Long-term maintenance of multidrug-resistant Escherichia coli carried by vampire bats and shared with livestock in Peru

Diet-driven diversity of antibiotic resistance genes in wild bats: implications for public health

Wild bats may serve as reservoirs for antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) and antibiotic-resistant bacteria, potentially contributing to antibiotic resistance and pathogen transmission. However, current assessments of bats' antibiotic resistance potential are limited to culture-dependent bacterial snapshots. In this study, we present metagenomic evidence supporting a strong association between diet, gut microbiota, and the resistome, highlighting bats as significant vectors for ARG propagation. We characterized gut microbiota, ARGs, and mobile genetic elements (MGEs) in bats with five distinct diets: frugivory, insectivory, piscivory, carnivory, and sanguivory. Our analysis revealed high levels of ARGs in bat guts, with limited potential for horizontal transfer, encompassing 1106 ARGs conferring resistance to 26 antibiotics. Multidrug-resistant and polymyxin-resistant genes were particularly prevalent among identified ARG types. The abundance and diversity of ARGs/MGEs varied significantly among bats with different dietary habits, possibly due to diet-related differences in microbial composition. Additionally, genetic linkage between high-risk ARGs and multiple MGEs was observed on the genomes of various zoonotic pathogens, indicating a potential threat to human health from wild bats. Overall, our study provides a comprehensive analysis of the resistome in wild bats and underscores the role of dietary habits in wildlife-associated public health risks.

Bats as an Important Source of Antimicrobial-Resistant Bacteria: A Systematic Review

Background/Objectives: Bats are the second-largest known order of mammals, accounting for about twenty percent of the species described to date. This group has special importance in health and epidemiology because they are considered hosts of a wide range of antimicrobial-resistant human pathogens. Over the past few decades, the emergence of pathogenic bacteria resistant to antimicrobials has been a growing threat to public health, especially given its repercussions such as deaths associated with antimicrobial resistance and economic losses in the healthcare sector. Results: The diversity of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria, the different methodologies in numeric analysis, and the variety of antibiotics reported in this review make it difficult to establish the scope of the effect of bats on the antimicrobial resistance crisis. Methods: In this systematic review, we focus on the existence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria associated with bats and summarize the main findings of studies conducted on the topic to date. Conclusions: Surveillance is essential to control the emergence of resistant bacteria related to bats, which could eventually affect humans, as this is a problem of a 'One Health' nature, with effects on human, animal, and environmental health.

ESBL-producing Escherichia coli prevalence and sharing across seabirds of central Chile

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a major global public threat, now largely reported in natural environments. Seabirds are carriers of extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli (ESBL-E. coli), but different foraging and breeding behaviour could impact ESBL-E. coli circulation. We compared the prevalence and genetic determinants of ESBL-E. coli from resident Kelp gulls (Larus dominicanus, Ld), migratory Franklin's gulls (Larus pipixcan, Lp), and endemic Peruvian pelicans (Pelecanus thagus, Pt) from the Humboldt Current Ecosystem (HCE) of central Chile. From 2020 to 2022, we collected 699 fresh faecal samples (Ld = 449, Lp = 116, Pt = 134), and isolated 271 ESBL-E. coli (39 %). Whole-genome-sequencing (WGS) was performed on 85 E. coli selected isolates to identify their Sequence Type (ST), AMR genes, virulence genes, mobile genetic elements (MGE), and to assess potential interspecies transmission. ESBL-genes were detected in the remaining ESBL-E. coli isolates by PCR. ESBL-E. coli prevalence in Ld (46 % [CI: 42-51 %]) and Pt (34 % [CI: 27-43 %]) was higher than in Lp (15 % [CI: 9-22 %]). WGS revealed 41 ESBL-E. coli STs including pandemic clones ST10, ST58, ST131 and ST410. The blaCTX-M-1 and blaCTX-M-15 genes were the most prevalent among ESBL genes, and were mostly associated with MGE IncI1-I(Alpha) and ISEc9. We also report the pAmpC blaCMY-2 gene associated to MGE Inc1-I(Alpha) and IS640 in two E. coli from a Ld and a Lp. Eight ESBL-E. coli of the same ST were shared by at least two seabird species, including ST10 (Ld and Pt); ST88, ST410 and ST617 (Pt and Lp); ST38, ST58, ST131, and SST1722 (three species). Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) phylogenetic analyses of ST38, ST617 and ST1722 showed a low difference of SNPs between STs found in different seabird species, suggesting ESBL-E. coli clonal exchanges. Our results highlight ESBL-E. coli dissemination across seabirds of the HCE, including species that unusually forage on human waste like pelicans.

