Effect of hydrothermal pretreatment and compound microbial agents on compost maturity and gaseous emissions during aerobic composting of kitchen waste

The activation of Parageobacillus toebii in hyperthermophilic composting was depended on the bioavailability of raw materials

Hyperthermophilic composting (HTC) with excellent disposal effect is a novel composting technology by inoculating exogenous thermophilic microorganisms. However, the role of exogenous thermophilic microorganisms in HTC remains debated, especially for the applicability of different compost feedstocks. In this study, the role of Parageobacillus toebii during HTC using chicken and pig manure was investigated. The addition of P. toebii could raise the maximum temperature to 78.2 °C and obviously enhanced maturation effect in chicken manure composting. However, the enhancement effect of P. toebii was weaker in pig manure compost, and the maximum temperature only reached 73 °C. Addition of P. toebii could stimulated functional microbial communities for C&N transformation, increased temperature, and promoted the growth of thermophilic microorganisms in chicken manure composting. Component analyses showed that chicken manure had higher bioavailability compared to pig manure. Correlation analysis indicated that P. toebii activated as a "leader", stimulating metabolic activity among functional microbial communities and enhancing organic matter degradation for heat release, while its activation depended on the bioavailability of the raw material. This study provides important insights into the role and application of exogenous microorganisms in promoting HTC.

Enhancing aerobic composting of food waste by adding hydrolytically active microorganisms

The biomass of native microorganisms in food waste (FW) suitable for accelerated composting is initially low and requires time for adaptation. Adding of efficient hydrolytic microorganisms should be able to enhance compost-specific microbial activity, adjust microbial community structure, and potentially hasten FW biodegradation. This study aimed to identify bacterial and fungal strains with growth characteristics suitable for accelerating FW composting. Over 7 weeks, FW was composted in a pilot-scale test, either inoculated at the start or on day 28 with three different mixtures of 10 autochthonous Bacillus and Penicillium spp. strains known for their high hydrolytic activity. The effects of inoculation were assessed by measuring the rate of carbon dioxide (CO2) and ammonia (NH3) production and also the increase in temperature due to spontaneous exothermic activity of the enhanced microbial population degrading FW. Inoculation with Bacillus spp., particularly B. amyloliquefaciens and B. subtilis, at the beginning of composting increased CO2 production nearly 3-fold while maintaining stable ammonia production and temperature. The high concentration of Bacillus relative to native FW microorganisms led to dominant fermentation processes even in the presence of oxygen, resulting in moderate heat release and elevated production of volatile organic compounds. Introducing Penicillium spp. at a later stage (day 28) increased CO2 production nearly 2-fold, along with higher NH3 levels and temperature. These findings highlight the significance of inoculation timing and microbial composition in regulating metabolic pathways during FW composting degradation, offering insights for designing effective microbial formulations for composting.

Straw degradation enhanced in Thermomyces lanuginosus by transferring AgCMCase from Aspergillus glaucus

Fungi play a crucial role in straw composting due to the synergistic degradation effects of their secreted lignocellulose hydrolases. An efficient straw-composting system relies on thermophilic fungi and their lignocellulose hydrolases. Thermomyces lanuginosus, a typical thermophilic fungus in compost, lacks cellulase genes. A versatile Thermomyces strain capable of degrading cellulose, T. lanuginosus M85, which grows at 67 °C, was developed and transformed using the AgCMCase of Aspergillus glaucus. The R6 transformant exhibited high-level expression of the AgCMCase. Significant quantities of active cellulase produced by R6 were detected in the cellulose fermentation broth, peaking within 6-8 days. Compost analysis indicated that R6 increased the internal compost temperatures and prolonged high-temperature durations. Correspondingly, more reducing sugars and humus were released, which could promote plants growth. In summary, a cellulase-producing strain of T. lanuginosus capable of efficiently converting straws into organic fertilizers was engineered. This innovation holds considerable promise for sustainable and circular agricultural practices.

