheric Sciences, Texas A&M University, Center for Atmospheric Chemistry and the Environment, College Station, TX, United States
| | - Jun Zheng
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Atmospheric Environment and Equipment Technology, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing, China
| | - Meng Wang
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States; Department of Epidemiology and Environmental Health, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, United States; RENEW Institute, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, United States.
| | - Tong Zhu
- BIC-ESAT and SKL-ESPC, College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing, China.
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16
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Ge Y, Fu Q, Yi M, Chao Y, Lei X, Xu X, Yang Z, Hu J, Kan H, Cai J. High spatial resolution land-use regression model for urban ultrafine particle exposure assessment in Shanghai, China. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 816:151633. [PMID: 34785221 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.151633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2021] [Revised: 11/04/2021] [Accepted: 11/08/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Little is currently known about long-term health effects of ambient ultrafine particles (UFPs) due to the lack of exposure assessment metrics suitable for use in large population-based studies. Land use regression (LUR) models have been used increasingly for modeling small-scale spatial variation in UFPs concentrations in European and American, but have never been applied in developing countries with heavy air pollution. OBJECTIVE This study developed a land-use regression (LUR) model for UFP exposure assessment in Shanghai, a typic mega city of China, where dense population resides. METHOD A 30-minute measurement of particle number concentrations of UFPs was collected at each visit at 144 fixed sites, and each was visited three times in each season of winter, spring, and summer. The annual adjusted average was calculated and regressed against pre-selected geographic information system-derived predictor variables using a stepwise variable selection method. RESULT The final LUR model explained 69% of the spatial variability in UFP with a root mean square error of 6008 particles cm-3. The 10-fold cross validation R2 reached 0.68, revealing the robustness of the model. The final predictors included traffic-related NOx emissions, number of restaurants, building footprint area, and distance to the nearest national road. These predictors were within a relatively small buffer size, ranging from 50 m to 100 m, indicating great spatial variations of UFP particle number concentration and the need of high-resolution models for UFP exposure assessment in urban areas. CONCLUSION We concluded that based on a purpose-designed short-term monitoring network, LUR model can be applied to predict UFPs spatial surface in a mega city of China. Majority of the spatial variability in the annual mean of ambient UFP was explained in the model comprised primarily of traffic-, building-, and restaurant-related predictors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yihui Ge
- School of Public Health, Key Lab of Public Health Safety of the Ministry of Education and NHC Key Lab of Health Technology Assessment, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Qingyan Fu
- Shanghai Environmental Monitoring Center, Shanghai 200233, China
| | - Min Yi
- Shanghai Environmental Monitoring Center, Shanghai 200233, China
| | - Yuan Chao
- Shanghai Environmental Monitoring Center, Shanghai 200233, China
| | - Xiaoning Lei
- School of Public Health, Key Lab of Public Health Safety of the Ministry of Education and NHC Key Lab of Health Technology Assessment, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Xueyi Xu
- School of Public Health, Key Lab of Public Health Safety of the Ministry of Education and NHC Key Lab of Health Technology Assessment, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Zhenchun Yang
- MRC Centre for Environment and Health, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, St Mary's Campus, London, United Kingdom
| | - Jianlin Hu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Environment Monitoring and Pollution Control, Collaborative Innovation Center of Atmospheric Environment and Equipment Technology, Nanjing University of Information Science & Technology, Nanjing 210044, China
| | - Haidong Kan
- School of Public Health, Key Lab of Public Health Safety of the Ministry of Education and NHC Key Lab of Health Technology Assessment, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China.
| | - Jing Cai
- School of Public Health, Key Lab of Public Health Safety of the Ministry of Education and NHC Key Lab of Health Technology Assessment, Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, China.
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17
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Land Use Quantile Regression Modeling of Fine Particulate Matter in Australia. REMOTE SENSING 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/rs14061370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Small data samples are still a critical challenge for spatial predictions. Land use regression (LUR) is a widely used model for spatial predictions with observations at a limited number of locations. Studies have demonstrated that LUR models can overcome the limitation exhibited by other spatial prediction models which usually require greater spatial densities of observations. However, the prediction accuracy and robustness of LUR models still need to be improved due to the linear regression within the LUR model. To improve LUR models, this study develops a land use quantile regression (LUQR) model for more accurate spatial predictions for small data samples. The LUQR is an integration of the LUR and quantile regression, which both have advantages in predictions with a small data set of samples. In this study, the LUQR model is applied in predicting spatial distributions of annual mean PM2.5concentrations across the Greater Sydney Region, New South Wales, Australia, with observations at 19 valid monitoring stations in 2020. Cross validation shows that the goodness-of-fit can be improved by 25.6–32.1% by LUQR models when compared with LUR, and prediction root mean squared error (RMSE) and mean absolute error (MAE) can be reduced by 10.6–13.4% and 19.4–24.7% by LUQR models, respectively. This study also indicates that LUQR is a more robust model for the spatial prediction with small data samples than LUR. Thus, LUQR has great potentials to be widely applied in spatial issues with a limited number of observations.