Molecular Characterization of Multidrug-Resistant Escherichia coli from Fecal Samples of Wild Animals

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) surveillance in fecal Escherichia coli isolates from wildlife is crucial for monitoring the spread of this microorganism in the environment and for developing effective AMR control strategies. Wildlife can act as carriers of AMR bacteria and spread them to other wildlife, domestic animals, and humans; thus, they have public health implications. A total of 128 Escherichia coli isolates were obtained from 66 of 217 fecal samples obtained from different wild animals using media without antibiotic supplementation. Antibiograms were performed for 17 antibiotics to determine the phenotypic resistance profile in these isolates. Extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL) production was tested using the double-disc synergy test, and 29 E. coli strains were selected for whole genome sequencing. In total, 22.1% of the wild animals tested carried multidrug-resistant E. coli isolates, and 0.93% (2/217) of these wild animals carried E. coli isolates with ESBL-encoding genes (blaCTX-M-65, blaCTX-M-55, and blaEC-1982). The E. coli isolates showed the highest resistance rates to ampicillin and were fully susceptible to amikacin, meropenem, ertapenem, and imipenem. Multiple resistance and virulence genes were detected, as well as different plasmids. The relatively high frequency of multidrug-resistant E. coli isolates in wildlife, with some of them being ESBL producers, raises some concern regarding the potential transmission of antibiotic-resistant bacteria among these animals. Gaining insights into antibiotic resistance patterns in wildlife can be vital in shaping conservation initiatives and developing effective strategies for responsible antibiotic use.

Antimicrobial resistance among clinically significant bacteria in wildlife: An overlooked one health concern

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has emerged as a critical global health challenge. However, the significance of AMR is not limited to humans and domestic animals but extends to wildlife and the environment. Based on the analysis of > 200 peer-reviewed papers, this review provides comprehensive and current insights into the detection of clinically significant antimicrobial resistant bacteria and resistance genes in wild mammals, birds and reptiles worldwide. The review also examines the overlooked roles of wildlife in AMR emergence and transmission. In wildlife, AMR is potentially driven by anthropogenic activity, agricultural and environmental factors, and natural evolution. This review highlights the significance of AMR surveillance in wildlife, identifies species and geographical foci and gaps, and demonstrates the value of multifaceted One Health strategies if further escalation of AMR globally is to be curtailed.

Gram-negative bacterial diversity and evidence of international clones of multidrug-resistant strains in zoo animals

Enterobacterales and Pseudomonas aeruginosa have been colonizing or infecting wild hosts and antimicrobial-resistant strains are present in mammals and birds. Furthermore, international high-risk clones of multidrug-resistant Escherichia coli are identified and the implications of multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacteria in zoo animals are discussed.

Detecting Class 1 Integrons and Their Variable Regions in Escherichia coli Whole-Genome Sequences Reported from Andean Community Countries

Various genetic elements, including integrons, are known to contribute to the development of antimicrobial resistance. Class 1 integrons have been identified in E. coli isolates and are associated with multidrug resistance in countries of the Andean Community. However, detailed information on the gene cassettes located on the variable regions of integrons is lacking. Here, we investigated the presence and diversity of class 1 integrons, using an in silico approach, in 2533 whole-genome sequences obtained from EnteroBase. IntFinder v1.0 revealed that almost one-third of isolates contained these platforms. Integron-bearing isolates were associated with environmental, food, human, and animal origins reported from all countries under scrutiny. Moreover, they were identified in clones known for their pathogenicity or multidrug resistance. Integrons carried cassettes associated with aminoglycoside (aadA), trimethoprim (dfrA), cephalosporin (blaOXA; blaDHA), and fluoroquinolone (aac(6')-Ib-cr; qnrB) resistance. These platforms showed higher diversity and larger numbers than previously reported. Moreover, integrons carrying more than three cassettes in their variable regions were determined. Monitoring the prevalence and diversity of genetic elements is necessary for recognizing emergent patterns of resistance in pathogenic bacteria, especially in countries where various factors are recognized to favor the selection of resistant microorganisms.

Pons M. Antimicrobial resistance and associated risk factors in Escherichia coli isolated from Peruvian dogs: A focus on extended-spectrum β-lactamases and colistin

Background and Aim

Established antimicrobial resistance (AMR) surveillance in companion animals is lacking, particularly in low-middle-income countries. The aim of this study was to analyze AMR and its risk factors in Escherichia coli isolated from dogs at two veterinary centers in Lima (Peru).

Materials and Methods

Ninety dogs were included in the study. Antimicrobial susceptibility was established by disk diffusion, whereas microdilution was used to determine colistin susceptibility. Mechanisms related to extended-spectrum β-lactamases (ESBL) and colistin resistance were determined by polymerase chain reaction. Clonal relationships of colistin-resistant isolates were assessed by XbaI-pulsed-field gel electrophoresis.

Results

Thirty-five E. coli strains were isolated. High levels of resistance to ampicillin (57.1%), nalidixic acid (54.3%), tetracycline (48.6%), and azithromycin (25.7%) were detected. Cephalosporin resistance levels were ≥20% and those for colistin were 14.3%. Twelve (34.2%) isolates were ESBL producers; of these, six blaCTX-M-55 (50.0%), 2 (16.6%) blaCTX-M-15, and 2 (16.6%) blaCTX-M-8-like genes were found. The five colistin-resistant isolates were clonally unrelated, with four of them presenting amino acid codon substitutions in the mgrB gene (V8A) or mutations in the mgrB promoter (a12g, g98t, and c89t). Furthermore, dog age, <6 years (p = 0.027) and raw diet (p = 0.054) were associated with resistance to a greater number of antibiotic families.