Insights into the critical roles of water-soluble organic matter and humic acid within kitchen compost in influencing cadmium bioavailability

Compost has demonstrated potential as a cadmium (Cd) remediation agent, while it still remains unclear about the core components in driving the bioactive transformation of Cd. To address this issue, this study isolated three components-kitchen compost powder (KC), humic acid (HA), and water-soluble organic matter (DOM)-from kitchen compost to regulate soil properties, bacterial community structures and functions, and Cd migration risks. The results revealed that the addition of 20% KC and HA reduced the bioavailability factor of Cd by 47.20% and 16.74%, respectively, with HA contributing 35.47% of the total reduction achieved with KC. Conversely, the application of DOM increased the Cd risk through a reduction in soil pH and an increase in the abundance of Cd-activating bacteria, which adversely affected the stability of Cd complexes. However, the porous structure and organic matter in KC and HA provided adsorption sites for Cd passivation and promoted the growth of Cd-fixing bacteria. This study effectively identifies both the positive and negative effects of key compost components on Cd migration and provides scientific guidance for applying kitchen compost in soil management.

Mitigation of ammonia and hydrogen sulfide emissions during aerobic composting of laying hen waste through NaOH-modified biochar

The impact of NaOH-modified biochar on the release of NH3 and H2S from laying hens' manure was examined for 44 days, using a small-scale simulated aerobic composting system. The findings revealed that the NaOH-modified biochar reduced NH3 and H2S emissions by 40.63% and 77.78%, respectively, compared to the control group. Moreover, the emissions of H2S were significantly lower than those of the unmodified biochar group (p < 0.05). The increased specific surface area and microporous structure of the biochar, as well as the higher content of alkaline and oxygenated functional groups, were found to facilitate the adsorption of NH3 and H2S. This enhanced adsorption capability was the primary reason for the significant reduction in NH3 emissions. Furthermore, during the high-temperature phase of composting, there was a notable alteration in the microbial community. The abundance of Limnochordaceae, Savagea, and IMCC26207 increased significantly which aided in the conversion of H2S to stable sulfate. These microorganisms also influenced the abundance of functional genes involved in sulfur metabolism, thereby inhibiting cysteine synthesis, along with the decomposition and conversion of sulfate to sulfite. This led to a significant decrease in H2S emissions. This study provides valuable data for the selection of deodorizers in the composting process of egg-laying hens. The results have significant implications for the application of NaOH-modified biochar for odor reduction in aerobic composting processes.

Co-composting of dewatered sludge and wheat straw with newly isolated Xenophilus azovorans: Carbon dynamics, humification, and driving pathways

Composting is a biological reaction caused by microorganisms. Composting efficiency can be adequately increased by adding biochar and/or by inoculating with exogenous microorganisms. In this study, we looked at four methods for dewatered sludge waste (DSW) and wheat straw (WS) aerobic co-composting: T1 (no additive), T2 (5% biochar), T3 (5% of a newly isolated strain, Xenophilus azovorans (XPA)), and T4 (5% of biochar-immobilized XPA (BCI-XPA)). Throughout the course of the 42-day composting period, we looked into the carbon dynamics, humification, microbial community succession, and modifications to the driving pathways. Compared to T1 and T2, the addition of XPA (T3) and BCI-XPA (T4) extended the thermophilic phase of composting without negatively affecting compost maturation. Notably, T4 exhibited a higher seed germination index (132.14%). Different from T1 and T2 treatments, T3 and T4 treatments increased CO2 and CH4 emissions in the composting process, in which the cumulative CO2 emissions increased by 18.61-47.16%, and T3 and T4 treatments also promoted the formation of humic acid. Moreover, T4 treatment with BCI-XPA addition showed relatively higher activities of urease, polyphenol oxidase, and laccase, as well as a higher diversity of microorganisms compared to other processes. The Functional Annotation of Prokaryotic Taxa (FAPROTAX) analysis showed that microorganisms involved in the carbon cycle dominated the entire composting process in all treatments, with chemoheterotrophy and aerobic chemoheterotrophy being the main pathways of organic materials degradation. Moreover, the presence of XPA accelerated the breakdown of organic materials by catabolism of aromatic compounds and intracellular parasite pathways. On the other hand, the xylanolysis pathway was aided in the conversion of organic materials to dissolved organics by the addition of BCI-XPA. These findings indicate that XPA and BCI-XPA have potential as additives to improve the efficiency of dewatered sludge and wheat straw co-composting.

