1
|
Wu C, Zhao Y, Geng Y, Shi K, Zhou S. Characterizing the regional distribution, interaction with microorganisms, and sources of dissolved organic matter for summer rainfall: Insights from spectroscopy, community structure, and back-trajectory analyses. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 926:172086. [PMID: 38556025 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.172086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2024] [Revised: 03/15/2024] [Accepted: 03/27/2024] [Indexed: 04/02/2024]
Abstract
Dissolved organic matter (DOM) in rainfall participates in many biogeochemical cycles in aquatic environments and affects biological activities in water bodies. Revealing the characteristics of rainfall DOM could broaden our understanding of the carbon cycle. Therefore, the distribution characteristics and response mechanisms of DOM to microorganisms were investigated in different regions of Hebei. The results indicated that the water quality of the northern region was worse than that of the middle and southern regions. The two protein like components (C1, C2) and one humic like component (C3) were obtained; at high molecular weight (MW), the fluorescence intensity is high in the northern region (0.03 ± 0.02 R.U.), while at low MW, the fluorescence intensity is highest in the southern region (0.50 ± 0.18 R.U.). Furthermore, C2 is significantly positively correlated with C1 (P < 0.01), while C2 is significantly negatively correlated with C3 (P < 0.05) was observed. The spectral index results indicated that rainfall DOM exhibited low humification and highly autochthonous characteristics. The southern region obtained higher richness and diversity of microbial species than northern region (P < 0.05). The community exhibits significant spatiotemporal differences, and the Acinetobacter, Enterobacter, and Massilia, were dominant genus. Redundancy and network analyses showed that the effects of C1, C2, and nitrate on microorganisms increased with decreasing MW, while low MW exhibited a more complex network between DOM and microorganisms than high MW. Meanwhile, C1, C2 had a large total effect on β-diversity and function through structural equation modeling. The backward trajectory model indicates that the sources of air masses are from the northwest, local area, and sea in the northern, middle, and southern regions, respectively. This study broadened the understanding of the composition of summer rainfall DOM and its interactions with microorganisms during rainfall.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chenbin Wu
- Pollution Prevention Biotechnology Laboratory of Hebei Province, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hebei University of Science and Technology, Shijiazhuang 050018, PR China
| | - Yuting Zhao
- Pollution Prevention Biotechnology Laboratory of Hebei Province, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hebei University of Science and Technology, Shijiazhuang 050018, PR China
| | - Yuting Geng
- Pollution Prevention Biotechnology Laboratory of Hebei Province, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hebei University of Science and Technology, Shijiazhuang 050018, PR China
| | - Kun Shi
- School of Civil Engineering, Hebei University of Science and Technology, Shijiazhuang 050018, PR China
| | - Shilei Zhou
- Pollution Prevention Biotechnology Laboratory of Hebei Province, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hebei University of Science and Technology, Shijiazhuang 050018, PR China; School of Civil Engineering, Hebei University of Science and Technology, Shijiazhuang 050018, PR China.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Lyu H, Zhang H, Dong J, Shen B, Cheng Z, Yu J, Li R, Shao N, Tang J. Pyrolysis temperature matters: Biochar-derived dissolved organic matter modulates aging behavior and biotoxicity of microplastics. WATER RESEARCH 2024; 250:121064. [PMID: 38154336 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2023.121064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2023] [Revised: 12/23/2023] [Accepted: 12/23/2023] [Indexed: 12/30/2023]
Abstract
Microplastics (MPs) have emerged as a novel and highly concerning contaminant that is ubiquitous in the aqueous environment. However, the aging of MPs induced by dissolved organic matter (DOM), especially biochar-derived dissolved organic matter (BDOM), and the biological toxicity after aging are not fully understood. In this study, the effects of biochar-derived BDOMs on the photoaging and biotoxicity of MPs were investigated at different pyrolysis temperatures using micro-scale polyethylene (PE) as an example. The results showed that the amount of ·OH generated by the BDOM/PE systems was related to the molecular composition and structure of BDOMs. High temperature BDOM7/9 with less lignin-like (34.33 % / 41.80 %) and more lipid (24.58 % / 19.88 %) content could produce more ·OH by itself, and its binding ability with PE was weaker due to its less hydrophobic components (SUVA260 = 0.10 / 0.11), which resulted in a weaker shading effect and less inhibition of the system, thus resulting in more ·OH production in the high temperature BDOM7/9/PE system. However, the involvement of BDOM, although favoring the long-term stable ·OH production of the system, did not significantly promote the photoaging of MPs. Furthermore, combined in vivo and in vitro biotoxicity studies of MPs showed that photoaging PE with the involvement of BDOM greatly improved systemic inflammation and tissue damage, as well as reactive oxygen species (ROS, such as ·OH and -OH)-induced cell death. For example, the addition of BDOM5/PE-light reduced the cell death of human lung, liver, and kidney cells from 54.70 %, 69.39 %, and 48.35 % to 22.78 %, 33.13 %, and 25.83 %, respectively, compared to the PE-light group. The results of this study contribute to an in-depth understanding of the environmental behavior of BDOM and MPs systems.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Honghong Lyu
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Clean Energy and Pollution Control, School of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin 300401, China..