Conclusion

Despite small number of samples included, the study found that dogs studied were carriers of multidrug-resistant E. coli, including last-resort antimicrobials, representing a public health problem due to close contact between dogs and humans. This issue suggests the need for larger studies addressed to design strategies to prevent the spread of resistant micro-organisms in small animal clinics and domestic settings.

Genomic epidemiology of third-generation cephalosporin-resistant Escherichia coli from Argentinian pig and dairy farms reveals animal-specific patterns of co-resistance and resistance mechanisms

Control measures are being introduced globally to reduce the prevalence of antibiotic resistance (ABR) in bacteria on farms. However, little is known about the current prevalence and molecular ecology of ABR in bacterial species with the potential to be key opportunistic human pathogens, such as Escherichia coli, on South American farms. Working with 30 dairy cattle farms and 40 pig farms across two provinces in central-eastern Argentina, we report a comprehensive genomic analysis of third-generation cephalosporin-resistant (3GC-R) E. coli, which were recovered from 34.8% (cattle) and 47.8% (pigs) of samples from fecally contaminated sites. Phylogenetic analysis revealed substantial diversity suggestive of long-term horizontal and vertical transmission of 3GC-R mechanisms. CTX-M-15 and CTX-M-2 were more often produced by isolates from dairy farms, while CTX-M-8 and CMY-2 and co-carriage of amoxicillin/clavulanate resistance and florfenicol resistance were more common in isolates from pig farms. This suggests different selective pressures for antibiotic use in these two animal types. We identified the β-lactamase gene blaROB, which has previously only been reported in the family Pasteurellaceae, in 3GC-R E. coli. blaROB was found alongside a novel florfenicol resistance gene, ydhC, also mobilized from a pig pathogen as part of a new composite transposon. As the first comprehensive genomic survey of 3GC-R E. coli in Argentina, these data set a baseline from which to measure the effects of interventions aimed at reducing on-farm ABR and provide an opportunity to investigate the zoonotic transmission of resistant bacteria in this region.

IMPORTANCE

Little is known about the ecology of critically important antibiotic resistance among bacteria with the potential to be opportunistic human pathogens (e.g., Escherichia coli) on South American farms. By studying 70 pig and dairy cattle farms in central-eastern Argentina, we identified that third-generation cephalosporin resistance (3GC-R) in E. coli was mediated by mechanisms seen more often in certain species and that 3GC-R pig E. coli were more likely to be co-resistant to florfenicol and amoxicillin/clavulanate. This suggests that on-farm antibiotic usage is key to selecting the types of E. coli present on these farms. 3GC-R E. coli and 3GC-R plasmids were diverse, suggestive of long-term circulation in this region. We identified the de novo mobilization of the resistance gene blaROB from pig pathogens into E. coli on a novel mobile genetic element, which shows the importance of surveying poorly studied regions for antibiotic resistance that might impact human health.

Scolopax rusticola Carrying Enterobacterales Harboring Antibiotic Resistance Genes

The Eurasian woodcock (Scolopax rusticola) belongs to those bird species that make systematic migratory flights in spring and autumn in search of favorable breeding and wintering areas. These specimens arrive in the Mediterranean Area from northeastern European countries during the autumn season. The purpose of this study was to assess whether woodcocks can carry antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) along their migratory routes. Although the role of migratory birds in the spread of some zoonotic diseases (of viral and bacterial etiology) has been elucidated, the role of these animals in the spread of antibiotic resistance has not yet been clarified. In this study, we analyzed the presence of beta-lactam antibiotic resistance genes. The study was conducted on 69 strains from 60 cloacal swabs belonging to an equal number of animals shot during the 2022-2023 hunting season in Sicily, Italy. An antibiogram was performed on all strains using the microdilution method (MIC) and beta-lactam resistance genes were investigated. The strains tested showed no phenotypic resistance to any of the 13 antibiotics tested; however, four isolates of Enterobacter cloacae and three of Klebsiella oxytoca were found to carry the blaIMP-70, blaVIM-35, blaNDM-5 and blaOXA-1 genes. Our results confirm the importance of monitoring antimicrobial resistance among migratory animals capable of long-distance bacteria spread.

Genomic insights into ESBL-producing Escherichia coli isolated from non-human primates in the Peruvian Amazon

Introduction

Extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Enterobacteriaceae are on the WHO priority pathogens list because they are associated with high mortality, health-care burden, and antimicrobial resistance (AMR), a serious problem that threatens global public health and should be addressed through the One Health approach. Non-human primates (NHP) have a high risk of acquiring these antibiotic-resistant bacteria due to their close phylogenetic relationship with humans and increased anthropogenic activities in their natural environments. This study aimed to detect and analyze the genomes of ESBL-producing Escherichia coli (ESBL-producing E. coli) in NHP from the Peruvian Amazon.

