Environmental side effects of the injudicious use of antimicrobials in the era of COVID-19

Effects of reduced graphene oxide nanomaterials on transformation of 14C-triclosan in soils

Increasing use and release of graphene nanomaterials and pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) in soil environment have polluted the environment and posed high ecological risks. However, little is understood about the interactive effects and mechanism of graphene on the behaviors of PPCPs in soil. In the present study, the effects of reduced graphene oxide nanomaterials (RGO) on the fate of triclosan in two typical soils (S1: silty loam; S2: silty clay loam) were investigated with 14C-triclosan, high-resolution mass spectrometry, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), density functional theory (DFT) calculations, and microbial community structure analysis. The results showed that RGO prolonged the half-life of triclosan by 23.6-51.3 %, but delayed the formation of transformed products such as methyl triclosan and dechlorinated dimer of triclosan in the two typical soils. Mineralization of triclosan to 14CO2 was inhibited by 48.2-79.3 % in 500 mg kg-1 RGO in comparison with that in the control, whereas the bound residue was 54.2-56.4 % greater than the control. RGO also reduced the relative abundances of triclosan-degrading bacteria (Pseudomonas and Sphingomonas) in soils. Compared to silty loam, RGO more effectively inhibited triclosan degradation in silty clay loam. Furthermore, the DFT calculations suggested a strong association of the adsorption of triclosan on RGO with the van der Waals forces and π-π interactions. These results revealed that RGO inhibited the transformation of 14C-triclosan in soil through strong adsorption and triclosan-degrading bacteria inhibition in soils. Therefore, the presence of RGO may potentially enhance persistence of triclosan in soil. Overall, our study provides valuable insights into the risk assessment of triclosan in the presence of GNs in soil environment.

Co-exposure of parabens, benzophenones, triclosan, and triclocarban in human urine from children and adults in South China

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are pervasive in the environment, prompting significant public concern regarding human exposure to these pollutants. In this study, we analyzed the levels of various endocrine-disrupting compounds, including parabens (PBs), benzophenones (BzPs), triclocarban (TCC) and triclosan (TCS), across 565 urine samples collected from residents of South China. All 11 target chemicals were detected at relatively high frequencies (41-100%), with the most prevalent ones being 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid (5.39 ng/mL), methyl-paraben (5.12 ng/mL), ethyl-paraben (3.11 ng/mL) and triclosan (0.978 ng/mL). PBs emerged as the most predominant group with a median concentration of 32.2 ng/mL, followed by TCs (sum of TCC and TCS, 0.998 ng/mL) and BzPs (0.211 ng/mL). Notably, urinary concentrations of PBs in adults were significantly higher (p < 0.01) compared to children, while BzPs and TCs were elevated in children (p < 0.001). The increased presence of BzPs and TCs in children is a cause for concern, given their heightened sensitivity and vulnerability to chemicals. Significant correlations were found between urinary target compounds and demographic factors, including gender, age and body mass index. Specifically, females, younger adults (18 ≤ age ≤ 35) and individuals with under/normal weight (16 ≤ BMI ≤ 23.9) were found to have higher exposure levels to EDCs, as indicated by the median values of their estimated daily intakes. Despite these higher levels still being lower than the acceptable daily intake thresholds, the health risks stemming from simultaneous exposure to these EDCs must not be overlooked.

Pre-exposure of Triclosan compromise tetracycline-derived antibiotic resistance in methanogenic digestion microbiome

Triclosan (TCS) and tetracycline (TC) are commonly detected antibacterial agents in sewage and environment matrices. Nonetheless, the impact of sequential exposure to TCS and TC on the methanogenic digestion microbiome remains unknown. In this study, TCS was shown to reduce COD removal efficiency to 69.8%, but alleviated the inhibitive effect of consequent TC-amendment on the digestion microbiome. Interestingly, TCS pre-exposure resulted in abundance increase of acetotrophic Methanosaeta to 2.68%, being 2.91 folds higher than that without TCS amendment. Microbial network analyses showed that TCS pre-exposure caused microorganisms to establish a co-ecological relationship against TC disturbance. Further analyses of total antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) showed the TCS-derived compromise of TC-induced ARGs enrichment in digestion microbiomes, e.g., 238.2% and 152.1% ARGs increase upon TC addition in digestion microbiomes without and with TCS pre-exposure, respectively. This study provides new insights into the impact of antibacterial agents on the methanogenic digestion microbiome.

Characterization of Coinfections in Patients with COVID-19

Background

Little is known about coinfections in patients with COVID-19, with antibiotics often initiated empirically.

Objectives

To determine the rates and characteristics of early and late coinfections in COVID-19 patients and to characterize the use of anti-infective agents, especially antibiotics.

Methods

This retrospective chart review involved patients with COVID-19 who were admitted to Lions Gate Hospital (Vancouver, British Columbia) between January 1 and June 30, 2020. Data were extracted from electronic medical records, and descriptive statistics were used to analyze the data.

Results

Of the 48 patients admitted during the study period, 10 (21%) were determined to have coinfections: 3 (6%) had early coinfections and 7 (15%) had late coinfections. Early empiric use of antibiotics was observed in 32 (67%) patients; for 29 (91%) of these 32 patients, the therapy was deemed inappropriate. Patients with coinfections had longer hospital stays and more complications.

Conclusions

Despite low rates of early coinfection, empiric antibiotics were started for a majority of the patients. Most late coinfections occurred in patients in the intensive care unit who required mechanical ventilation. Patients with coinfections had poorer outcomes than those without coinfections.

Tracing COVID-19 drugs in the environment: Are we focusing on the right environmental compartment?

The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic led to over 770 million confirmed cases, straining public healthcare systems and necessitating extensive and prolonged use of synthetic chemical drugs around the globe for medical treatment and symptom relief. Concerns have arisen regarding the massive release of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) and their metabolites into the environment, particularly through domestic sewage. While discussions surrounding this issue have primarily centered on their discharge into aquatic environments, particularly through treated effluent from municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), one often overlooked aspect is the terrestrial environment as a significant receptor of pharmaceutical-laden waste. This occurs through the disposal of sewage sludge, for instance, by applying biosolids to land or non-compliant disposal of sewage sludge, in addition to the routine disposal of expired and unused medications in municipal solid wastes. In this article, we surveyed sixteen approved pharmaceuticals for treating COVID-19 and bacterial co-infections, along with their primary metabolites. For this, we delved into their physiochemical properties, ecological toxicities, environmental persistence, and fate within municipal WWTPs. Emphasis was given on lipophilic substances with log Kow >3.0, which are more likely to be found in sewage sludge at significant factions (25.2%-75.0%) of their inputs in raw sewage and subsequently enter the terrestrial environment through land application of biosolids, e.g., 43% in the United States and as high as 96% in Ireland or non-compliant practices of sewage sludge disposal in developing communities, such as open dumping and land application without prior anaerobic digestion. The available evidence underscores the importance of adequately treating and disposing of sewage sludge before its final disposal or land application in an epidemic or pandemic scenario, as mismanaged sewage sludge could be a significant vector for releasing pharmaceutical compounds and their metabolites into the terrestrial environment.

Eco-friendly monitoring of triclosan as an emerging antimicrobial environmental contaminant utilizing electrochemical sensors modified with CNTs nanocomposite transducer layer

Environmental appearance of antimicrobials due to frequent use of personal care products as recommended by WHO can cause serious flare-up of antimicrobial resistance. In this work, three eco-friendly microfabricated copper solid-state sensors were developed for measuring triclosan in water. Multi-walled carbon nanotubes were incorporated in sensor 2 and 3 as hydrophobic conductive inner layer. Meanwhile, β-cyclodextrin was incorporated in sensor 3 as an ionophore for selective binding of TCS in presence of interfering compounds. The obtained linear responses of sensors 1, 2 and 3 were (1 × 10- 8-1 × 10- 3 M), (1 × 10- 9-1 × 10- 3 M) and (1 × 10- 10- 1 × 10- 3 M), respectively. Limit of detection was 9.87 × 10- 9 M, 9.62 × 10- 10 M, and 9.94 × 10- 11 M, respectively. The miniaturized sensors were utilized for monitoring of triclosan in water samples.

Interactions between sulfonamide homologues and glycosyltransferase induced metabolic disorders in rice (Oryza sativa L.)