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18
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Xu X, Qin N, Qi L, Zou B, Cao S, Zhang K, Yang Z, Liu Y, Zhang Y, Duan X. Development of season-dependent land use regression models to estimate BC and PM 1 exposure. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 793:148540. [PMID: 34171802 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.148540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2021] [Revised: 06/11/2021] [Accepted: 06/15/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Reliable estimation of exposure to black carbon (BC) and sub-micrometer particles (PM1) within a city is challenging because of limited monitoring data as well as the lack of models suitable for assessing the intra-urban environment. In this study, to estimate exposure levels in the inner-city area, we developed land use regression (LUR) models for BC and PM1 based on specially designed mobile monitoring surveys conducted in 2019 and 2020 for three seasons. The daytime and nighttime LUR models were developed separately to capture additional details on the variation in pollutants. The results of mobile monitoring indicated similar temporal variation characteristics of BC and PM1. The mean concentrations of pollutants were higher in winter (BC: 4.72 μg/m3; PM1: 56.97 μg/m3) than in fall (BC: 3.74 μg/m3; PM1: 33.29 μg/m3) and summer (BC: 2.77 μg/m3; PM1: 27.04 μg/m3). For both BC and PM1, higher nighttime concentrations were found in winter and fall, whereas higher daytime concentrations were observed in the summer. A supervised forward stepwise regression method was used to select the predictors for the LUR models. The adjusted R2 of the LUR models for BC and PM1 ranged from 0.39 to 0.66 and 0.45 to 0.80, respectively. Traffic-related predictors were incorporated into all the models for BC. In contrast, more meteorology-related predictors were incorporated into the PM1 models. The concentration surface based on the LUR models was mapped at a spatial resolution of 100 m, and significant seasonal and diurnal trends were observed. PM1 was dominated by seasonal variations, whereas BC showed more spatial variation. In conclusion, the development of season-dependent diurnal LUR models based on mobile monitoring could provide a methodology for the estimation of exposure and screening of influencing factors of BC and PM1 in typical inner-city environments, and support pollution management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiangyu Xu
- School of Energy and Environmental Engineering, University of Science and Technology of Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Ning Qin
- School of Energy and Environmental Engineering, University of Science and Technology of Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Ling Qi
- School of Energy and Environmental Engineering, University of Science and Technology of Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Bin Zou
- School of Geosciences and Info-Physics, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410083, China
| | - Suzhen Cao
- School of Energy and Environmental Engineering, University of Science and Technology of Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Kai Zhang
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University at Albany, State University of New York, Albany, NY 12144, USA
| | - Zhenchun Yang
- Global Health Research Center, Duke Kunshan University, Kunshan, Jiangsu Province 215316, China
| | - Yunwei Liu
- School of Energy and Environmental Engineering, University of Science and Technology of Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Yawei Zhang
- National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100021, China
| | - Xiaoli Duan
- School of Energy and Environmental Engineering, University of Science and Technology of Beijing, Beijing 100083, China.