Materials and methods

We collected a total of 119 fecal samples from semi-captive Saguinus labiatus, Saguinus mystax, and Saimiri boliviensis, and captive Ateles chamek, Cebus unicolor, Lagothrix lagothricha, and Sapajus apella in the Loreto and Ucayali regions, respectively. Subsequently, we isolated and identified E. coli strains by microbiological methods, detected ESBL-producing E. coli through antimicrobial susceptibility tests following CLSI guidelines, and analyzed their genomes using previously described genomic methods.

Results

We detected that 7.07% (7/99) of E. coli strains: 5.45% (3/55) from Loreto and 9.09% (4/44) from Ucayali, expressed ESBL phenotype. Genomic analysis revealed the presence of high-risk pandemic clones, such as ST10 and ST117, carrying a broad resistome to relevant antibiotics, including three blaCTX-M variants: blaCTX-M-15, blaCTX-M-55, and blaCTX-M-65. Phylogenomic analysis confirmed the clonal relatedness of high-risk lineages circulating at the human-NHP interface. Additionally, two ESBL-producing E. coli strains were identified as EPEC (eae) and ExPEC according to their virulence profiles, and one more presented a hypermucoviscous phenotype.

Discussion

We report the detection and genomic analysis of seven ESBL-producing E. coli strains carrying broad resistome and virulence factors in NHP from two regions of the Peruvian Amazon. Some of these strains are closely related to high-risk pandemic lineages previously reported in humans and domestic animals, highlighting the negative impact of anthropogenic activities on Amazonian wildlife. To our knowledge, this is the first documentation of ESBL-producing E. coli in NHP from the Amazon, underscoring the importance of adopting the One Health approach to AMR surveillance and minimizing the potential transmission risk of antibiotic-resistant bacteria at the human-NHP interface.

Gut microbial shifts in vampire bats linked to immunity due to changed diet in human disturbed landscapes

Anthropogenic land-use change alters wildlife habitats and modifies species composition, diversity, and contacts among wildlife, livestock, and humans. Such human-modified ecosystems have been associated with emerging infectious diseases, threatening human and animal health. However, human disturbance also creates new resources that some species can exploit. Common vampire bats (Desmodus rotundus) in Latin America constitute an important example, as their adaptation to human-modified habitats and livestock blood-feeding has implications for e.g., rabies transmission. Despite the well-known links between habitat degradation and disease emergence, few studies have explored how human-induced disturbance influences wildlife behavioural ecology and health, which can alter disease dynamics. To evaluate links among habitat disturbance, diet shifts, gut microbiota, and immunity, we quantified disturbance around roosting caves of common vampire bats in Costa Rica, measured their long-term diet preferences (livestock or wildlife blood) using stable isotopes of carbon and nitrogen, evaluated innate and adaptive immune markers, and characterized their gut microbiota. We observed that bats from roosting caves with more cattle farming nearby fed more on cattle blood. Moreover, gut microbial richness and the abundance of specific gut microbes differed according to feeding preferences. Interestingly, bats feeding primarily on wildlife blood harboured a higher abundance of the bacteria Edwardsiella sp., which tended to be associated with higher immunoglobulin G levels. Our results highlight how human land-use change may indirectly affect wildlife health and emerging infectious diseases through diet-induced shifts in microbiota, with implications for host immunity and potential consequences for susceptibility to pathogens.

Effects of breastfeeding on children's gut colonization with multidrug-resistant Enterobacterales in peri-urban Lima, Peru

Children living in low-resource settings are frequently gut-colonized with multidrug-resistant bacteria. We explored whether breastfeeding may protect against children's incident gut colonization with extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli (ESBL-Ec) and Klebsiella, Enterobacter, or Citrobacter spp. (ESBL-KEC). We screened 937 monthly stool samples collected from 112 children aged 1-16 months during a 2016-19 prospective cohort study of enteric infections in peri-urban Lima. We used 52,816 daily surveys to examine how exposures to breastfeeding in the 30 days prior to a stool sample were associated with children's risks of incident gut-colonization, controlling for antibiotic use and other covariates. We sequenced 78 ESBL-Ec from 47 children to explore their diversity. Gut-colonization with ESBL-Ec was increasingly prevalent as children aged, approaching 75% by 16 months, while ESBL-KEC prevalence fluctuated between 18% and 36%. Through 6 months of age, exclusively providing human milk in the 30 days prior to a stool sample did not reduce children's risk of incident gut-colonization with ESBL-Ec or ESBL-KEC. From 6 to 16 months of age, every 3 additional days of breastfeeding in the prior 30 days was associated with 6% lower risk of incident ESBL-Ec gut-colonization (95% CI: 0.90, 0.98, p = .003). No effects were observed on incident ESBL-KEC colonization. We detected highly diverse ESBL-Ec among children and few differences between children who were predominantly breastfed (mean age: 4.1 months) versus older children (10.8 months). Continued breastfeeding after 6 months conferred protection against children's incident gut colonization with ESBL-Ec in this setting. Policies supporting continued breastfeeding should be considered in efforts to combat antibiotic resistance.