Sulfadiazine and its derivatives (sulfonamides, SAs) could induce distinct biotoxic, metabolic and physiological abnormalities, potentially due to their subtle structural differences. This study conducted an in-depth investigation on the interactions between SA homologues, i.e. sulfadiazine (SD), sulfamerazine (SD1), and sulfamethazine (SD2), and the key metabolic enzyme (glycosyltransferase, GT) in rice (Oryza sativa L.). Untargeted screening of SA metabolites revealed that GT-catalyzed glycosylation was the primary transformation pathway of SAs in rice. Molecular docking identified that the binding sites of SAs on GT (D0TZD6) were responsible for transferring sugar moiety to synthesize polysaccharides and detoxify SAs. Specifically, amino acids in the GT-binding cavity (e.g., GLY487 and CYS486) formed stable hydrogen bonds with SAs (e.g., the sulfonamide group of SD). Molecular dynamics simulations revealed that SAs induced conformational changes in GT ligand binding domain, which was supported by the significantly decreased GT activity and gene expression level. As evidenced by proteomics and metabolomics, SAs inhibited the transfer and synthesis of sugar but stimulated sugar decomposition in rice leaves, leading to the accumulation of mono- and disaccharides in rice leaves. While the differences in the increased sugar content by SD (24.3%, compared with control), SD1 (11.1%), and SD2 (6.24%) can be attributed to their number of methyl groups (0, 1, 2, respectively), which determined the steric hindrance and hydrogen bonds formation with GT. This study suggested that the disturbances on crop sugar metabolism by homologues contaminants are determined by the interaction between the contaminants and the target enzyme, and are greatly dependent on the steric hindrance effects contributed by their side chains. The results are of importance to identify priority pollutants and ensure crop quality in contaminated fields.

Identifying biodegradation pathways of cetrimonium bromide (CTAB) using metagenome, metatranscriptome, and metabolome tri-omics integration

Traditional research on biodegradation of emerging organic pollutants involves slow and labor-intensive experimentation. Currently, fast-developing metagenome, metatranscriptome, and metabolome technologies promise to expedite mechanistic research on biodegradation of emerging organic pollutants. Integrating the metagenome, metatranscriptome, and metabolome (i.e., tri-omics) makes it possible to link gene abundance and expression with the biotransformation of the contaminant and the formation of metabolites from this biotransformation. In this study, we used this tri-omics approach to study the biotransformation pathways for cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) under aerobic conditions. The tri-omics analysis showed that CTAB undergoes three parallel first-step mono-/di-oxygenations (to the α, β, and ω-carbons); intermediate metabolites and expressed enzymes were identified for all three pathways, and the β-carbon mono-/di-oxygenation is a novel pathway; and the genes related to CTAB biodegradation were associated with Pseudomonas spp. Four metabolites - palmitic acid, trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO), myristic acid, and betaine - were the key identified biodegradation intermediates of CTAB, and they were associated with first-step mono-/di-oxygenations at the α/β-C. This tri-omics approach with CTAB demonstrates its power for identifying promising paths for future research on the biodegradation of complex organics by microbial communities.

Biological treatment of triclosan using a novel strain of Enterobacter cloacae and introducing naphthalene dioxygenase as an effective enzyme

In recent years, triclosan (TCS) has been widely used as an antibacterial agent in personal care products due to the spread of the Coronavirus. TSC is an emerging contaminant, and due to its stability and toxicity, it cannot be completely degraded through traditional wastewater treatment methods. In this study, a novel strain of Enterobacter cloacae was isolated and identified that can grow in high TCS concentrations. Also, we introduced naphthalene dioxygenase as an effective enzyme in TCS biodegradation, and its role during the removal process was investigated along with the laccase enzyme. The change of cell surface hydrophobicity during TCS removal revealed that a glycolipid biosurfactant called rhamnolipid was involved in TCS removal, leading to enhanced biodegradation of TCS. The independent variables, such as initial TCS concentration, pH, removal duration, and temperature, were optimized using the response surface method (RSM). As a result, the maximum TCS removal (97%) was detected at a pH value of 7 and a temperature of 32 °C after 9 days and 12 h of treatment. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS) analysis showed five intermediate products and a newly proposed pathway for TCS degradation. Finally, the phytotoxicity experiment conducted on Cucumis sativus and Lens culinaris seeds demonstrated an increase in germination power and growth of stems and roots in comparison to untreated water. These results indicate that the final treated water was less toxic.

Differential immunotoxicity effects of triclosan and triclocarban on larval zebrafish based on RNA-Seq and bioinformatics analysis

Herein, we demonstrated that sublethal-dose exposure to triclosan (TCS) and triclocarban (TCC) triggered larval zebrafish immunotoxicity. Acute exposure to TCS induced significant increases in larval neutrophils and macrophages and a prominent decrease in thymic T cells. In contrast, three kinds of cells (neutrophils, macrophages, and thymic T cells) were significantly reduced under TCC exposure, suggesting that both TCS and TCC suppress thymus development and mature T-cell differentiation. TCC was confirmed to have more severe immunotoxicity than TCS. Using Illumina RNA-Seq, 581 and 738 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified in the TCS and TCC treatments, respectively. GO function and KEGG pathway enrichment analyses revealed that the DEGs were not identical in terms of biological processes, cellular components and molecular functions, but were primarily involved in immune response. KEGG analysis showed that approximately 47% and 11% of DEGs were mainly enriched in the immune system of the TCC and TCS treatments, respectively. Protein-protein interaction (PPI) network analysis confirmed that the hub genes enriched in the immune-related pathways differed between TCS and TCC exposure. The hub genes were fynb, mapk12b, scarb1, pik3r2, prkg3, srfa, arhgef2, cldn15la, and cldn15lb in the TCS treatment, and plg, serping1, masp2, fgg, vtnb, mmp9, serpine1, il1b, sb:cb37 and stat3 in the TCC treatment. Molecular docking simulation demonstrated that both TCS and TCC were stably docked with their target hub genes, and that their target molecules for inducing immunotoxicity were different. The differential target molecules and action pathways induced by TCS and TCC exposure provide us with diagnostic targets and toxicological endpoints.

A mega study of antibiotics contamination in Eastern aquatic ecosystems of China: occurrence, interphase transfer processes, ecotoxicological risks, and source modeling

Understanding the occurrence, sources, transfer mechanisms, fugacity, and ecotoxicological risks of antibiotics play a pivotal role in improving the sustainability and ecological health of freshwater ecosystems. Therefore, in order to determine the levels of antibiotics, water and sediment samples were collected from multiple Eastern freshwater ecosystems (EFEs) of China, including Luoma Lake (LML), Yuqiao Reservoir (YQR), Songhua Lake (SHL), Dahuofang Reservoir (DHR), and Xiaoxingkai Lake (XKL), and were analyzed using Ultra Performance Liquid Chromatography/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS). EFEs regions are particularly interesting due to higher urban density, industrialization, and diverse land use in China. The findings revealed that a collective total of 15 antibiotics categorized into four families, which included sulfonamides (SAs), fluoroquinolones (FQs), tetracyclines (TCs), and macrolides (MLs), exhibited high detection frequencies, indicating widespread antibiotic contamination. The pollution levels in the water phase were in the order of LML > DHR > XKL > SHL > YQR. The sum concentration of individual antibiotics for each water body ranged from not detected (ND) to 57.48 ng/L (LML), ND to 12.25 ng/L (YQR), ND to 57.7 ng/L (SHL), ND to 40.50 ng/L (DHR), and ND to 26.30 ng/L (XKL) in the water phase. Similarly, in the sediment phase, the sum concentration of individual antibiotics ranged from ND to 15.35 ng/g, ND to 198.75 ng/g, ND to 1233.34 ng/g, ND to 388.44 ng/g, and ND to 862.19 ng/g, for LML, YQR, SHL, DHR, and XKL, respectively. Interphase fugacity (ff_sw) and partition coefficient (K_d) indicated dominant resuspension of antibiotics from sediment to water, causing secondary pollution in EFEs. Two groups of antibiotics, namely MLs (erythromycin, azithromycin, and roxithromycin) and FQs (ofloxacin and enrofloxacin), showed a medium-high level of adsorption tendency on sediment. Source modeling (PMF5.0) identified wastewater treatment plants, sewage, hospitals, aquaculture, and agriculture as the major antibiotic pollution sources in EFEs, contributing between 6% and 80% to different aquatic bodies. Finally, the ecological risk posed by antibiotics ranged from medium to high in EFEs. This study offers valuable insights into the levels, transfer mechanisms, and risks associated with antibiotics in EFEs, enabling the formulation of large-scale policies for pollution control.