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19
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Kirwa K, Szpiro AA, Sheppard L, Sampson PD, Wang M, Keller JP, Young MT, Kim SY, Larson TV, Kaufman JD. Fine-Scale Air Pollution Models for Epidemiologic Research: Insights From Approaches Developed in the Multi-ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis and Air Pollution (MESA Air). Curr Environ Health Rep 2021; 8:113-126. [PMID: 34086258 PMCID: PMC8278964 DOI: 10.1007/s40572-021-00310-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Epidemiological studies of short- and long-term health impacts of ambient air pollutants require accurate exposure estimates. We describe the evolution in exposure assessment and assignment in air pollution epidemiology, with a focus on spatiotemporal techniques first developed to meet the needs of the Multi-ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis and Air Pollution (MESA Air). Initially designed to capture the substantial variation in pollutant levels and potential health impacts that can occur over small spatial and temporal scales in metropolitan areas, these methods have now matured to permit fine-scale exposure characterization across the contiguous USA and can be used for understanding long- and short-term health effects of exposure across the lifespan. For context, we highlight how the MESA Air models compare to other available exposure models. RECENT FINDINGS Newer model-based exposure assessment techniques provide predictions of pollutant concentrations with fine spatial and temporal resolution. These validated models can predict concentrations of several pollutants, including particulate matter less than 2.5 μm in diameter (PM2.5), oxides of nitrogen, and ozone, at specific locations (such as at residential addresses) over short time intervals (such as 2 weeks) across the contiguous USA between 1980 and the present. Advances in statistical methods, incorporation of supplemental pollutant monitoring campaigns, improved geographic information systems, and integration of more complete satellite and chemical transport model outputs have contributed to the increasing validity and refined spatiotemporal spans of available models. Modern models for predicting levels of outdoor concentrations of air pollutants can explain a substantial amount of the spatiotemporal variation in observations and are being used to provide critical insights into effects of air pollutants on the prevalence, incidence, progression, and prognosis of diseases across the lifespan. Additional enhancements in model inputs and model design, such as incorporation of better traffic data, novel monitoring platforms, and deployment of machine learning techniques, will allow even further improvements in the performance of pollutant prediction models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kipruto Kirwa
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington School of Public Health, Seattle, WA, USA.
| | - Adam A Szpiro
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Washington School of Public Health, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Lianne Sheppard
- Departments of Biostatistics and Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington School of Public Health, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Paul D Sampson
- Department of Statistics, University of Washington School of Public Health, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Meng Wang
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington School of Public Health, Seattle, WA, USA
- Department of Epidemiology and Environmental Health, School of Public Health and Health Professions Research and Education in Energy, Environment and Water Institute, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - Joshua P Keller
- Department of Statistics, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Michael T Young
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington School of Public Health, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Sun-Young Kim
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington School of Public Health, Seattle, WA, USA
- Institute of Health and Environment, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Timothy V Larson
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Joel D Kaufman
- Departments of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, Epidemiology, and Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
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20
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Medgyesi DN, Fisher JA, Flory AR, Hayes RB, Thurston GD, Liao LM, Ward MH, Silverman DT, Jones RR. Evaluation of a commercial database to estimate residence histories in the los angeles ultrafines study. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2021; 197:110986. [PMID: 33689822 PMCID: PMC8187285 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2021.110986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 03/04/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Commercial databases can be used to identify participant addresses over time, but their quality and impact on environmental exposure assessment is uncertain. OBJECTIVE To evaluate the performance of a commercial database to find residences and estimate environmental exposures for study participants. METHODS We searched LexisNexis® for participant addresses in the Los Angeles Ultrafines Study, a prospective cohort of men and women aged 50-71 years. At enrollment (1995-1996) and follow-up (2004-2005), we evaluated attainment (address found for the corresponding time period) and match rates to survey addresses by participant characteristics. We compared geographically-referenced predictors and estimates of ultrafine particulate matter (UFP) exposure from a land use regression model using LexisNexis and survey addresses at enrollment. RESULTS LexisNexis identified an address for 69% of participants at enrollment (N = 50,320) and 95% of participants at follow-up (N = 24,432). Attainment rate at enrollment modestly differed (≥5%) by age, smoking status, education, and residential mobility between surveys. The match rate at both survey periods was high (82-86%) and similar across characteristics. When using LexisNexis versus survey addresses, correlations were high for continuous values of UFP exposure and its predictors (rho = 0.86-0.92). SIGNIFICANCE Time period and population characteristics influenced the attainment of addresses from a commercial database, but accuracy and subsequent estimation of specific air pollution exposures were high in our older study population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danielle N Medgyesi
- Occupational and Environmental Epidemiology Branch, Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States.