Traditional marketed meats as a reservoir of multidrug-resistant Escherichia coli

This study aimed to analyze Escherichia coli from marketed meat samples in Peru. Sixty-six E. coli isolates were recovered from 21 meat samples (14 chicken, 7 beef), and antimicrobial resistance levels and the presence of mechanisms of antibiotic resistance, as well as clonal relationships and phylogeny of colistin-resistant isolates, were established. High levels of antimicrobial resistance were detected, with 93.9% of isolates being multi-drug resistant (MDR) and 76.2% of samples possessing colistin-resistant E. coli; of these, 6 samples from 6 chicken samples presenting mcr-1-producer E. coli. Colistin-resistant isolates were classified into 22 clonal groups, while phylogroup A (15 isolates) was the most common. Extended-spectrum β-lactamase- and pAmpC-producing E. coli were found in 18 and 8 samples respectively, with blaCTX-M-55 (28 isolates; 16 samples) and blaCIT (8 isolates; 7 samples) being the most common of each type. Additionally, blaCTX-M-15, blaCTX-M-65, blaSHV-27, blaOXA-5/10-like, blaDHA, blaEBC and narrow-spectrum blaTEM were detected. In addition, 5 blaCTX-M remained unidentified, and no sought ESBL-encoding gene was detected in other 6 ESBL-producer isolates. The tetA, tetE and tetX genes were found in tigecycline-resistant isolates. This study highlights the presence of MDR E. coli in Peruvian food-chain. The high relevance of CTX-M-55, the dissemination through the food-chain of pAmpC, as well as the high frequency of unrelated colistin-resistant isolates is reported.

Detection of antimicrobial-resistant Enterobacterales in insectivorous bats from Chile

Enterobacterales of clinical importance for humans and domestic animals are now commonly detected among wildlife worldwide. However, few studies have investigated their prevalence among bats, particularly in bat species living near humans. In this study, we assessed the occurrence of Extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing (ESBL) and carbapenemase-resistant (CR) Enterobacterales in rectal swabs of bats submitted to the Chilean national rabies surveillance program from 2021 to 2022. From the 307 swabs screened, 47 (15%) harboured cefotaxime-resistant Enterobacterales. Bats carrying these bacteria originated from 9 out of the 14 Chilean regions. Most positive samples were obtained from Tadarida brasiliensis (n = 42), but also Lasiurus varius, L. cinereus and Histiotus macrotus. No Enterobacterales were resistant to imipenem. All ESBL-Enterobacterales were confirmed as Rahnella aquatilis by MALDI-TOF. No other ESBL or CR Enterobacterales were detected. To our knowledge, this is the first screening of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in wild bats of Chile, showing the bat faecal carriage of R. aquatilis naturally resistant to cephalosporins, but also including acquired resistance to important antibiotics for public health such as amoxicillin with clavulanic acid. Our results suggest unknown selective pressures on R. aquatilis, but low or no carriage of ESBL or CR Escherichia coli and Klebsiella spp. Future studies should assess the zoonotic and environmental implications of R. aquatilis, which are likely present in the guano left by bats roosting in human infrastructures.

Multiple clonal transmissions of clinically relevant extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli among livestock, dogs, and wildlife in Chile

OBJECTIVES

Extended-spectrum beta-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli (ESBL-E. coli) are a main cause of human deaths associated with antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Despite hundreds of reports of the faecal carriage of ESBL-E. coli in domestic and wild animals, the dynamics of its circulation remains poorly understood.

METHODS

We used whole genome sequencing of 19 ESBL-E. coli previously isolated in the same local setting from dogs, livestock, and a wild rodent in Central Chile to assess potential cross-species transmission of ESBL-E. coli.

RESULTS

Isolates harboured a large number of AMR (n = 95) and virulence (n = 45) genes, plasmids replicons (n = 24), and E. coli sequence types including top extraintestinal pathogenic E. coli ST410, ST58, ST88, and ST617. Almost identical clones (<50 single nucleotide polymorphisms difference, same antibiotic and heavy metal resistance genes, virulence genes, and plasmids) were found in faeces of dogs, cattle, or sheep from the same farm, and in a dog and a wild rodent living in proximity.

CONCLUSIONS

To our knowledge, this is the first report of multiple clonal cross-species transmission of ESBL-E. coli in domestic and potentially wild animals of Latin America. Our results suggest that relatively rare spread of AMR across animal species can still occur by both clonal and plasmid dissemination. Our study highlights the need for establishing preventive measures to limit the circulation of these bacteria among animals in agricultural settings, particularly given the highly pathogenic profile of several E. coli strains detected in these animals.