Advances in understanding bioaerosol release characteristics and potential hazards during aerobic composting

Bioaerosol emissions and their associated risks are attracting increasing attention. Bioaerosols are generated during the pretreatment, fermentation, and screening of mature compost when processing various types of solid waste at composting plants (e.g., municipal sludge and animal manure). In this review, we summarize research into bioaerosols at different types of composting plants by focusing on the methods used for sampling bioaerosols, stages when emissions potentially occur, major components of bioaerosols, survival and diffusion factors, and possible control strategies. The six-stage Andersen impactor is the main method used for sampling bioaerosols in composting plants. In addition, different composting management methods mainly affect bioaerosol emissions from composting plants. Studies of the components of bioaerosols produced by composting plants mainly focused on bacteria and fungi, whereas few considered others such as endotoxin. The survival and diffusion of bioaerosols are influenced by seasonal effects due to changes in environmental factors, such as temperature and relative humidity. Finally, three potential strategies have been proposed for controlling bioaerosols in composting plants. Improved policies are required for regulating bioaerosol emissions, as well as bioaerosol concentration diffusion models and measures to protect human health.

Effects of Bacillus-based inoculum on odor emissions co-regulation, nutrient element transformations and microbial community tropological structures during chicken manure and sawdust composting

This study aims to evaluate whether different doses of Bacillus-based inoculum inoculated in chicken manure and sawdust composting will provide distinct effects on the co-regulation of ammonia (NH3) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S), nutrient conversions and microbial topological structures. Results indicate that the Bacillus-based inoculum inhibits NH3 emissions mainly by regulating bacterial communities, while promotes H2S emissions by regulating both bacterial and fungal communities. The inoculum only has a little effect on total organic carbon (TOC) and inhibits total sulfur (TS) and total phosphorus (TP) accumulations. Low dose inoculation inhibits total potassium (TK) accumulation, while high dose inoculation promotes TK accumulation and the opposite is true for total nitrogen (TN). The inoculation slightly affects the bacterial compositions, significantly alters the fungal compositions and increases the microbial cooperation, thus influencing the compost substances transformations. The microbial communities promote ammonium nitrogen (NH4+-N), TN, available phosphorus (AP), total potassium (TK) and TS, but inhibit nitrate nitrogen (NO3--N), TP and TK. Additionally, the bacterial communities promote, while the fungal communities inhibit the nitrite nitrogen (NO2--N) production. The core bacterial and fungal genera regulate NH3 and H2S emissions through the secretions of metabolic enzymes and the promoting or inhibiting effects on NH3 and H2S emissions are always opposite. Hence, Bacillus-based inoculum cannot regulate the NH3 and H2S emissions simultaneously.

Acceleration of the biodegradation of cationic polyacrylamide by the coupling effect of thermophilic microorganisms and high temperature in hyperthermophilic composting

As a flocculant of sewage sludge, cationic polyacrylamide (CPAM) enters the environment with sludge and exists for a long time, posing serious threats to the environment. Due to the environmental friendliness and high efficiency in the process of organic solid waste treatment, hyperthermophilic composting (HTC) has received increasing attention. However, it is still unclear whether the HTC process can effectively remove CPAM from sludge. In this study, the effects of HTC and conventional thermophilic composting (CTC) on CPAM in sludge were compared and analyzed. At the end of HTC and CTC, the concentrations of CPAM were 278.96 mg kg-1 and 533.89 mg kg-1, respectively, and the removal rates were 72.17% and 46.61%, respectively. The coupling effect of thermophilic microorganisms and high temperature improved the efficiency of HTC and accelerated the biodegradation of CPAM. The diversity and composition of microbial community changed dramatically during HTC. Geobacillus, Thermobispora, Pseudomonas, Brevundimonas, and Bacillus were the dominant bacteria responsible for the high HTC efficiency. To our knowledge, this is the first study in which CPAM-containing sludge is treated using HTC. The ideal performance and the presence of key microorganisms revealed that HTC is feasible for the treatment of CPAM-containing sludge.