| | - Jared A Fisher
- Occupational and Environmental Epidemiology Branch, Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | | | - Richard B Hayes
- Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, United States; Department of Population Health, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, United States
| | - George D Thurston
- Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, United States; Department of Population Health, New York University School of Medicine, New York, NY, United States
| | - Linda M Liao
- Metabolic Epidemiology Branch, Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Mary H Ward
- Occupational and Environmental Epidemiology Branch, Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Debra T Silverman
- Occupational and Environmental Epidemiology Branch, Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Rena R Jones
- Occupational and Environmental Epidemiology Branch, Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
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21
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Peters R, Mudway I, Booth A, Peters J, Anstey KJ. Putting Fine Particulate Matter and Dementia in the Wider Context of Noncommunicable Disease: Where are We Now and What Should We Do Next: A Systematic Review. Neuroepidemiology 2021; 55:253-265. [PMID: 34062541 DOI: 10.1159/000515394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2020] [Accepted: 02/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION A significant proportion of the global population regularly experience air quality poorer than that recommended by the World Health Organization. Air pollution, especially fine particulate matter (PM2.5), is a risk factor for various noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) and is emerging as a risk factor for dementia. To begin to understand the full impact of PM2.5, we review the longitudinal epidemiological evidence linking PM2.5 to both dementia and to other leading NCDs and highlight the evidence gaps. Our objective was to systematically review the current epidemiological evidence for PM2.5 as a risk factor for cognitive decline and incident dementia and to put this in context with a systematic overview of PM2.5 as a potential risk factor in other leading NCDs. METHODS We performed 2 systematic reviews. A high-level review of reviews examining the relationship between PM2.5 and leading NCDs and an in-depth review of the longitudinal epidemiological data examining relationships between PM2.5 incident dementia and cognitive decline. RESULTS There were robust associations between PM2.5 and NCDs although in some cases the evidence was concentrated on short rather than longer term exposure. For those articles reporting on incident dementia, all reported on longer term exposure and 5 of the 7 eligible articles found PM2.5 to be associated with increased risk. CONCLUSION The evidence base for PM2.5 as a risk factor for dementia is growing. It is not yet as strong as that for other NCDs. However, varied measurement/methodology hampers clarity across the field. We propose next steps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth Peters
- School of Psychology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,Neuroscience Research Australia, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Ian Mudway
- MRC-PHE Centre for Environment and Health, NIHR Health Protection Research Unit in Environmental Exposures and Health, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew Booth
- School of Health and Related Research, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Jean Peters
- School of Health and Related Research, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Kaarin J Anstey
- School of Psychology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,Neuroscience Research Australia, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
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22
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Kwon HB, Song WY, Lee TH, Lee SS, Kim YJ. Monitoring the Effective Density of Airborne Nanoparticles in Real Time Using a Microfluidic Nanoparticle Analysis Chip. ACS Sens 2021; 6:137-147. [PMID: 33404228 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.0c01986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Determining the effective density of airborne nanoparticles (NPs; particles smaller than 100 nm in diameter) at a point of interest is essential for toxicology and environmental studies, but it currently requires complex analysis systems comprising several high-precision instruments as well as a specially trained operator. To address these limitations, a field-portable and cost-efficient microfluidic NP analysis device is presented, which provides quantitative information on the effective density and size distribution of NPs in real time. Unlike conventional analysis systems, the device can operate in a standalone mode because of the chip operating principle based on the electrostatic/inertial classification and electrical detection methods. Moreover, the device is both compact (16.0 × 10.9 × 8.6 cm3) and light (950 g) owing to the hardware strip down enabled by integrating the essential functions for effective density analysis on a single chip. Quantitative experiments performed to simulate real-life applications utilizing effective density (i.e., effective density-based morphology analysis on engineered NPs and multi-parametric NP monitoring in ambient air) demonstrate that the developed device can be used as an analysis tool in toxicological studies as an on-site sensor for the monitoring of individual NP exposure and environments, for quality monitoring of engineered NPs via aerosol synthesis, and other applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong-Beom Kwon
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, Republic of Korea
| | - Woo-Young Song
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, Republic of Korea
| | - Tae-Hoon Lee
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, Republic of Korea
| | - Seung-Soo Lee
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, Republic of Korea
| | - Yong-Jun Kim
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, Republic of Korea