Facile approach for nanoconfinement of multilayer graphene oxide with polyether polyurethane sponge as biological carrier for the establishment of microalgal-bacterial bioreactor

Physically precise and mechanically robust biocarrier is basic and urgent requirement of algal-bacterial wastewater treatment plants for homogenously biofilm growth. Herein, a highly efficient graphene oxide (GO) coordinated polyether polyurethane (PP) sponge was synthesized through GO incorporation into PP sponge to improve the GO coating, followed by UV-light treatment for industrial application. The resulted sponge showed remarkable physiochemical characteristics, excellent thermal (>0.02 Wm^-1 K^-1) and mechanical (>363.3 KPa) stability. To test the potential of sponge in real world scenarios, the activated sludge from real wastewater treatment plant was utilized. Interestingly, the GO-PP sponge enhanced the electron transfer between microorganisms and promoted the standardized microorganism's growth and biofilm formation (22.7 mg/d per gram sponge, 172.1 mg/g), providing the feasibility to accomplish a symbiotic system within specifically design upgraded algal-bacterial reactor. Furthermore, the continuous flow process by utilizing GO-PP sponge in algal-bacterial reactor demonstrated the effectiveness in treating low concentration antibiotic wastewater, presenting 86.7 % removal rate and >85 % after 20 cycles. Overall, this work illustrates an applicable strategy to develop a sophisticated modified pathway for the next-generation biological-based applications.

Comprehensive micropollutant characterization of wastewater during Covid-19 crisis in 2020: Suspect screening and environmental risk prioritization strategy

Micropollutants monitoring in wastewater can serve as a picture of what is consuming society and how it can impact the aquatic environment. In this work, a suspect screening approach was used to detect the known and unknown contaminants in wastewater samples collected from two wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) located in the Basque Country (Crispijana in Alava, and Galindo in Vizcaya) during two weekly sampling campaigns, which included the months from April to July 2020, part of the confinement period caused by COVID-19. To that aim, high-resolution mass spectrometry was used to collect full-scan data-dependent tandem mass spectra from the water samples using a suspect database containing >40,000 chemical substances. The presence of > 80 contaminants was confirmed (level 1) and quantified in both WWTP samples, while at least 47 compounds were tentatively identified (2a). Among the contaminants of concern, an increase in the occurrence of some compounds used for COVID-19 disease treatment, such as lopinavir and hydroxychloroquine, was observed during the lockdown. A prioritization strategy for environmental risk assessment was carried out considering only the compounds quantified in the effluents of Crispijana and Galindo WWTPs. The compounds were scored based on the removal efficiency, estimated persistency, bioconcentration factor, mobility, toxicity potential and frequency of detection in the samples. With this approach, 33 compounds (e.g. amantadine, clozapine or lopinavir) were found to be considered key contaminants in the analyzed samples based on their concentration, occurrence and potential toxicity. Additionally, antimicrobial (RQ-AR) and antiviral (EDRP) risk of certain compounds was evaluated, where ciprofloxacin and fluconazole represented medium risk for antibiotic resistance (1 > RQ-AR > 0.1) in the aquatic ecosystems. Regarding mixture toxicity, the computed sum of toxic unit values of the different effluents (> 1) suggest that interactions between the compounds need to be considered for future environmental risk assessments.

A holistic review on triclosan and triclocarban exposure: Epidemiological outcomes, antibiotic resistance, and health risk assessment

Triclosan (TCS) and triclocarban (TCC) are antimicrobials that are widely applied in personal care products, textiles, and plastics. TCS and TCC exposure at low doses may disturb hormone levels and even facilitate bacterial resistance to antibiotics. In the post-coronavirus disease pandemic era, chronic health effects and the spread of antibiotic resistance genes associated with TCS and TCC exposure represent an increasing concern. This study sought to screen and review the exposure levels and sources and changes after the onset of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, potential health outcomes, bacterial resistance and cross-resistance, and health risk assessment tools associated with TCS and TCC exposure. Daily use of antimicrobial products accounts for most observed associations between internal exposure and diseases, while secondary exposure at trace levels mainly lead to the spread of antibiotic resistance genes. The roles of altered gut microbiota in multi-system toxicities warrant further attention. Sublethal dose of TCC selects ARGs without obviously increasing tolerance to TCC. But TCS induce persistent TCS resistance and reversibly select antibiotic resistance, which highlights the benefits of minimizing its use. To derive reference doses (RfDs) for humans, more sensitive endpoints observed in populational studies need to be confirmed using toxicological tests. Additionally, the human equivalent dose is recommended to be incorporated into the health risk assessment to reduce uncertainty of extrapolation.

Triclosan and related compounds in the environment: Recent updates on sources, fates, distribution, analytical extraction, analysis, and removal techniques

Triclosan (TCS) has been widely used in daily life because of its broad-spectrum antibacterial activities. The residue of TCS and related compounds in the environment is one of the critical environmental safety problems, and the pandemic of COVID-19 aggravates the accumulation of TCS and related compounds in the environment. Therefore, detecting TCS and related compound residues in the environment is of great significance to human health and environmental safety. The distribution of TCS and related compounds are slightly different worldwide, and the removal methods also have advantages and disadvantages. This paper summarized the research progress on the source, distribution, degradation, analytical extraction, detection, and removal techniques of TCS and related compounds in different environmental samples. The commonly used analytical extraction methods for TCS and related compounds include solid-phase extraction, liquid-liquid extraction, solid-phase microextraction, liquid-phase microextraction, and so on. The determination methods include liquid chromatography coupled with different detectors, gas chromatography and related methods, sensors, electrochemical method, capillary electrophoresis. The removal techniques in various environmental samples mainly include biodegradation, advanced oxidation, and adsorption methods. Besides, both the pros and cons of different techniques have been compared and summarized, and the development and prospect of each technique have been given.

Recent advances in the biological treatment of wastewater rich in emerging pollutants produced by pharmaceutical industrial discharges

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products present potential risks to human health and the environment. In particular, wastewater treatment plants often detect emerging pollutants that disrupt biological treatment. The activated sludge process is a traditional biological method with a lower capital cost and limited operating requirements than more advanced treatment methods. In addition, the membrane bioreactor combines a membrane module and a bioreactor, widely used as an advanced method for treating pharmaceutical wastewater with good pollution performance. Indeed, the fouling of the membrane remains a major problem in this process. In addition, anaerobic membrane bioreactors can treat complex pharmaceutical waste while recovering energy and producing nutrient-rich wastewater for irrigation. Wastewater characterizations have shown that wastewater's high organic matter content facilitates the selection of low-cost, low-nutrient, low-surface-area, and effective anaerobic methods for drug degradation and reduces pollution. However, to improve the biological treatment, researchers have turned to hybrid processes in which all physical, chemical, and biological treatment methods are integrated to remove various emerging contaminants effectively. Hybrid systems can generate bioenergy, which helps reduce the operating costs of the pharmaceutical waste treatment system. To find the most effective treatment technique for our research, this work lists the different biological treatment techniques cited in the literature, such as activated sludge, membrane bioreactor, anaerobic treatment, and hybrid treatment, combining physicochemical and biological techniques.

A novel BC/g-C3N4 porous hydrogel carrier used in intimately coupled photocatalysis and biodegradation system for efficient removal of tetracycline hydrochloride in water

Intimately coupled photocatalysis and biodegradation (ICPB) is a promising technology to remove refractory contaminants from water. The key to successful ICPB is a carrier capable of accumulating biofilm and adhering photocatalyst firmly. Herein, BC/g-C₃N₄ was prepared into a three dimensional porous hydrogel and used as a carrier in ICPB system for the first time. Degradation experiments revealed that the removal rate of tetracycline hydrochloride (TCH) in water by the ICPB system was 96.0% after 10 h, which was significantly higher than that by the photocatalysis (PC, 76.3%), biodegradation (B, 32.5%), adsorption (AD, 17.2%), and photolysis (P, 5.0%) systems. Photo-electrochemical tests confirmed that ICPB system had superior electron transfer ability between photocatalysts and microorganisms. The removal efficiency of COD proved that microorganisms played an important role in the mineralization process of TCH by the ICPB system. After the ICPB degradation experiment, microorganisms maintained high activity and Pseudomonas, Burkholderiaceae and Flavobacterium which had TCH degradation or electron transport ability, were enriched. In conclusion, the novel ICPB carrier overcame shortcomings of the traditional ICPB carrier and the novel ICPB system had superior degradation performance for TCH. This study provided a possible method to promote the practical application of ICPB technology.