Studies on the humic acid structure and microbial nutrient restriction mechanism during organic-inorganic co-composting

The effects of inorganic fertilizer addition method on the organic-inorganic co-composting process, especially the structure of humic acid and the mechanism of microbial nutrient restriction, are unclear. In this article, the effects of one-time and fractional addition of inorganic fertilizer on the structure of humic acid, extracellular enzyme activity, extracellular enzyme stoichiometry and the culturable growth-promoting bacteria during organic-inorganic co-composting were determined. The results showed that the addition of inorganic fertilizer promoted the humification degree of compost. Compared nitrogen with phosphorus, the fermentation microorganism behaved as N-restricted throughout the process. Compared one-time addition with fractional addition of inorganic treatments, the TOC, WSOC, NO3--N and humic acid content in the mature compost of the one-time addition treatment were higher. The contents of nitrogen, oxygen, the carboxyl functional groups, aromatic compounds, and the nitrogen/carbon atomic ratio in the humic acid structure increased as the composting process proceeded, while the contents of hydrogen, aliphatic substances, and the hydrogen/carbon atomic ratio decreased, and the elemental composition and structural changes of humic acids indicated that the humification degree of the one-time addition treatment was higher. The addition of inorganic fertilizer increased the relative abundances of Bacillus megaterium and Bacillus subtilis in the mature compost.

Effect evaluation of different green wastes on food waste digestate composting and improvement of operational conditions

This study attempted to determine the influence of diverse green wastes on food waste digestate composting and the improvement of operational conditions. Various effects of the green wastes (GW), with different types and sizes, initial substrate mixture C/N ratios, compost pile heights, and turning frequencies on the food waste digestate (FWD) composting were examined in the current work. The findings showed that the use of street sweeping green waste (SSGW) as an additive can maintain the thermophilic stage of the FWD composting for 28 days, while the end-product contained the greatest amounts of total phosphorus (TP, 2.29%) and total potassium (TK, 4.61%) and the lowest moisture content (14.8%). Crushed SSGW (20 mm) enabled the FWD composting to maintain the longest thermophilic period (28 days), achieving the highest temperature (70.2 °C) and seed germination index (GI, 100%). Adjusting the initial substrate mixture C/N ratio to 25, compost pile height to 30 cm, and turning frequency to three times a day could enhance the efficiency and improve the fertilizer quality of the co-composting of the FWD and SSGW. This study suggested that co-composting of FWD and SSGW (FWD/SSGW = 2.3, wet weight) is a promising technique for the treatment of municipal solid waste and provided significant theoretical data for the application of composting.

Impacts and mechanism of coal fly ash on kitchen waste composting performance: The perspective of microbial community

Aerobic composting is eco-friendly and sustainable practice for kitchen waste (KW) disposal to restore soil fertility and reduce environmental risks. However, KW compact structure, perishable nature, acidification by anaerobic acidogens, inhibits the metabolism of aerobic microbes, insufficient breakdown of organic matters, and prolong the composting duration. This study, co-composted coal fly ash (FA), to regulate bacterial dynamics, co-occurrence patterns and nutrients transformation in KW composting. Our results indicated, FA created suitable environment by increasing pH and temperature, which facilitated the proliferation and reshaping of microbial community. FA fostered the relative abundances of phlya (Proteobacteria, Chloroflexi and Actinobacteriota) and genera (Bacillus, Paenibacillus and Lysinibacillus), which promoted the nutrients transformation (phosphorus and nitrogen) in KW compost. FA enhanced the mutualistic correlations between bacterial communities, promoted the network complexity (nodes & edges) and contains more positive connections, which reflect the FA amendment effects. KW mature compost seed germination index reached >85% of FA treatment, indicated the final products fully met the Chinese national standard for organic fertilizer. These findings might provide opportunity to advance the KW composting and collaborative management of multiple waste to curb the current environmental challenges.