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23
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van de Beek E, Kerckhoffs J, Hoek G, Sterk G, Meliefste K, Gehring U, Vermeulen R. Spatial and Spatiotemporal Variability of Regional Background Ultrafine Particle Concentrations in the Netherlands. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:1067-1075. [PMID: 33378199 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c0680610.1021/acs.est.0c06806.s001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Studies of the health effects of ultrafine particles (UFPs) in large nationwide cohorts are currently hampered by a lack of knowledge about spatial and spatiotemporal variations in regional background UFPs. We measured the UFP (10-300 nm) at 20 regional background locations (3 × 2 weeks) across the Netherlands and a reference site continuously over a total period of 14 months in 2016-2017. We compared the overall averages for each site and used kriging to create a regional background spatial map of the Netherlands. Spatiotemporal variability was analyzed by correlating time-series of 2 and 24 h average concentrations. The overall average measured UFP concentrations at the 20 locations ranged from 3814 to 7070 particles/cm3. We found the spatial correlation in the UFP concentrations up to 180 km and clear differences between the north and the more populated southern parts of the country. The average temporal correlation between 2 and 24 h average UFP concentrations was 0.50 (IQR: 0.36-0.61) and 0.58 (IQR: 0.44-0.75), respectively. Temporal correlation declined weakly with a distance between sites, from 0.58 for sites within 80 km of each other to 0.47 for sites farther away. The substantial spatial variation in the regional background UFP concentrations suggests that regional variation may contribute importantly to exposure contrast in nationwide health studies of UFP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther van de Beek
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Division of Environmental Epidemiology, Utrecht University, 3584 CK Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Jules Kerckhoffs
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Division of Environmental Epidemiology, Utrecht University, 3584 CK Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Gerard Hoek
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Division of Environmental Epidemiology, Utrecht University, 3584 CK Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Geert Sterk
- Department of Physical Geography, Utrecht University, 3508 TC Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Kees Meliefste
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Division of Environmental Epidemiology, Utrecht University, 3584 CK Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Ulrike Gehring
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Division of Environmental Epidemiology, Utrecht University, 3584 CK Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Roel Vermeulen
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Division of Environmental Epidemiology, Utrecht University, 3584 CK Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Julius Center for Health Sciences and Primary Care, University Medical Center, University of Utrecht, 3584 CK Utrecht, The Netherlands
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24
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van de Beek E, Kerckhoffs J, Hoek G, Sterk G, Meliefste K, Gehring U, Vermeulen R. Spatial and Spatiotemporal Variability of Regional Background Ultrafine Particle Concentrations in the Netherlands. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:1067-1075. [PMID: 33378199 PMCID: PMC7818655 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c06806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Studies of the health effects of ultrafine particles (UFPs) in large nationwide cohorts are currently hampered by a lack of knowledge about spatial and spatiotemporal variations in regional background UFPs. We measured the UFP (10-300 nm) at 20 regional background locations (3 × 2 weeks) across the Netherlands and a reference site continuously over a total period of 14 months in 2016-2017. We compared the overall averages for each site and used kriging to create a regional background spatial map of the Netherlands. Spatiotemporal variability was analyzed by correlating time-series of 2 and 24 h average concentrations. The overall average measured UFP concentrations at the 20 locations ranged from 3814 to 7070 particles/cm3. We found the spatial correlation in the UFP concentrations up to 180 km and clear differences between the north and the more populated southern parts of the country. The average temporal correlation between 2 and 24 h average UFP concentrations was 0.50 (IQR: 0.36-0.61) and 0.58 (IQR: 0.44-0.75), respectively. Temporal correlation declined weakly with a distance between sites, from 0.58 for sites within 80 km of each other to 0.47 for sites farther away. The substantial spatial variation in the regional background UFP concentrations suggests that regional variation may contribute importantly to exposure contrast in nationwide health studies of UFP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther van de Beek
- Institute
for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Division of Environmental Epidemiology, Utrecht University, 3584 CK Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Jules Kerckhoffs
- Institute
for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Division of Environmental Epidemiology, Utrecht University, 3584 CK Utrecht, The Netherlands
- E-mail:
| | - Gerard Hoek
- Institute
for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Division of Environmental Epidemiology, Utrecht University, 3584 CK Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Geert Sterk
- Department
of Physical Geography, Utrecht University, 3508 TC Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Kees Meliefste
- Institute
for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Division of Environmental Epidemiology, Utrecht University, 3584 CK Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Ulrike Gehring