Global impact of COVID-19 on agriculture: role of sustainable agriculture and digital farming

The rise and spread of the coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19) has created an imbalance in all sectors worldwide, massively disrupting the global economy. Social distancing, quarantine regulations, and strict travel restrictions have led to a major reduction in the workforce and loss of jobs across all industrial sectors. One of the sectors completely exposed was the agriculture and food sector. The initiation of a nationwide lockdown by the government resulted in the shutdown of industries globally impacting the overall supply chain from farmer to consumer. The need of the hour is to propose effective solutions which can serve the dual purpose of market growth as well as customer satisfaction. This paper reviews the impact of COVID-19 on the agro-food system and its economy stressing critical factors like food production, demand, price hikes, security, and supply chain resilience. To conserve natural resources and meet the sustainable development goals (SDG), importance has been given to adopting sustainable agricultural practices with a prime focus on techniques like urban agriculture, crop rotation, hydroponics, and family farming. Possible advancements like the use of digital tools, mainly artificial intelligence, machine learning, deep learning, and block-chain technology, in the agro-food sector have been discussed as they could be a promising tool to develop a self-reliant society. This work would be a perfect platform to understand the growing impact of the pandemic as well as supporting cost-effective solutions for a green ecosystem.

Strategies for safe management of hospital wastewater during the COVID-19 pandemic

Management of hospital wastewater is a challenging task, particularly during the situations like coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. The hospital effluent streams are likely to contain many known and unknown contaminants including severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) along with a variety of pollutants arising from pharmaceuticals, life-style chemicals, drugs, radioactive species, and human excreta from the patients. The effluents are a mixed bag of contaminants with some of them capable of infecting through contact. Hence, it is essential to identify appropriate treatment strategies for hospital waste streams. In this work, various pollutants emerging in the context of COVID-19 are examined. A methodical review is conducted on the occurrence and disinfection methods of SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater. An emphasis is given to the necessity of addressing the challenges of handling hospital effluents dynamically involved during the pandemic scenario to ensure human and environmental safety. A comparative evaluation of disinfection strategies makes it evident that the non-contact methods like ultraviolet irradiation, hydrogen peroxide vapor, and preventive approaches such as the usage of antimicrobial surface coating offer promise in reducing the chance of disease transmission. These methods are also highly efficient in comparison with other strategies. Chemical disinfection strategies such as chlorination may lead to further disinfection byproducts, complicating the treatment processes. An overall analysis of various disinfection methods is presented here, including developing methods such as membrane technologies, highlighting the merits and demerits of each of these processes. Finally, the wastewater surveillance adopted during the COVID-19 outbreak is discussed.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13762-023-04803-1.

Comprehensive insight into triclosan-from widespread occurrence to health outcomes

Humans are exposed to the variety of emerging environmental pollutant in everyday life. The special concern is paid to endocrine disrupting chemicals especially to triclosan which could interfere with normal hormonal functions. Triclosan could be found in numerous commercial products such as mouthwashes, toothpastes and disinfectants due to its antibacterial and antifungal effects. Considering the excessive use and disposal, wastewaters are recognized as the main source of triclosan in the aquatic environment. As a result of the incomplete removal, triclosan residues reach surface water and even groundwater. Triclosan has potential to accumulate in sediment and aquatic organisms. Therefore, the detectable concentrations of triclosan in various environmental and biological matrices emerged concerns about the potential toxicity. Triclosan impairs thyroid homeostasis and could be associated with neurodevelopment impairment, metabolic disorders, cardiotoxicity and the increased cancer risk. The growing resistance of the vast groups of bacteria, the evidenced toxicity on different aquatic organisms, its adverse health effects observed in vitro, in vivo as well as the available epidemiological studies suggest that further efforts to monitor triclosan toxicity at environmental levels are necessary. The safety precaution measures and full commitment to proper legislation in compliance with the environmental protection are needed in order to obtain triclosan good ecological status. This paper is an overview of the possible negative triclosan effects on human health. Sources of exposure to triclosan, methods and levels of detection in aquatic environment are also discussed.

Environmental challenges of COVID-19 pandemic: resilience and sustainability - A review

The emergence of novel respiratory disease (COVID-19) caused by SARS-CoV-2 has become a public health emergency worldwide and perturbed the global economy and ecosystem services. Many studies have reported the presence of SARS-CoV-2 in different environmental compartments, its transmission via environmental routes, and potential environmental challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic. None of these studies have comprehensively reviewed the bidirectional relationship between the COVID-19 pandemic and the environment. For the first time, we explored the relationship between the environment and the SARS-CoV-2 virus/COVID-19 and how they affect each other. Supporting evidence presented here clearly demonstrates the presence of SARS-CoV-2 in soil and water, denoting the role of the environment in the COVID-19 transmission process. However, most studies fail to determine if the viral genomes they have discovered are infectious, which could be affected by the environmental factors in which they are found.The potential environmental impact of the pandemic, including water pollution, chemical contamination, increased generation of non-biodegradable waste, and single-use plastics have received the most attention. For the most part, efficient measures have been used to address the current environmental challenges from COVID-19, including using environmentally friendly disinfection technologies and employing measures to reduce the production of plastic wastes, such as the reuse and recycling of plastics. Developing sustainable solutions to counter the environmental challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic should be included in national preparedness strategies. In conclusion, combating the pandemic and accomplishing public health goals should be balanced with environmentally sustainable measures, as the two are closely intertwined.

Increasing Consumption of Antibiotics during the COVID-19 Pandemic: Implications for Patient Health and Emerging Anti-Microbial Resistance

The emergence of COVID-19 infection led to the indiscriminate use of antimicrobials without knowing their efficacy in treating the disease. The gratuitous use of antibiotics for COVID-19 treatment raises concerns about the emergence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). In this systematic review, we performed a thorough systematic search using Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines of scientific databases (Scopus, Web of Science, and PubMed) to identify studies where antibiotics were prescribed to treat COVID-19 (December 2019 to December 2021). Of 970 identified studies, 130 were included in our analyses. Almost 78% of COVID-19 patients have been prescribed an antibiotic. Cephalosporins were the most prescribed (30.1% of patients) antibiotics, followed by azithromycin (26% of patients). Antibiotics were prescribed for COVID-19 patients regardless of reported severity; the overall rate of antibiotic use was similar when comparing patients with a severe or critical illness (77.4%) and patients with mild or moderate illness (76.8%). Secondary infections were mentioned in only 11 studies. We conclude that concerns related to COVID-19 and the lack of treatment strategy led to the overuse of antibiotics without proper clinical rationale. Based on our findings, we propose that antimicrobial stewardship should be retained as a priority while treating viral pandemics.

The effect of disinfectants and antiseptics on co- and cross-selection of resistance to antibiotics in aquatic environments and wastewater treatment plants

The outbreak of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic led to increased use of disinfectants and antiseptics (DAs), resulting in higher concentrations of these compounds in wastewaters, wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluents and receiving water bodies. Their constant presence in water bodies may lead to development and acquisition of resistance against the DAs. In addition, they may also promote antibiotic resistance (AR) due to cross- and co-selection of AR among bacteria that are exposed to the DAs, which is a highly important issue with regards to human and environmental health. This review addresses this issue and provides an overview of DAs structure together with their modes of action against microorganisms. Relevant examples of the most effective treatment techniques to increase the DAs removal efficiency from wastewater are discussed. Moreover, insight on the resistance mechanisms to DAs and the mechanism of DAs enhancement of cross- and co-selection of ARs are presented. Furthermore, this review discusses the impact of DAs on resistance against antibiotics, the occurrence of DAs in aquatic systems, and DA removal mechanisms in WWTPs, which in principle serve as the final barrier before releasing these compounds into the receiving environment. By recognition of important research gaps, research needs to determine the impact of the majority of DAs in WWTPs and the consequences of their presence and spread of antibiotic resistance were identified.