The co-inoculation of Trichoderma viridis and Bacillus subtilis improved the aerobic composting efficiency and degradation of lignocellulose

The aim of this study was to reveal the mechanism by which co-inoculation with both Trichoderma viridis and Bacillus subtilis improved the efficiency of composting and degradation of lignocellulose in agricultural waste. The results showed that co-inoculation with Trichoderma and Bacillus increased abundance of Bacteroidota to promote the maturation 7 days in advance. Galbibacter may be a potential marker of co-inoculation composting efficiency compost. The compost became dark brown, odorless, and had a carbon to nitrogen ratio of 16.40 and a pH of 8.2. Moreover, Actinobacteriota and Firmicutes still dominated the degradation of lignocellulose following inoculation with Trichoderma or Bacillus 35 days after composting. Bacterial function prediction analysis showed that carbohydrate metabolism was the primary metabolic pathway. In conclusion, co-inoculation with Trichoderma and Bacillus shortened the composting cycle and accelerated the degradation of lignocellulose. These findings provide new strategies for the efficient use of agricultural waste to produce organic fertilizers.

Full quantitative resource utilization of raw mustard waste through integrating a comprehensive approach for producing hydrogen and soil amendments

BACKGROUND

Pickled mustard, the largest cultivated vegetable in China, generates substantial waste annually, leading to significant environmental pollution due to challenges in timely disposal, leading to decomposition and sewage issues. Consequently, the imperative to address this concern centers on the reduction and comprehensive resource utilization of raw mustard waste (RMW). To achieve complete and quantitative resource utilization of RMW, this study employs novel technology integration for optimizing its higher-value applications.

RESULTS

Initially, subcritical hydrothermal technology was applied for rapid decomposition, with subsequent ammonia nitrogen removal via zeolite. Thereafter, photosynthetic bacteria, Rhodopseudomonas palustris, were employed to maximize hydrogen and methane gas production using various fermentation enhancement agents. Subsequent solid-liquid separation yielded liquid fertilizer from the fermented liquid and soil amendment from solid fermentation remnants. Results indicate that the highest glucose yield (29.6 ± 0.14) was achieved at 165-173℃, with a total sugar content of 50.2 g/L and 64% glucose proportion. Optimal ammonia nitrogen removal occurred with 8 g/L zeolite and strain stable growth at 32℃, with the highest OD600 reaching 2.7. Several fermentation promoters, including FeSO4, Neutral red, Na2S, flavin mononucleotide, Nickel titanate, Nickel oxide, and Mixture C, were evaluated for hydrogen production. Notably, Mixture C resulted in the maximum hydrogen production (756 mL), a production rate of 14 mL/h, and a 5-day stable hydrogen production period. Composting experiments enhanced humic acid content and organic matter (OM) by 17% and 15%, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

This innovative technology not only expedites RMW treatment and hydrogen yield but also substantially enriches soil fertility. Consequently, it offers a novel approach for low-carbon, zero-pollution RMW management. The study's double outcomes extend to large-scale RMW treatment based on the aim of full quantitative resource utilization of RMW. Our method provides a valuable reference for waste management in similar perishable vegetable plantations.