- Institute
for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Division of Environmental Epidemiology, Utrecht University, 3584 CK Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Roel Vermeulen
- Institute
for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Division of Environmental Epidemiology, Utrecht University, 3584 CK Utrecht, The Netherlands
- Julius
Center for Health
Sciences and Primary Care, University Medical
Center, University of Utrecht, 3584 CK Utrecht, The Netherlands
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25
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Chen C, Liu S, Dong W, Song Y, Chu M, Xu J, Guo X, Zhao B, Deng F. Increasing cardiopulmonary effects of ultrafine particles at relatively low fine particle concentrations. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 751:141726. [PMID: 32889464 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.141726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2020] [Revised: 08/10/2020] [Accepted: 08/14/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Ultrafine particles (UFPs) are of concern because of their high pulmonary deposition efficiency. However, present control measures are generally targeted at fine particles (PM2.5), with little effect on UFPs. The health effects of UFPs at different PM2.5 concentrations may provide a basic for controlling UFPs but remain unclear in polluted areas. School children spend the majority of their time in the classrooms. This study investigated the different short-term effects of indoor UFPs on school children in Beijing, China when indoor PM2.5 concentrations exceeded or satisfied the recently published Chinese standard for indoor PM2.5. Cardiopulmonary functions of 48 school children, of whom 46 completed, were measured three times. Indoor PM2.5 and UFPs were monitored in classrooms on weekdays. Measurements were separated into two groups according to the abovementioned standard. Mixed-effect models were used to explore the health effects of the air pollutants. Generally, UFP-associated effects on children's cardiopulmonary function persisted even at relatively low PM2.5 concentrations, especially on heart rate variability indices. The risks associated with high PM2.5 concentrations are well-known, but the effects of UFPs on children's cardiopulmonary function deserve more attention even when PM2.5 has been controlled. UFP control and standard setting should therefore be considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen Chen
- Department of Building Science, School of Architecture, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Shan Liu
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Wei Dong
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Yi Song
- Institute of Child and Adolescent Health, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Mengtian Chu
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Junhui Xu
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Xinbiao Guo
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Bin Zhao
- Department of Building Science, School of Architecture, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; Beijing Key Laboratory of Indoor Air Quality Evaluation and Control, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China.
| | - Furong Deng
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China.
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26
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Kuittinen N, Jalkanen JP, Alanen J, Ntziachristos L, Hannuniemi H, Johansson L, Karjalainen P, Saukko E, Isotalo M, Aakko-Saksa P, Lehtoranta K, Keskinen J, Simonen P, Saarikoski S, Asmi E, Laurila T, Hillamo R, Mylläri F, Lihavainen H, Timonen H, Rönkkö T. Shipping Remains a Globally Significant Source of Anthropogenic PN Emissions Even after 2020 Sulfur Regulation. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:129-138. [PMID: 33290058 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c03627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Shipping is the main source of anthropogenic particle emissions in large areas of the globe, influencing climate, air quality, and human health in open seas and coast lines. Here, we determined, by laboratory and on-board measurements of ship engine exhaust, fuel-specific particle number (PN) emissions for different fuels and desulfurization applied in shipping. The emission factors were compared to ship exhaust plume observations and, furthermore, exploited in the assessment of global PN emissions from shipping, utilizing the STEAM ship emission model. The results indicate that most particles in the fresh ship engine exhaust are in ultrafine particle size range. Shipping PN emissions are localized, especially close to coastal lines, but significant emissions also exist on open seas and oceans. The global annual PN produced by marine shipping was 1.2 × 1028 (±0.34 × 1028) particles in 2016, thus being of the same magnitude with total anthropogenic PN emissions in continental areas. The reduction potential of PN from shipping strongly depends on the adopted technology mix, and except wide adoption of natural gas or scrubbers, no significant decrease in global PN is expected if heavy fuel oil is mainly replaced by low sulfur residual fuels. The results imply that shipping remains as a significant source of anthropogenic PN emissions that should be considered in future climate and health impact models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niina Kuittinen
- Aerosol Physics Laboratory, Physics Unit, Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Tampere University, FI-33014 Tampere, Finland
| | - Jukka-Pekka Jalkanen
- Atmospheric Composition Research, Finnish Meteorological Institute, P.O. Box 503, 00101 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jenni Alanen
- Aerosol Physics Laboratory, Physics Unit, Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Tampere University, FI-33014 Tampere, Finland
| | - Leonidas Ntziachristos
- Aerosol Physics Laboratory, Physics Unit, Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Tampere University, FI-33014 Tampere, Finland
| | - Hanna Hannuniemi