In-situ degradation of Amphotericin B in a microbial electrochemical cell containing wastewater

Antimicrobial resistance raises serious medical implications and is primarily caused by indiscriminate usage and environmental contamination with antimicrobial agents. To prevent microbes from developing resistance against antimicrobial agents, they must be effectively degraded. This is the first study that investigates the degradation of Amphotericin B(AmB) with simultaneous wastewater treatment in a Microbial Peroxide producing cell (MPPC). Two sets of MPPCs (A and B) were used to degrade AmB oxidatively, one with H₂O₂ and the other with the microbial electro Fenton process in a catholyte containing 0.1% AmB. MPPC A and B had voltage outputs of 0.356 ± 3 V and 0.411 ± 2 V, producing 26 ± 0.04 mM and 44 ± 0.8 mM of H₂O₂ respectively. The structural changes of treated samples were analyzed using Fourier Transformed Infrared Spectroscopy, which revealed the disappearance of major characteristic bands such as the NH band (1556 cm^-1), the CH band Polyene ring (3358 cm^-1), and others, implying the disruption of multiple double bonds in polyene, resulting in the structure's lactone ring breakdown. Liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight revealed the changes in retention time and peak area of treated samples in comparison to native AmB which also confirmed its structural changes. Such structural disruption induced the drug to lose its antifungal action since no zones of inhibition were detected in an antimicrobial susceptibility test against Candida albicans. The degradation of 57.05% and 69.83% of AmB by H₂O₂ and the Fenton process was also correlated with a reduction in COD. Simultaneously the anodic wastewater treatment in both the MPPCs had COD removal efficiency of 78% and 82% and the BOD removal efficiency was 75.38% and 90% respectively. The MPPC system's process conditions and reactor design could be optimized further to enhance antimicrobial degradation and wastewater treatment. This research offers a sustainable and efficient method for expediting antimicrobial degradation while simultaneously treating wastewater.

Uptake and metabolism of 14C-triclosan in celery under hydroponic system

As triclosan is used extensively as an antimicrobial agent, it inevitably enters agroecosystems, when sewage and treated wastewater are applied to agricultural fields. As a result, triclosan can be accumulated into crops and vegetables. Currently, limited information is available on the metabolism of triclosan in vegetables. In this study, the fate of ¹⁴C-triclosan in celery under a hydroponic system was investigated in a 30-day laboratory test. Most (97.7 %) of the ¹⁴C-triclosan accumulated in celery. The bioconcentration factors of triclosan were up to 3140 L kg^-1 at day 30. The concentration of ¹⁴C-triclosan in roots (17.8 mg kg^-1) was 57- and 127-fold higher than that in stems (0.31 mg kg^-1) and leaves (0.14 mg kg^-1), respectively, at day 30, suggesting a higher accumulation of triclosan in celery roots and negligible transport to stems and leaves. Moreover, triclosan, as well as its eight metabolites, was detected and identified in celery tissues and the growth medium using ¹⁴C-labelling and LC-Q-TOF-MS analysis methods. Phase I metabolites in the growth medium were from hydroxylation, dechlorination, nitration, and nitrosylation. Phase II metabolism was the major pathway in celery tissues. Monosaccharide, disaccharide, and sulfate conjugates of triclosan were putatively identified. The results represent an important step toward a better evaluation of the behavior of triclosan in vegetables, with notable implications for environmental and human risk assessments of triclosan.

Occurrence and distribution of azithromycin in wastewater treatment plants, seawater, and sediments of the northern part of the Persian Gulf around Bushehr port: A comparison with Pre-COVID 19 pandemic

One of the environmental effects of COVID 19 is the contamination of ecosystems with antibiotics due to their high consumption to treat this disease. Many years ago, the distribution of antibiotics including azithromycin (Azi) in wastewater treatment plants in Bushehr city, seawater, and sediment of the Persian Gulf has been investigated. As Azi has been prescribed to COVID 19 patients, contamination of the environment with this drug can also be assumed. Thus, we decided to examine this hypothesis by repeating our previous study during COVID 19 period. We collected wastewater samples from influent, effluent, and different units of three wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) including one municipal WWTP (Plant A) and two hospital-WWTPs (Plant B and C). Seawater and adjusted sediments were gathered from 8 stations located in the Persian Gulf in two seasons to evaluate the special and temporal variation. The results showed a huge growth of Azi pollution in all studied matrixes. The mean Azi values in the influent of Plant A, B, and C were 145 ng/L, 110 ng/L, and 896 ng/L, which represented an 9, 6, and 48-time increase compared with those obtained in 2017 (before COVID 19). The Azi removal efficiency had a different behavior compared to before COVID 19. The mean concentration of Azi in seawater and sediment samples was 9 ng/L and 6 ng/g, which was 3 and 4-fold higher than the previous study. Opposed to our former study, the Azi amount in the aqueous phase was less subjected to temporal seasonal variations. Our observations indicated the wide distribution of Azi in the environment and a future threat of intense growth of antibiotic resistance in ecosystems.

Reduced graphene oxide accelerates the dissipation of 14C-Triclosan in paddy soil via adsorption interactions

Reduced graphene oxide (RGO) is one of common carbon nanomaterials, which is widely used in various fields. Triclosan is an antimicrobial agent added in pharmaceuticals and personal care products. Extensive release of RGO and triclosan has posed potential risks to humans and the environment. The impact of RGO on the fate of triclosan in paddy soil is poorly known. ¹⁴C-Triclosan was employed in the present study to determine its distribution, degradation and mineralization in paddy soil mixed with RGO. Compared with the control, RGO (500 mg kg^-1) significantly inhibited the mineralization of ¹⁴C-triclosan, and reduced its extractability by 6.5%. The bound residues of triclosan in RGO-contaminated soil (100 and 500 mg kg^-1) were 2.9-13.3% greater than that of the control at 112 d. RGO also accelerated the dissipation of triclosan, and its degradation products in both treatments and controls were tentatively identified via ¹⁴C-labeling method and LC-Q-TOF-MS analysis. The concentrations of the major metabolites (methyl-triclosan and dechlorinated dimer) were inversely related with the concentrations of RGO. RGO at 50 mg kg^-1 or lower had a negligible effect on the degradation of triclosan in paddy soil. Triclosan was strongly adsorbed onto RGO-contaminated soil, which may play a vital role in the fate of triclosan in RGO-contaminated paddy soil. Interestingly, RGO had little effect on triclosan-degrading bacteria via soil microbial community analysis. This study helps understand the effects of RGO on the transformation of triclosan in paddy soil, which is of significance to evaluate the environmental risk of triclosan in RGO-contaminated soil.

Antibiotic adsorption by natural and modified clay minerals as designer adsorbents for wastewater treatment: A comprehensive review

Increased antibiotic use worldwide has become a major concern because of their health and environmental impacts. Since most antibiotic residues can hardly be removed from wastewater using conventional treatments, alternative methods receive great attention. Adsorption is one of the most efficient and cost-effective treatment methods for antibiotics. Among the adsorbents, clay minerals have garnered increasing attention due to their unique properties including availability, high specific surface area, low cost, cation exchange capacity, and good removal efficiency. This paper reviews the recent progress made in the use of natural and modified clay minerals for the removal of antibiotics from water. First, the sources, occurrence, removal and health effects of the antibiotics commonly encountered in water bodies are described. Antibiotic concentration levels and average removal efficiencies measured in conventional activated sludge treatment systems worldwide are also provided to better address the problem. Second, the review explores the characteristics of clay minerals as adsorbent of antibiotics and the factors affecting the adsorption. The review identifies and discusses the future trends and strategies used to increase the adsorption capacity of clay minerals by modification and combination techniques (intercalation of novel functional groups such as organocations, biopolymers and metal pillared-clay minerals, combination with biochar or thermal activation). The quantitative comparisons of clay minerals' ability for antibiotic removal are given. Some natural clay minerals have good removal potential for antibiotics, with maximum adsorption capacities over 100 mg/g. For most other adsorbents, surface modifications and combination techniques resulted in improved adsorption properties (including higher surface area, enhanced adsorption capacity, increased stability and mechanical strength). Finally, the application of these adsorbents at pilot scale, using real wastewater samples, their reuse, economic analysis and life cycle assessment are other issues that have been considered.

SARS-CoV-2 pharmaceutical drugs: a critical review on the environmental impacts, chemical characteristics, and behavior of advanced oxidation processes in water

This review summarizes research data on the pharmaceutical drugs used to treat the novel SARS-CoV-2 virus, their characteristics, environmental impacts, and the advanced oxidation processes (AOP) applied to remove them. A literature survey was conducted using the electronic databases Science Direct, Scopus, Taylor & Francis, Google Scholar, PubMed, and Springer. This complete research includes and discusses relevant studies that involve the introduction, pharmaceutical drugs used in the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic: chemical characteristics and environmental impact, advanced oxidation process (AOP), future trends and discussion, and conclusions. The results show a full approach in the versatility of AOPs as a promising solution to minimize the environmental impact associated with these compounds by the fact that they offer different ways for hydroxyl radical production. Moreover, this article focuses on introducing the fundamentals of each AOP, the main parameters involved, and the concomitance with other sources and modifications over the years. Photocatalysis, sonochemical technologies, electro-oxidation, photolysis, Fenton reaction, ozone, and sulfate radical AOP have been used to mineralize SARS-CoV-2 pharmaceutical compounds, and the efficiencies are greater than 65%. According to the results, photocatalysis is the main technology currently applied to remove these pharmaceuticals. This process has garnered attention because solar energy can be directly utilized; however, low photocatalytic efficiencies and high costs in large-scale practical applications limit its use. Furthermore, pharmaceuticals in the environment are diverse and complex. Finally, the review also provides ideas for further research needs and major concerns.