Genomic analysis of multidrug-resistant Escherichia coli strains carrying the mcr-1 gene recovered from pigs in Lima-Peru

Antibiotic resistance is a current problem that significantly impacts overall health. The dissemination of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) to urban areas primarily occurs through ARG-carrying bacteria present in the gut microbiota of animals raised in intensive farming settings, such as pig production. Hence, this study aimed to isolate and analyzed 87 Escherichia coli strains from pig fecal samples obtained from intensive farms in Lima Department. The isolates were subjected to Kirby-Bauer-Disk Diffusion Test and PCR for mcr-1 gene identification. Disk-diffusion assay revealed a high level of resistance among these isolates to oxytetracycline, ampicillin, cephalothin, chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin, and doxycycline. PCR analysis identified the mcr-1 gene in 8% (7/87) E. coli isolates. Further, whole genome sequencing was conducted on 17 isolates, including multidrug resistance (MDR) E. coli and/or mcr-1 gene carriers. This analysis unveiled a diverse array of ARGs. Alongside the mcr-1 gene, the bla_CTX-M55 gene was particularly noteworthy as it confers resistance to third generation cephalosporins, including ceftriaxone. MDR E. coli genomes exhibited other ARGs encoding resistance to fosfomycin (fosA3), quinolones (qnrB19, qnrS1, qnrE1), tetracyclines (tetA, tetB, tetD, tetM), sulfonamides (sul1, sul2, sul3), amphenicols (cmlA1, floR), lincosamides (inuE), as well as various aminoglycoside resistance genes. Additionally, Multi Locus Sequence Typing (MLST) revealed a high diversity of E. coli strains, including ST10, a pandemic clone. This information provides evidence of the dissemination of highly significant ARGs in public health. Therefore, it is imperative to implement measures aimed at mitigating and preventing the transmission of MDR bacteria carrying ARGs to urban environments.

Zoonotic sources and the spread of antimicrobial resistance from the perspective of low and middle-income countries

BACKGROUND

Antimicrobial resistance is an increasing challenge in low and middle-income countries as it is widespread in these countries and is linked to an increased mortality. Apart from human and environmental factors, animal-related drivers of antimicrobial resistance in low- and middle-income countries have special features that differ from high-income countries. The aim of this narrative review is to address the zoonotic sources and the spread of antimicrobial resistance from the perspective of low- and middle-income countries.

MAIN BODY

Contamination with extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Escherichia coli is highest in poultry (Africa: 8.9-60%, Asia: 53-93%) and there is a risk to import ESBL-producing E. coli through poultry meat in Africa. In aquacultures, the proportion of ESBL-producers among E. coli can be high (27%) but the overall low quality of published studies limit the general conclusion on the impact of aquacultures on human health. ESBL-producing E. coli colonization of wildlife is 1-9% in bats or 2.5-63% birds. Since most of them are migratory animals, they can disperse antimicrobial resistant bacteria over large distances. So-called 'filth flies' are a relevant vector not only of enteric pathogens but also of antimicrobial resistant bacteria in settings where sanitary systems are poor. In Africa, up to 72.5% of 'filth flies' are colonized with ESBL-producing E. coli, mostly conferred by CTX-M (24.4-100%). While methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus plays a minor role in livestock in Africa, it is frequently found in South America in poultry (27%) or pork (37.5-56.5%) but less common in Asia (poultry: 3%, pork: 1-16%).

CONCLUSIONS

Interventions to contain the spread of AMR should be tailored to the needs of low- and middle-income countries. These comprise capacity building of diagnostic facilities, surveillance, infection prevention and control in small-scale farming.

A review of the diet of the common vampire bat (Desmodus rotundus) in the context of anthropogenic change

The common vampire bat (Desmodus rotundus) maintains a diverse, sanguivorous diet, utilizing a broad range of prey taxa. As anthropogenic change alters the distribution of this species, shifts in predator-prey interactions are expected. Understanding prey richness and patterns of prey selection is, thus, increasingly informative from ecological, epidemiological, and economic perspectives. We reviewed D. rotundus diet and assessed the geographical, taxonomical, and behavioral features to find 63 vertebrate species within 21 orders and 45 families constitute prey, including suitable host species in regions of invasion outside D. rotundus' range. Rodentia contained the largest number of species utilized by D. rotundus, though cattle were the most commonly reported prey source, likely linked to the high availability of livestock and visibility of bite wounds compared to wildlife. Additionally, there was tendency to predate upon species with diurnal activity and social behavior, potentially facilitating convenient and nocturnal predation. Our review highlights the dietary heterogeneity of D. rotundus across its distribution. We define D. rotundus as a generalist predator, or parasite, depending on the ecological definition of its symbiont roles in an ecosystem (i.e., lethal vs. non-lethal blood consumption). In view of the eminent role of D. rotundus in rabies virus transmission and its range expansion, an understanding of its ecology would benefit public health, wildlife management, and agriculture.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s42991-023-00358-3.