- Atmospheric Composition Research, Finnish Meteorological Institute, P.O. Box 503, 00101 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Lasse Johansson
- Atmospheric Composition Research, Finnish Meteorological Institute, P.O. Box 503, 00101 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Panu Karjalainen
- Aerosol Physics Laboratory, Physics Unit, Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Tampere University, FI-33014 Tampere, Finland
| | - Erkka Saukko
- Aerosol Physics Laboratory, Physics Unit, Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Tampere University, FI-33014 Tampere, Finland
| | - Mia Isotalo
- Aerosol Physics Laboratory, Physics Unit, Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Tampere University, FI-33014 Tampere, Finland
| | - Päivi Aakko-Saksa
- VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd., P.O. Box 1000, 02044 VTT Espoo, Finland
| | - Kati Lehtoranta
- VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd., P.O. Box 1000, 02044 VTT Espoo, Finland
| | - Jorma Keskinen
- Aerosol Physics Laboratory, Physics Unit, Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Tampere University, FI-33014 Tampere, Finland
| | - Pauli Simonen
- Aerosol Physics Laboratory, Physics Unit, Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Tampere University, FI-33014 Tampere, Finland
| | - Sanna Saarikoski
- Atmospheric Composition Research, Finnish Meteorological Institute, P.O. Box 503, 00101 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Eija Asmi
- Atmospheric Composition Research, Finnish Meteorological Institute, P.O. Box 503, 00101 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Tuomas Laurila
- Atmospheric Composition Research, Finnish Meteorological Institute, P.O. Box 503, 00101 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Risto Hillamo
- Atmospheric Composition Research, Finnish Meteorological Institute, P.O. Box 503, 00101 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Fanni Mylläri
- Aerosol Physics Laboratory, Physics Unit, Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Tampere University, FI-33014 Tampere, Finland
| | - Heikki Lihavainen
- Atmospheric Composition Research, Finnish Meteorological Institute, P.O. Box 503, 00101 Helsinki, Finland
- Svalbard Integrated Arctic Earth Observing System, P.O. Box 156, 9171 Longyearbyen, Norway
| | - Hilkka Timonen
- Atmospheric Composition Research, Finnish Meteorological Institute, P.O. Box 503, 00101 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Topi Rönkkö
- Aerosol Physics Laboratory, Physics Unit, Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Tampere University, FI-33014 Tampere, Finland
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Xu X, Qin N, Yang Z, Liu Y, Cao S, Zou B, Jin L, Zhang Y, Duan X. Potential for developing independent daytime/nighttime LUR models based on short-term mobile monitoring to improve model performance. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2021; 268:115951. [PMID: 33162219 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.115951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2020] [Revised: 10/10/2020] [Accepted: 10/27/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Land use regression model (LUR) is a widespread method for predicting air pollution exposure. Few studies have explored the performance of independently developed daytime/nighttime LUR models. In this study, fine particulate matter (PM2.5), inhalable particulate matter (PM10), and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) concentrations were measured by mobile monitoring during non-heating and heating seasons in Taiyuan. Pollutant concentrations were higher in the nighttime than the daytime, and higher in the heating season than the non-heating season. Daytime/nighttime and full-day LUR models were developed and validated for each pollutant to examine variations in model performance. Adjusted coefficients of determination (adjusted R2) for the LUR models ranged from 0.53-0.87 (PM2.5), 0.53-0.85 (PM10), and 0.33-0.67 (NO2). The performance of the daytime/nighttime LUR models for PM2.5 and PM10 was better than that of the full-day models according to the results of model adjusted R2 and validation R2. Consistent results were confirmed in the non-heating and heating seasons. Effectiveness of developing independent daytime/nighttime models for NO2 to improve performance was limited. Surfaces based on the daytime/nighttime models revealed variations in concentrations and spatial distribution. In conclusion, the independent development of daytime/nighttime LUR models for PM2.5/PM10 has the potential to replace full-day models for better model performance. The modeling strategy is consistent with the residential activity patterns and contributes to achieving reliable exposure predictions for PM2.5 and PM10. Nighttime could be a critical exposure period, due to high pollutant concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiangyu Xu
- School of Energy and Environmental Engineering, University of Science and Technology of Beijing, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Ning Qin
- School of Energy and Environmental Engineering, University of Science and Technology of Beijing, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Zhenchun Yang
- MRC Centre for Environment and Health, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, St Mary's Campus, London, United Kingdom
| | - Yunwei Liu
- School of Energy and Environmental Engineering, University of Science and Technology of Beijing, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Suzhen Cao
- School of Energy and Environmental Engineering, University of Science and Technology of Beijing, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Bin Zou
- School of Geosciences and Info-Physics, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, 410083, China
| | - Lan Jin
- Department of Surgery, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA
| | - Yawei Zhang
- Department of Surgery, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA; Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT, 06510, USA
| | - Xiaoli Duan
- School of Energy and Environmental Engineering, University of Science and Technology of Beijing, Beijing, 100083, China.