Degradation of Triclosan in the Water Environment by Microorganisms: A Review

Triclosan (TCS), a kind of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs), is widely used and has had a large production over years. It is an emerging pollutant in the water environment that has attracted global attention due to its toxic effects on organisms and aquatic ecosystems, and its concentrations in the water environment are expected to increase since the COVID-19 pandemic outbreak. Some researchers found that microbial degradation of TCS is an environmentally sustainable technique that results in the mineralization of large amounts of organic pollutants without toxic by-products. In this review, we focus on the fate of TCS in the water environment, the diversity of TCS-degrading microorganisms, biodegradation pathways and molecular mechanisms, in order to provide a reference for the efficient degradation of TCS and other PPCPs by microorganisms.

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in the era of the Covid-19 pandemic in the context of the human and the environment

From 2019, life in the world has mainly been determined by successive waves of the COVID-19 epidemic. During this time, the virus structure, action, short- and long-term effects of the infection were discovered, and treatments were developed. This epidemic undoubtedly affected people's lives, but increasing attention is also being paid to the effects of the epidemic on the environment. Following PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses) guidelines, a global scoping review of peer-reviewed information has been conducted on the use of over-the-counter non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in the treatment of symptoms of SARS-CoV-2 infections and their positive and negative effects on the human body, the effects of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) on aquatic organisms, and their adverse effects on non-target organisms. The literature from 1998 to 2021 was analysed using the Scopus®, Web of Science™ (WoS) and Google Scholar databases. As non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs place a heavy burden on the environment, all reports of the presence of these drugs in the environment during the pandemic period have been thoroughly analysed. Of the 70 peer-reviewed records within the scope, only 14% (n = 10) focussed on the analysis of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs concentrations in wastewater and surface waters during the pandemic period. The percentage of these works indicates that it is still an open topic, and this issue should be supplemented with further reports in which the results obtained during the pandemic, which has been going on for several years, will be published. The authors hope this review will inspire scientists to investigate the problem of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in the environment to protect them for the next generation.

Ecofriendly and sustainable Sargassum spp.-based system for the removal of highly used drugs during the COVID-19 pandemic

Analgesic consumption increased significantly during the COVID-19 pandemic. A high concentration of this kind of drug is discarded in the urine, reaching the effluents of rivers, lakes, and seas. These medicines have brought serious problems for the flora and, especially, the ecosystems’ fauna. This paper presents the results of removing diclofenac, ibuprofen, and paracetamol in an aqueous solution, using Sargassum spp. from the Caribbean coast. The study consisted of mixing each drug in an aqueous solution with functionalized Sargassum spp in a container under constant agitation. Therefore, this work represents an alternative to solve two of the biggest problems in recent years; first, the reduction of the overpopulation of sargassum through its use for the remediation of the environment. Second is the removal of drug waste used excessively during the COVID-19 pandemic. Liquid samples of the solution were taken at intervals of 10 min and analyzed by fluorescence to determine the concentration of the drug.

The sorption capacity for diclofenac, ibuprofen, and paracetamol was 2.46, 2.08, and 1.41 μg/g, corresponding to 98 %, 84 %, and 54 % of removal, respectively. The removal of the three drugs was notably favored by increasing the temperature to 30 and 40 °C, reaching efficiencies close to 100 %. Moreover, the system maintains its effectiveness at various pH values. In addition, the Sargassum used can be reused for up to three cycles without reducing its removal capacity. The wide diversity of organic compounds favors the biosorption of drugs, removing them through various kinetic mechanisms. On the other hand, the Sargassum used in the drugs removal was analyzed by X-ray diffraction, FTIR spectroscopy, TGA analysis, and scanning electron microscopy before and after removal. The results showed an evident modification in the structure and morphology of the algae and demonstrated the presence of the biosorbed drugs. Therefore, this system is sustainable, simple, economical, environmentally friendly, highly efficient, and scalable at a domestic and industrial level that can be used for aquatic remediation environments.

Sustainable development goals under threat? Multidimensional impact of COVID-19 on our planet and society outweigh short term global pollution reduction

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) call on all nations to accomplish 17 broad global development goals by 2030. However, the COVID-19 pandemic presents a challenging period in human history, causing large-scale impacts on society and the environment as governments shift priorities and divert funding in response to this pandemic. Through a literature survey and data acquirement from various international organizations (e.g. United Nations and European Space Agency), this manuscript is intended to provide critical insights into the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on the SDGs. We briefly describe this pandemic's positive and short-term effects on the environment, followed by a critical evaluation of its potential long-term impacts on the environment, society, and the SDGs. On the basis of COVID-19 effects, the SDGs are classified into three categories: directly-affected SDGs, indirectly-affected SDGs, and a stand-alone category. The COVID-19-induced lockdowns and restrictions resulted in a short-term decline in environmental pollution and greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions, providing valuable data for climate advocates and researchers. These positive impacts were essentially temporary due to the synchronized global response to the pandemic. The halted focus on the progress of the SDGs greatly impacts the global green transition to a healthy and sustainable world. COVID-19 threatens to impede the progress toward a prosperous, environment-friendly, and sustainable global development in multiple ways. These multi-dimensional threats have been critically evaluated, along with a description of potential solutions to curtail the adverse effects of COVID-19 on the SDGs. Considering the limited data regarding the impacts of the pandemic on the SDGs, diverse collaborative studies at the regional and global levels are recommended.

The Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic on Seafood Safety and Human Health

The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic caused several negative impacts on global human health and the world's economy. Food and seafood safety and security were among the principal challenges and causes of concern for the food industry and consumers during the spread of this global pandemic. This article focused on the effects of COVID-19 pandemic on potential safety issues with seafood products and their processing methods. Moreover, the potential impacts of coronavirus transmission through seafood on human health were evaluated. The role of authenticity, traceability, and antimicrobials from natural sources to preserve seafood and the possible interaction of functional foods on the human immune system are also discussed. Although seafood is not considered a principal vector of SARS-CoV-2 transmission, the possible infections through contaminated surfaces of such food products cannot be neglected. The positive effects of seafood consumption on possible immunity built up, and COVID-19 are also summarized.

Triclosan: A Small Molecule with Controversial Roles

Triclosan (TCS), a broad-spectrum antimicrobial agent, has been widely used in personal care products, medical products, plastic cutting boards, and food storage containers. Colgate Total® toothpaste, containing 10 mM TCS, is effective in controlling biofilm formation and maintaining gingival health. Given its broad usage, TCS is present ubiquitously in the environment. Given its strong lipophilicity and accumulation ability in organisms, it is potentially harmful to biohealth. Several reports suggest the toxicity of this compound, which is inserted in the class of endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs). In September 2016, TCS was banned by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the European Union in soap products. Despite these problems, its application in personal care products within certain limits is still allowed. Today, it is still unclear whether TCS is truly toxic to mammals and the adverse effects of continuous, long-term, and low concentration exposure remain unknown. Indeed, some recent reports suggest the use of TCS as a repositioned drug for cancer treatment and cutaneous leishmaniasis. In this scenario it is necessary to investigate the advantages and disadvantages of TCS, to understand whether its use is advisable or not. This review intends to highlight the pros and cons that are associated with the use of TCS in humans.