Harmless and resourceful utilization of solid waste: Multi physical field regulation in the microbiological treatment process of solid waste treatment

Solid waste (SW) treatment methods mainly include physical, chemical, and biological methods, while physical and chemical methods have advantages such as fast effectiveness and short treatment time, but have high costs and were prone to secondary pollution. Due to the advantages of mild conditions and environmental protection, microbial methods have attracted the attention of numerous researchers. Recently, promotion of biological metabolic activity in biotreatment technology by applying multiple physical conditions, and reducing the biochemical reaction energy base to promote the transfer of protons and electrons, has made significant progress in harmless and resourceful utilization of SW. This paper main summarized the harmless and resourceful treatment methods of common bulk SW. The research of physical field-enhanced microbial treatment of inorganic solid waste (ISW) and organic solid waste (OSW) was discussed. The advantages and mechanisms of microbial treatment compared to traditional SW treatment methods were analyzed. The multi-physical field coupling enhanced microbial treatment technology was proposed to further improving the efficiency of large-scale treatment of bulk SW. The application prospects and potential opportunities of this technology were analyzed. Novel research ideas for the large-scale harmless and resourceful treatment of bulk SW were provided.

A comprehensive review on the decentralized composting systems for household biodegradable waste management

Municipal solid waste primarily consists of household biodegradable waste (HBW). HBW treatment is a crucial step in many countries due to rapid urbanization. Composting is an effective technique to treat HBW. However, conventional composting systems are unable to produce matured compost (MC), as well as releasing huge amounts of greenhouse and odorous gases. Therefore, this review attempts to suggest suitable composting system to manage HBW, role of additives and bulking agents in composting process, identify knowledge gaps and recommend future research directions. Centralized composting systems are unable to produce MC due to improper sorting and inadequate aeration for composting substrate. Recently, decentralized compost systems (DCS) are becoming more popular due to effective solid waste reduction at the household and/or community level itself, thereby reducing the burden on municipalities. Solid waste sorting and aeration for the composting substrate is easy at DCS, thereby producing MC. However, Mono-composting of HBW in DCS leads to production of immature compost and release greenhouse and odorous gases due to lower free air space and carbon-to-nitrogen ratios, and higher moisture content. Mixing HBW with additives and bulking agents in DCS resulted in a proper initial substrate for composting, allowing rapid degradation of substrate due to longer duration of thermophilic phase and produce MC within a shorter duration. However, people have lack of awareness about solid waste management is the biggest challenge. More studies are needed to eliminate greenhouse and odorous gases emissions by mixing different combinations of bulking agents and additives (mainly microbial additives) to HBW in DCS.

Identifying the role of array electrodes in improving the compost quality of food waste during electric field-assisted aerobic composting

Low composting temperature and long maturation periods are two major problems during food waste composting. In this study, a novel array-based electric field-assisted aerobic composting (Pin-EAC) process was tested on food waste compost. Pin-EAC increase the composting temperature to 69.3 °C, and improved the germination index by 15%. The Pin-EAC took at least 40% less time to reach the standard compost maturity. The fluorescent spectroscopy results showed that Pin-EAC could increase humic acid and fulvic acid by 33% and 37%, respectively. Pin-EAC could increase the diversity of thermophilic bacteria during composting. The co-occurrence network shown that Pin-EAC are more closely related to oxygen and temperature. This work has initially shown that the use of an electric field could improve food waste composting quality, suggesting that the Pin-EAC process is an effective strategy for high-water and high-oil organic solid waste aerobic composting.

Hyperthermophilic pretreatment significantly accelerates thermophilic composting humification through improving bacterial communities and promoting microbial cooperation

Thermophilic composting (TC) can effectively shorten maturity period with satisfactory sanitation. However, the higher energy consumption and lower composts quality limited its widespread application. In this study, hyperthermophilic pretreatment (HP) was introduced as a novel approach within TC, and its effects on humification process and bacterial community during food waste TC was investigated from multiple perspectives. Results showed that a 4-hour pretreatment at 90 °C increased the germination index and humic acid/fulvic acid by 25.52% and 83.08%. Microbial analysis demonstrated that HP stimulated the potential functional thermophilic microbes, and significantly up-regulated the genes related to amino acid biosynthesis. Further network and correlation analysis suggested that pH was the key factor affecting bacterial communities, and higher HP temperatures help to restore bacterial cooperation and showed higher humification degree. In summary, this study contributed to a better understanding of the mechanism towards the accelerated humification by HP.