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Hong KY, Pinheiro PO, Weichenthal S. Predicting outdoor ultrafine particle number concentrations, particle size, and noise using street-level images and audio data. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2020; 144:106044. [PMID: 32805577 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2020.106044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2020] [Revised: 08/02/2020] [Accepted: 08/05/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Outdoor ultrafine particles (UFPs) (<0.1 µm) may have an important impact on public health but exposure assessment remains a challenge in epidemiological studies. We developed a novel method of estimating spatiotemporal variations in outdoor UFP number concentrations and particle diameters using street-level images and audio data in Montreal, Canada. As a secondary aim, we also developed models for noise. Convolutional neural networks were first trained to predict 10-second average UFP/noise parameters using a large database of images and audio spectrogram data paired with measurements collected between April 2019 and February 2020. Final multivariable linear regression and generalized additive models were developed to predict 5-minute average UFP/noise parameters including covariates from deep learning models based on image and audio data along with outdoor temperature and wind speed. The best performing final models had mean cross-validation R2 values of 0.677 and 0.523 for UFP number concentrations and 0.825 and 0.735 for UFP size using two different test sets. Audio predictions from deep learning models were stronger predictors of spatiotemporal variations in UFP parameters than predictions based on street-level images; this was not explained only by noise levels captured in the audio signal. All final noise models had R2 values above 0.90. Collectively, our findings suggest that street-level images and audio data can be used to estimate spatiotemporal variations in outdoor UFPs and noise. This approach may be useful in developing exposure models over broad spatial scales and such models can be regularly updated to expand generalizability as more measurements become available.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kris Y Hong
- McGill University, Department of Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Occupational Health, Montreal, QC H3A 1A3, Canada; Element AI, 6650 Saint Urbain, Suite #500, Montreal, QC H2S 3G9, Canada
| | - Pedro O Pinheiro
- Element AI, 6650 Saint Urbain, Suite #500, Montreal, QC H2S 3G9, Canada
| | - Scott Weichenthal
- McGill University, Department of Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Occupational Health, Montreal, QC H3A 1A3, Canada.
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29
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Yang Z, Freni-Sterrantino A, Fuller GW, Gulliver J. Development and transferability of ultrafine particle land use regression models in London. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 740:140059. [PMID: 32927570 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2020] [Revised: 05/06/2020] [Accepted: 06/05/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Due to a lack of routine monitoring, bespoke measurements are required to develop ultrafine particle (UFP) land use regression (LUR) models, which is especially challenging in megacities due to their large area. As an alternative, for London, we developed separate models for three urban residential areas, models combining two areas, and models using all three areas. Models were developed against annual mean ultrafine particle count cm-3 estimated from repeated 30-min fixed-site measurements, in different seasons (2016-2018), at forty sites per area, that were subsequently temporally adjusted using continuous measurements from a single reference site within or close to each area. A single model and 10 models were developed for each individual area and combination of areas. Within each area, sites were split into 10 groups using stratified random sampling. Each of the 10 models were developed using 90% of sites. Hold-out validation was performed by pooling the 10% of sites held-out each time. The transferability of models was tested by applying individual and two-area models to external area(s). In model evaluation, within-area mean squared error (MSE) R2 ranged from 14% to 48%. Transferring individual- and combined-area models to external areas without calibration yielded MSE-R2 ranging from -18 to 0. MSE-R2 was in the range 21% to 41% when using particle number count (PNC) measurements in external areas to calibrate models. Our results suggest that the UFP models could be transferred to other areas without calibration in London to assess relative ranking in exposures but not for estimating absolute values of PNC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenchun Yang
- MRC Centre for Environment and Health, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, St Mary's Campus, London, United Kingdom..
| | - Anna Freni-Sterrantino
- MRC Centre for Environment and Health, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, St Mary's Campus, London, United Kingdom
| | - Gary W Fuller
- MRC Centre for Environment and Health, School of Population Health & Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences & Medicine, King's College London, United Kingdom
| | - John Gulliver
- MRC Centre for Environment and Health, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, St Mary's Campus, London, United Kingdom.; Centre for Environmental Health and Sustainability & School of Geography, Geology and the Environment, University of Leicester, Leicester, United Kingdom
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