Extended-Spectrum β-Lactamases (ESBL) Producing Bacteria in Animals

Animals have been identified as potential reservoirs and vectors of resistance genes, with studies showing that Gram-negative bacteria can acquire resistance through the horizontal transmission of resistance genes on plasmids. It is important to understand the distribution of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria and their drug-resistant genes in animals. Previous review articles mostly focused on a single bacterium or a single animal. Our objective is to compile all ESBL-producing bacteria isolated from various animals in recent years and provide a comprehensive viewpoint. Using a thorough PubMed literature search spanning from 1 January 2020 to 30 June 2022, studies exploring extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) producing bacteria in animals were included. ESBL-producing bacteria are present in animals from various countries around the world. The most common sources of these bacteria were farm animals, and the most frequently isolated bacteria were Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae. The most detected ESBL genes were blaTEM, blaSHV, and blaCTX-M. The presence of ESBL-producing bacteria in animals highlights the importance of the One Health approach to address the issue of antibiotic resistance. Further research is needed to better understand the epidemiology and mechanisms of the spread of ESBL-producing bacteria in animal populations and their potential impact on human and animal health.

Trends in Bacterial Pathogens of Bats: Global Distribution and Knowledge Gaps

Bats have received considerable recent attention for infectious disease research because of their potential to host and transmit viruses, including Ebola, Hendra, Nipah, and multiple coronaviruses. These pathogens are occasionally transmitted from bats to wildlife, livestock, and to humans, directly or through other bridging (intermediate) hosts. Due to their public health relevance, zoonotic viruses are a primary focus of research attention. In contrast, other emerging pathogens of bats, such as bacteria, are vastly understudied despite their ubiquity and diversity. Here, we describe the currently known host ranges and geographic distributional patterns of potentially zoonotic bacterial genera in bats, using published presence-absence data of pathogen occurrence. We identify apparent gaps in our understanding of the distribution of these pathogens on a global scale. The most frequently detected bacterial genera in bats are Bartonella, Leptospira, and Mycoplasma. However, a wide variety of other potentially zoonotic bacterial genera are also occasionally found in bats, such as Anaplasma, Brucella, Borrelia, Coxiella, Ehrlichia, Francisella, Neorickettsia, and Rickettsia. The bat families Phyllostomidae, Vespertilionidae, and Pteropodidae are most frequently reported as hosts of bacterial pathogens; however, the presence of at least one bacterial genus was confirmed in all 15 bat families tested. On a spatial scale, molecular diagnostics of samples from 58 countries and four overseas departments and island states (French Guiana, Mayotte, New Caledonia, and Réunion Island) reported testing for at least one bacterial pathogen in bats. We also identified geographical areas that have been mostly neglected during bacterial pathogen research in bats, such as the Afrotropical region and Southern Asia. Current knowledge on the distribution of potentially zoonotic bacterial genera in bats is strongly biased by research effort towards certain taxonomic groups and geographic regions. Identifying these biases can guide future surveillance efforts, contributing to a better understanding of the ecoepidemiology of zoonotic pathogens in bats.

Evidence of Antimicrobial Resistance in Bats and Its Planetary Health Impact for Surveillance of Zoonotic Spillover Events: A Scoping Review

As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as other outbreaks, such as SARS and Ebola, bats are recognized as a critical species for mediating zoonotic infectious disease spillover events. While there is a growing concern of increased antimicrobial resistance (AMR) globally during this pandemic, knowledge of AMR circulating between bats and humans is limited. In this paper, we have reviewed the evidence of AMR in bats and discussed the planetary health aspect of AMR to elucidate how this is associated with the emergence, spread, and persistence of AMR at the human-animal interface. The presence of clinically significant resistant bacteria in bats and wildlife has important implications for zoonotic pandemic surveillance, disease transmission, and treatment modalities. We searched MEDLINE through PubMed and Google Scholar to retrieve relevant studies (n = 38) that provided data on resistant bacteria in bats prior to 30 September 2022. There is substantial variability in the results from studies measuring the prevalence of AMR based on geographic location, bat types, and time. We found all major groups of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria in bats, which are resistant to commonly used antibiotics. The most alarming issue is that recent studies have increasingly identified clinically significant multi-drug resistant bacteria such as Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), ESBL producing, and Colistin resistant Enterobacterales in samples from bats. This evidence of superbugs abundant in both humans and wild mammals, such as bats, could facilitate a greater understanding of which specific pathways of exposure should be targeted. We believe that these data will also facilitate future pandemic preparedness as well as global AMR containment during pandemic events and beyond.

An overview of bats microbiota and its implication in transmissible diseases

Recent pandemic events have raised the attention of the public on the interactions between human and environment, with particular regard to the more and more feasible transmission to humans of micro-organisms hosted by wild-type species, due to the increasing interspecies contacts originating from human’s activities. Bats, due to their being flying mammals and their increasing promiscuity with humans, have been recognized as hosts frequently capable of transmitting disease-causing microorganisms. Therefore, it is of considerable interest and importance to have a picture as clear as possible of the microorganisms that are hosted by bats. Here we focus on our current knowledge on bats microbiota. We review the most recent literature on this subject, also in view of the bat’s body compartments, their dietary preferences and their habitat. Several pathogenic bacteria, including many carrying multidrug resistance, are indeed common guests of these small mammals, underlining the importance of preserving their habitat, not only to protect them from anthropogenic activities, but also to minimize the spreading of infectious diseases.