Adding siderophores: A new strategy to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in composting

Microbial community is the primary driver causing the greenhouse gas emissions in composting. Thus, regulating the microbial communities is a strategy to reduce them. Here, two different siderophores (enterobactin and putrebactin) were added, which could bind and translocate iron by specific microbes, to regulate the composting communities. The results showed that adding enterobactin enriched Acinetobacter and Bacillus with specific receptors by 6.84-fold and 6.78-fold. It promoted carbohydrate degradation and amino acid metabolism. This resulted in a 1.28-fold increase in humic acid content, as well as a 14.02% and 18.27% decrease in CO₂ and CH₄ emissions, respectively. Meanwhile, adding putrebactin boosted the microbial diversity by 1.21-fold and enhanced potential microbial interactions by 1.76-fold. The attenuated denitrification process led to a 1.51-fold increase in the total nitrogen content and a 27.47% reduction in N₂O emissions. Overall, adding siderophores is an efficient strategy to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and promote the compost quality.

Investigation of biochar amendments on odor reduction and their characteristics during food waste co-composting

The odor emission such as ammonia (NH₃) and hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) during the composting process is a severe problem that adversely affects the environment and human health. Therefore, this study aimed to (1) evaluate the variation of physicochemical characteristics during the co-composting of food waste, and sawdust mixed biochar; (2) assess the efficiency of biochar-composting combined amendment materials for reducing odor emissions and their maturity. The raw materials including food waste (FW), straw dust (SD), and biochar (BC) were prepared and homogeneously mixed with the weight ranging from 120.0 kg to 135.8 kg with five treatments, BC0 (Control), BC1 (5 % biochar), BC2 (5 % distilled water washed biochar), BC3 (10 % biochar), BC4 (20 % biochar). Adding biochar could change physicochemical properties such as temperature, moisture, and pH during composting. The results indicated applying biochar-composting covering to minimalized NH₃ and H₂S aided by higher porous structure and surface functional groups. Among trials, biochar 20 % obtained the lowest NH₃ (2 ppm) and H₂S (3 ppm) emission on day 16 and stopping their emission on day 17. The NH₃/NH₄⁺ adsorption on large specific surface areas and highly porous micro-structure of biochar lead to reduced nitrogen losses, while nitrification (NH₄⁺ ➔ NO₂^- ➔ NO₃^-) may also contribute to nitrogen retention. The H₂S concentration decreased with increasing the biochar proportion, suggesting that biochar could reduce the H₂S emission. Correlation analysis illustrated that temperature, moisture, and oxygen are the most critical factors affecting H₂S and NH₃ emissions (p <0.05). The physicochemical properties and seed germination index indicated that the compost was mature without phytotoxicity. These novelty findings illustrated that the biochar amendment is an effective solution to reduce odor emission and enhances the maturity of compost mixture, which is promising to approach in real-scale conditions and could apply in agricultural fields.

Measures for Controlling Gaseous Emissions during Composting: A Review

Composting is a promising technology for treating organic solid waste. However, greenhouse gases (methane and nitrous oxide) and odor emissions (ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, etc.) during composting are practically unavoidable, leading to severe environmental problems and poor final compost products. The optimization of composting conditions and the application of additives have been considered to mitigate these problems, but a comprehensive analysis of the influence of these methods on gaseous emissions during composting is lacking. Thus, this review summarizes the influence of composting conditions and different additives on gaseous emissions, and the cost of each measure is approximately evaluated. Aerobic conditions can be achieved by appropriate process conditions, so the contents of CH4 and N2O can subsequently be effectively reduced. Physical additives are effective regulators to control anaerobic gaseous emissions, having a large specific surface area and great adsorption performance. Chemical additives significantly reduce gaseous emissions, but their side effects on compost application must be eliminated. The auxiliary effect of microbial agents is not absolute, but is closely related to the dosage and environmental conditions of compost. Compound additives can reduce gaseous emissions more efficiently than single additives. However, further study is required to assess the economic viability of additives to promote their large-scale utilization during composting.