Changes in Sewage Sludge Chemical Signatures During a COVID-19 Community Lockdown, Part 1: Traffic, Drugs, Mental Health, and Disinfectants

The early months of the COVID-19 pandemic and the associated shutdowns disrupted many aspects of daily life and thus caused changes in the use and disposal of many types of chemicals. While records of sales, prescriptions, drug overdoses, and so forth provide data about specific chemical uses during this time, wastewater and sewage sludge analysis can provide a more comprehensive overview of chemical changes within a region. We analyzed primary sludge from a wastewater-treatment plant in Connecticut, USA, collected March 19 to June 30, 2020. This time period encompassed the first wave of the pandemic, the initial statewide stay at home order, and the first phase of reopening. We used liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry and targeted and suspect screening strategies to identify 78 chemicals of interest, which included pharmaceuticals, illicit drugs, disinfectants, ultraviolet (UV) filters, and others. We analyzed trends over time for the identified chemicals using linear trend analyses and multivariate comparisons (p < 0.05). We found trends related directly to the pandemic (e.g., hydroxychloroquine, a drug publicized for its potential to treat COVID-19, had elevated concentrations in the week following the implementation of the US Emergency Use Authorization), as well as evidence for seasonal changes in chemical use (e.g., increases for three UV-filter compounds). Though wastewater surveillance during the pandemic has largely focused on measuring severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus-2 RNA concentrations, chemical analysis can also show trends that are important for revealing the public and environmental health effects of the pandemic. Environ Toxicol Chem 2022;41:1179-1192. © 2021 SETAC.

Changes in Sewage Sludge Chemical Signatures During a COVID-19 Community Lockdown, Part 1: Traffic, Drugs, Mental Health, and Disinfectants

The early months of the COVID-19 pandemic and the associated shutdowns disrupted many aspects of daily life and thus caused changes in the use and disposal of many types of chemicals. While records of sales, prescriptions, drug overdoses, and so forth provide data about specific chemical uses during this time, wastewater and sewage sludge analysis can provide a more comprehensive overview of chemical changes within a region. We analyzed primary sludge from a wastewater-treatment plant in Connecticut, USA, collected March 19 to June 30, 2020. This time period encompassed the first wave of the pandemic, the initial statewide stay at home order, and the first phase of reopening. We used liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry and targeted and suspect screening strategies to identify 78 chemicals of interest, which included pharmaceuticals, illicit drugs, disinfectants, ultraviolet (UV) filters, and others. We analyzed trends over time for the identified chemicals using linear trend analyses and multivariate comparisons (p < 0.05). We found trends related directly to the pandemic (e.g., hydroxychloroquine, a drug publicized for its potential to treat COVID-19, had elevated concentrations in the week following the implementation of the US Emergency Use Authorization), as well as evidence for seasonal changes in chemical use (e.g., increases for three UV-filter compounds). Though wastewater surveillance during the pandemic has largely focused on measuring severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus-2 RNA concentrations, chemical analysis can also show trends that are important for revealing the public and environmental health effects of the pandemic. Environ Toxicol Chem 2022;41:1179-1192. © 2021 SETAC.

Occurrence of Antibiotic-Resistant Genes and Bacteria in Household Greywater Treated in Constructed Wetlands

There is a growing body of knowledge on the persistence of antibiotic-resistant genes (ARGs) and antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB) in greywater and greywater treatment systems such as constructed wetlands (CWs). Our research quantified ARGs (sul1, qnrS, and blaCTXM32), class one integron (intI1), and bacterial marker (16S) in four recirculating vertical flow CWs in a small community in the Negev desert, Israel, using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). The greywater microbial community was characterized using 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing. Results show that CWs can reduce ARG in greywater by 1–3 log, depending on the gene and the quality of the raw greywater. Community sequencing results showed that the bacterial community composition was not significantly altered after treatment and that Proteobacteria, Epsilonbacteraeota, and Bacteroidetes were the most dominant phyla before and after treatment. Pseudomonas, Citrobacter, Enterobacter, and Aeromonas were the most commonly identified genera of the extended spectrum beta lactamase (ESBL) colonies. Some of the ESBL bacteria identified have been linked to clinical infections (Acinetobacter nosocomialis, Pseudomonas fulva, Pseudomonas putida, Pseudomonas monteilii, and Roseomonas cervicalis). It is important to monitor intI1 for the potential transfer of ARGs to pathogenic bacteria.

Removal of hydroxychloroquine from an aqueous solution using living microalgae: Effect of operating parameters on removal efficiency and mechanisms

Wastewater contaminated with hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) poses a serious threat to the environment and human life. This study aimed to evaluate the ability of living microalgae to remove HCQ from an aqueous solution. Batch mode experiments were conducted under different conditions to investigate the effect of operating parameters on HCQ removal efficiency and mechanisms. Equilibrium, kinetic and thermodynamic study was also carried out to better describe the interactions between HCQ and microalgae. The maximum HCQ removal was 92.10 ± 1.25% obtained under optimal pH of 9.9 ± 0.1, a contact time of 45 min, a stirring speed of 300 rpm, an initial HCQ concentration of 20 mg/L, and a microalgae dose of 100 mg/L. The Langmuir isotherm and the pseudo-second-order kinetic model were best suited for the biosorption experiments, and the maximum biosorption capacity was 339.02 mg/g. The thermodynamic study showed that the biosorption process was exothermic and spontaneous. Experiments on real wastewater showed that the HCQ removal was not significantly affected by the presence of other contaminants in the water. PRACTITIONER POINTS: The best HCQ removal was 92.10 ± 1.25% obtained under optimal conditions. The Langmuir isotherm and the pseudo-second-order kinetic model were best suited for the biosorption experiments. The maximum biosorption capacity was 339.02 mg/g. The thermodynamic study showed that the biosorption process was exothermic and spontaneous. The microalgae studied can be successfully used in HCQ removal from water.

COVID-19 drugs in aquatic systems: a review

The outbreak of the human coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has induced an unprecedented increase in the use of several old and repurposed therapeutic drugs such as veterinary medicines, e.g. ivermectin, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, protein and peptide therapeutics, disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs and antimalarial drugs, antiretrovirals, analgesics, and supporting agents, e.g. azithromycin and corticosteroids. Excretion of drugs and their metabolites in stools and urine release these drugs into wastewater, and ultimately into surface waters and groundwater systems. Here, we review the sources, behaviour, environmental fate, risks, and remediation of those drugs. We discuss drug transformation in aquatic environments and in wastewater treatment systems. Degradation mechanisms and metabolite toxicity are poorly known. Potential risks include endocrine disruption, acute and chronic toxicity, disruption of ecosystem functions and trophic interactions in aquatic organisms, and the emergence of antimicrobial resistance.

An overview on the current available treatment for COVID-19 and the impact of antibiotic administration during the pandemic

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection has caused several problems in healthcare systems around the world, as to date, there is no effective and specific treatment against all forms of COVID-19. Currently, drugs with therapeutic potential are being tested, including antiviral, anti-inflammatory, anti-malarial, immunotherapy, and antibiotics. Although antibiotics have no direct effect on viral infections, they are often used against secondary bacterial infections, or even as empiric treatment to reduce viral load, infection, and replication of coronaviruses. However, there are many concerns about this therapeutic approach as it may accelerate and/or increase the long-term rates of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). We focused this overview on exploring candidate drugs for COVID-19 therapy, including antibiotics, considering the lack of specific treatment and that it is unclear whether the widespread use of antibiotics in the treatment of COVID-19 has implications for the emergence and transmission of multidrug-resistant bacteria.

Influence of cosubstrate and hydraulic retention time on the removal of drugs and hygiene products in sanitary sewage in an anaerobic Expanded Granular Sludge Bed reactor

Diclofenac (DCF), ibuprofen (IBU), propranolol (PRO), triclosan (TCS) and linear alkylbenzene sulfonate (LAS) can be recalcitrant in Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTP). The removal of these compounds was investigated in scale-up (69 L) Expanded Granular Sludge Bed (EGSB) reactor, fed with sanitary sewage from the São Carlos-SP (Brazil) WWTP and 200 mg L^-1 of ethanol. The EGSB was operated in three phases: (I) hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 36±4 h; (II) HRT of 20±2 h and (III) HRT of 20±2 h with ethanol. Phases I and II showed no significant difference in the removal of LAS (63 ± 11-65 ± 12 %), DCF (37 ± 18-35 ± 11 %), IBU (43 ± 18-44 ± 16 %) and PRO (46 ± 25-51 ± 23 %) for 13±2-15 ± 2 mg L^-1, 106 ± 32-462 ± 294 μg L^-1, 166 ± 55-462 ± 213 μg L^-1 and 201 ± 113-250 ± 141 μg L^-1 influent, respectively. Higher TCS removal was obtained in phase I (72 ± 17 % for 127 ± 120 μg L^-1 influent) when compared to phase II (51 ± 13 % for 135 ± 119 μg L^-1 influent). This was due to its greater adsorption (40 %) in the initial phase. Phase III had higher removal of DCF (42 ± 10 % for 107 ± 26 μg L^-1 influent), IBU (50 ± 15 % for 164 ± 47 μg L^-1 influent) and TCS (85 ± 15 % for 185 ± 148 μg L^-1 influent) and lower removal of LAS (35 ± 14 % for 12 ± 3 mg L^-1 influent) and PRO (-142 ± 177 % for 188 ± 88 μg L^-1 influent). Bacteria similar to Syntrophobacter, Smithella, Macellibacteroides, Syntrophus, Blvii28_wastewater-sludge_group and Bacteroides were identified in phase I with relative abundance of 3.1 %-4.7 %. Syntrophobacter was more abundant (15.4 %) in phase II, while in phase III, it was Smithella (12.7 %) and Caldisericum (15.1 %). Regarding the Archaea Domain, Methanosaeta was more abundant in phases I (84 %) and II (67 %), while in phase III it was Methanobacterium (86 %).