High Prevalence of Beta-Lactam-Resistant Escherichia coli in South Australian Grey-Headed Flying Fox Pups (Pteropus poliocephalus)

The emergence of antimicrobial-resistant Escherichia coli in wildlife is concerning-especially resistance to clinically important beta-lactam antibiotics. Wildlife in closer proximity to humans, including in captivity and in rescue/rehabilitation centres, typically have a higher prevalence of antimicrobial-resistant E. coli compared to their free-living counterparts. Each year, several thousand Australian fruit bat pups, including the grey-headed flying fox (GHFF; Pteropus poliocephalus), require rescuing and are taken into care by wildlife rescue and rehabilitation groups. To determine the prevalence of beta-lactam-resistant E. coli in rescued GHFF pups from South Australia, faecal samples were collected from 53 pups in care. A combination of selective culture, PCR, antimicrobial susceptibility testing, whole-genome sequencing, and phylogenetic analysis was used to identify and genetically characterise beta-lactam-resistant E. coli isolates. The prevalence of amoxicillin-, amoxicillin-plus-clavulanic-acid-, and cephalosporin-resistant E. coli in the 53 pups was 77.4% (n = 41), 24.5% (n = 13), and 11.3% (n = 6), respectively. GHFF beta-lactam-resistant E. coli also carried resistance genes to aminoglycosides, trimethoprim plus sulphonamide, and tetracyclines in 37.7% (n = 20), 35.8% (n = 19), and 26.4% (n = 14) of the 53 GHFF pups, respectively, and 50.9% (n = 27) of pups carried multidrug-resistant E. coli. Twelve E. coli strain types were identified from the 53 pups, with six strains having extraintestinal pathogenic traits, indicating that they have the potential to cause blood, lung, or wound infections in GHFFs. Two lineages-E. coli ST963 and ST58 O8:H25-were associated with human extraintestinal infections. Phylogenetic analyses determined that all 12 strains were lineages associated with humans and/or domestic animals. This study demonstrates high transmission of anthropogenic-associated beta-lactam-resistant E. coli to GHFF pups entering care. Importantly, we identified potential health risks to GHFF pups and zoonotic risks for their carers, highlighting the need for improved antibiotic stewardship and biosafety measures for GHFF pups entering care.

Whole-Genome Characterisation of ESBL-Producing E. coli Isolated from Drinking Water and Dog Faeces from Rural Andean Households in Peru

E. coli that produce extended-spectrum β-lactamases (ESBLs) are major multidrug-resistant bacteria. In Peru, only a few reports have characterised the whole genome of ESBL enterobacteria. We aimed to confirm the identity and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) profile of two ESBL isolates from dog faeces and drinking water of rural Andean households and determine serotype, phylogroup, sequence type (ST)/clonal complex (CC), pathogenicity, virulence genes, ESBL genes, and their plasmids. To confirm the identity and AMR profiles, we used the VITEK®2 system. Whole-genome sequencing (WGS) and bioinformatics analysis were performed subsequently. Both isolates were identified as E. coli, with serotypes -:H46 and O9:H10, phylogroups E and A, and ST/CC 5259/- and 227/10, respectively. The isolates were ESBL-producing, carbapenem-resistant, and not harbouring carbapenemase-encoding genes. Isolate 1143 ST5259 harboured the astA gene, encoding the EAST1 heat-stable toxin. Both genomes carried ESBL genes (blaEC-15, blaCTX-M-8, and blaCTX-M-55). Nine plasmids were detected, namely IncR, IncFIC(FII), IncI, IncFIB(AP001918), Col(pHAD28), IncFII, IncFII(pHN7A8), IncI1, and IncFIB(AP001918). Finding these potentially pathogenic bacteria is worrisome given their sources and highlights the importance of One-Health research efforts in remote Andean communities.

Wildlife and Antibiotic Resistance

Antibiotic resistance is a major human health problem. While health care facilities are main contributors to the emergence, evolution and spread of antibiotic resistance, other ecosystems are involved in such dissemination. Wastewater, farm animals and pets have been considered important contributors to the development of antibiotic resistance. Herein, we review the impact of wildlife in such problem. Current evidence supports that the presence of antibiotic resistance genes and/or antibiotic resistant bacteria in wild animals is a sign of anthropic pollution more than of selection of resistance. However, once antibiotic resistance is present in the wild, wildlife can contribute to its transmission across different ecosystems. Further, the finding that antibiotic resistance genes, currently causing problems at hospitals, might spread through horizontal gene transfer among the bacteria present in the microbiomes of ubiquitous animals as cockroaches, fleas or rats, supports the possibility that these organisms might be bioreactors for the horizontal transfer of antibiotic resistance genes among human pathogens. The contribution of wildlife in the spread of antibiotic resistance among different hosts and ecosystems occurs at two levels. Firstly, in the case of non-migrating animals, the transfer will take place locally; a One Health problem. Paradigmatic examples are the above mentioned animals that cohabit with humans and can be reservoirs and vehicles for antibiotic resistance dissemination. Secondly, migrating animals, such as gulls, fishes or turtles may participate in the dissemination of antibiotic resistance across different geographic areas, even between different continents, which constitutes a Global Health issue.