Environmental impact of increased soap consumption during COVID-19 pandemic: Biodegradable soap production and sustainable packaging

A year into the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic, the role of washing hands with soap and hand disinfectants is unavoidable as a primary way to control the infection spread in communities and healthcare facilities. The extraordinary surge in demand for handwashing products has led to environmental concerns. Since soaps are complex mixtures of toxic and persistent active ingredients, the prudent option is to promote eco-friendly replacements for the current products. On the other hand, with the increase in soap packaging waste production, soap packaging waste management and recycling become essential to reduce environmental impact. This systematic review aimed to collect some recent methods for identifying biodegradable and sustainable raw materials to produce and package cleaning agents, especially soap.

Biochar-Supported TiO2-Based Nanocomposites for the Photocatalytic Degradation of Sulfamethoxazole in Water-A Review

Sulfamethoxazole (SMX) is a frequently used antibiotic for the treatment of urinary tract, respiratory, and intestinal infections and as a supplement in livestock or fishery farming to boost production. The release of SMX into the environment can lead to the development of antibiotic resistance among the microbial community, which can lead to frequent clinical infections. SMX removal from water is usually done through advanced treatment processes, such as adsorption, photocatalytic oxidation, and biodegradation. Among them, the advanced oxidation process using TiO2 and its composites is being widely used. TiO2 is a widely used photocatalyst; however, it has certain limitations, such as low visible light response and quick recombination of e-/h+ pairs. Integrating the biochar with TiO2 nanoparticles can overcome such limitations. The biochar-supported TiO2 composites showed a significant increase in the photocatalytic activities in the UV-visible range, which resulted in a substantial increase in the degradation of SMX in water. The present review has critically reviewed the methods of biochar TiO2 composite synthesis, the effect of biochar integration with the TiO2 on its physicochemical properties, and the chemical pathways through which the biochar/TiO2 composite degrades the SMX in water or aqueous solution. The degradation of SMX using photocatalysis can be considered a useful model, and the research studies presented in this review will allow extending this area of research on other types of similar pharmaceuticals or pollutants in general in the future.

COVID-19 pandemic and antimicrobial resistance in developing countries

A wide range of antimicrobial agents were touted as potential remedies during the COVID-19 pandemic. While both developed and developing countries have recorded an increase in the use of antimicrobial drugs, use and misuse have occurred to a far greater degree in developing countries. This can have deleterious consequences on antimicrobial resistance, especially when various developing countries have already reported the emergence of various drug-resistant organisms even before the pandemic. Telemedicine services, societal and cultural pressures, and bacterial co-infections can predispose to overwhelming antimicrobial prescriptions. The emergence of new multidrug resistance species is a major concern for the developing world especially since health services are already overburdened and lack the diagnostic capabilities and basic amenities for infection prevention and control. This can lead to outbreaks and the rampant spread of such microorganisms. Improper waste management and disposal from hospitals and communities establish freshwater runoffs as hubs of various microorganisms that can predispose to the rise of multidrug-resistant species. Microplastics' ability to act as vectors for antibiotic-resistant organisms is also particularly concerning for lower-middle-income countries. In this review, we aim to study the impact of antimicrobial use during the COVID-19 pandemic and antimicrobial resistance in lower middle-income countries, by understanding various determinants of resistance unique to the developing world and exploring solutions to combat the problem.

Challenges to Antimicrobial Stewardship in the Countries of the Arab League: Concerns of Worsening Resistance during the COVID-19 Pandemic and Proposed Solutions

The COVID-19 pandemic is expected to worsen the global problem of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). There is a heightened interest in understanding this effect and to develop antimicrobial stewardship (AMS) interventions accordingly to curb this threat. Our paper aims to evaluate the potential magnitude of COVID-19 on AMR and AMS with a focus on the countries of the Arab league, given the social, political, and economic environments. We also evaluate obstacles in applying the rational use of antibiotics, monitoring resistance trends in the midst of the pandemic, and evaluating the impact of the economic crisis in some countries. We aim to raise awareness about the potential effects of antibiotic overuse during the pandemic and to propose practical approaches to tackle this issue.

Assessing the Syrian Population's Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices Regarding Antibiotic Usage

Background Antibiotic resistance is a serious public health threat that results mainly secondary to antibiotics misuse. The present study aimed to determine the knowledge, attitude, and practice toward antibiotic use among the Syrian population. Methods This cross-sectional study was conducted at the outpatient clinics of two major hospitals in Damascus, Syria. Applying a random convenience sampling, data were collected in a 1-week period by interviewing participants using a structured questionnaire, which targeted demographics, practice, knowledge, and attitude. Data were used to assess the relationship between the knowledge level and attitudes and demographics. Results Most respondents had a moderate level of knowledge (187, 74.8%) and a moderate attitude score (148, 59.2%). In addition, most respondents (149, 59.6%) stated that they take antibiotics based on pharmacist advice only and do not complete the full antibiotic course (200, 80%). A significant association was found between the knowledge level and financial status ( p -value = 0.003), education level ( p -value = 0.001), and having relatives working in the health care sector ( p -value = 0.021). In addition, a significant association was found between the attitude and having health insurance. Conclusion This study provides baseline evidence about the knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding antibiotics among the Syrian population, that will help in designing targeted interventions to solve the inappropriate use of antibiotics.

Efficacy of frontline chemical biocides and disinfection approaches for inactivating SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern that cause coronavirus disease with the emergence of opportunities for green eco-solutions

The emergence of severe acute respiratory disease (SARS-CoV-2) variants that cause coronavirus disease is of global concern. Severe acute respiratory disease variants of concern (VOC) exhibiting greater transmissibility, and potentially increased risk of hospitalization, severity and mortality, are attributed to molecular mutations in outer viral surface spike proteins. Thus, there is a reliance on using appropriate counter-disease measures, including non-pharmaceutical interventions and vaccination. The best evidence suggests that the use of frontline biocides effectively inactivate coronavirus similarly, including VOC, such as 202012/01, 501Y.V2 and P.1 that have rapidly replaced the wild-type variant in the United Kingdom, South Africa and Brazil, respectively. However, this review highlights that efficacy of VOC-disinfection will depend on the type of biocide and the parameters governing the activity. VOC are likely to be similar in size to the wild-type strain, thus implying that existing guidelines for use and re-use of face masks post disinfection remain relevant. Monitoring to avoid injudicious use of biocides during the coronavirus disease era is required as prolonged and excessive biocide usage may negatively impact our receiving environments; thus, highlighting the potential for alternative more environmental-friendly sustainable biocide solutions. Traditional biocides may promote cross-antimicrobial resistance to antibiotics in problematical bacteria. The existing filtration efficacy of face masks is likely to perform similarly for VOC due to similar viral size; however, advances in face mask manufacturing by way incorporating new anti-viral materials will potentially enhance their design and functionality for existing and potential future pandemics.

Emerging contaminants, SARS-COV-2 and wastewater treatment plants, new challenges to confront: A short review

The current pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2 has put public health at risk, being wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) a potential tool in the detection, prevention, and treatment of present and possible future outbreaks, since this virus enters wastewater through various sources such as feces, vomit, and sputum. Thus, advanced technologies such as advanced oxidation processes (AOP), membrane technology (MT) are identified through a systematic literature review as an alternative option for the destruction and removal of emerging contaminants (drugs and personal care products) released mainly by infected patients. The objectives of this review are to know the implications that the new COVID-19 outbreak is generating and will generate in water compartments, as well as the new challenges faced by wastewater treatment plants due to the change in a load of contaminants and the solutions proposed based on the aforementioned technologies to be applied to preserve public health and the environment.