| | - Hui Zhang
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Clean Energy and Pollution Control, School of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin 300401, China
| | - Jinrui Dong
- Academy of Medical Engineering and Translational Medicine, Medical College, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China..
| | - Boxiong Shen
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Clean Energy and Pollution Control, School of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin 300401, China
| | - Zi Cheng
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Clean Energy and Pollution Control, School of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Hebei University of Technology, Tianjin 300401, China
| | - Junhui Yu
- Academy of Medical Engineering and Translational Medicine, Medical College, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Ruiyan Li
- Academy of Medical Engineering and Translational Medicine, Medical College, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Ningning Shao
- Department of Basic Medicine, Haihe Hospital, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300350, China
| | - Jingchun Tang
- Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria (Ministry of Education), Tianjin Engineering Center of Environmental Diagnosis and Contamination Remediation, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China..
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Hu W, Niu XZ, Chen H, Ye B, Liang JK, Guan YT, Wu QY. Molecular insight of dissolved organic matter and chlorinated disinfection by-products in reclaimed water during chlorination with permanganate preoxidation. CHEMOSPHERE 2024; 349:140807. [PMID: 38029937 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.140807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2023] [Revised: 10/09/2023] [Accepted: 11/22/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023]
Abstract
Permanganate is a common preoxidant applied in water treatment to remove organic pollutants and to reduce the formation of disinfection by-products. However, the effect of permanganate preoxidation on the transformation of dissolved effluent organic matter (dEfOM) and on the formation of unknown chlorinated disinfection by-products (Cl-DBPs) during chlorination remains unknown at molecular level. In this work, the molecular changes of dEfOM during permanganate preoxidation and subsequent chlorination were characterized using Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (FT-ICR MS). Permanganate preoxidation was found to decrease the DBE (double bond equivalent) and AImod (modified aromaticity index) of the dEfOM. The identity and fate of over 400 unknown Cl-DBPs during KMnO4-chlorine treatment were investigated. Most Cl-DBPs and the precursors were found to be highly unsaturated aliphatic and phenolic compounds. The Cl-DBPs precursors with lower H/C and lower O/C were preferentially removed by permanganate preoxidation. Additionally, permanganate preoxidation decreased the number of unknown Cl-DBPs by 30% and intensity of unknown Cl-DBPs by 25%. One-chlorine-containing DBPs were the major Cl-DBPs and had more CH2 groups and higher DBEw than Cl-DBPs containing two and three chlorine atoms. 60% of the Cl-DBPs formation was attributed to substitution reactions (i.e., +Cl-H, +2Cl-2H, +3Cl-3H, +ClO-H, +Cl2O3-2H). This work provides detailed molecular level information on the efficacy of permanganate preoxidation on the control of overall Cl-DBPs formation during chlorination.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wei Hu
- Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Microorganism Application and Risk Control, Guangdong Provincial Engineering Research Center for Urban Water Recycling and Environmental Safety, Institute of Environment and Ecology, Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Xi-Zhi Niu
- Environmental Engineering and Science Program, Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, 45221, USA
| | - Huan Chen
- Department of Environmental Engineering and Earth Science, Clemson University, SC, 29634, USA
| | - Bei Ye
- Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Microorganism Application and Risk Control, Guangdong Provincial Engineering Research Center for Urban Water Recycling and Environmental Safety, Institute of Environment and Ecology, Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Jun-Kun Liang
- Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Microorganism Application and Risk Control, Guangdong Provincial Engineering Research Center for Urban Water Recycling and Environmental Safety, Institute of Environment and Ecology, Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Yun-Tao Guan
- Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Microorganism Application and Risk Control, Guangdong Provincial Engineering Research Center for Urban Water Recycling and Environmental Safety, Institute of Environment and Ecology, Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Qian-Yuan Wu
- Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Microorganism Application and Risk Control, Guangdong Provincial Engineering Research Center for Urban Water Recycling and Environmental Safety, Institute of Environment and Ecology, Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen, 518055, China.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Han B, Chen L, Xiao K, Chen R, Cao D, Yu L, Li Y, Tao S, Liu W. Characteristics of dissolved organic matter (DOM) in Chinese farmland soils under different climate zone types: A molecular perspective. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2024; 350:119695. [PMID: 38035506 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.119695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2023] [Revised: 11/03/2023] [Accepted: 11/21/2023] [Indexed: 12/02/2023]
Abstract
Interactions between dissolved organic matter (DOM) and surrounding environments are highly complex. Understanding DOM at the molecular level can contribute to the management of soil pollution and safeguarding agricultural fields. Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (FTICR-MS) has enabled a molecular-level understanding of DOM. Accordingly, in this study, we investigated soil samples from 27 different regions of mainland China with various soil types and climatic characteristics. Based on the geographical features of the four typical climatic zones in mainland China (temperate monsoon, temperate continental, subtropical monsoon, and Qinghai-Tibet Plateau climates), we employed high-resolution mass spectrometry to determine the molecular diversity of DOM under different climatic conditions. The results indicated that lignin and tannin-like substances were the most active categories of DOM in the soils. Collectively, the composition and unsaturation of DOM molecules are influenced by sunlight, precipitation, temperature, and human activity. All climatic regions contained a substantial number of characteristic molecules, with CHO and CHON constituting over 80%, and DOM containing nitrogen and sulfur was relatively more abundant in the monsoon regions. The complex composition of DOM incorporates various active functional groups, such as -NO2 and -ONO2. Furthermore, soil DOM in the monsoon regions showed higher unsaturation and facilitated various (bio) biochemical reactions in the soil.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- BingJun Han
- Key Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
| | - LiYuan Chen
- Key Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
| | - Kang Xiao
- Beijing Yanshan Earth Critical Zone National Research Station, College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 101408, China
| | - RuYa Chen
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, 310012, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Dong Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China
| | - Lu Yu
- Key Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
| | - YuJun Li
- Key Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
| | - Shu Tao
- Key Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
| | - WenXin Liu
- Key Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Ren W, Zhang Y, Liu X, Li S, Li H, Zhai Y. Peracetic acid pretreatment improves biogas production from anaerobic digestion of sewage sludge by promoting organic matter release, conversion and affecting microbial community. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2024; 349:119427. [PMID: 37890304 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.119427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2023] [Revised: 10/13/2023] [Accepted: 10/19/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023]
Abstract
Peracetic acid (PAA) pretreatment is considered as a novel and effective chemical pretreatment method for sludge. However, there is little information available on potential mechanisms of how PAA pretreatment affects sludge anaerobic digestion (AD). To fill the knowledge gap, this study investigated the effects and potential mechanisms of PAA pretreatment on sludge AD systems from physicochemical and microbiological perspectives. Batch experiments resulted that biogas production was enhanced by PAA pretreatment and the highest cumulative biogas yield (297.94 mL/g VS (volatile solid)) was obtained with 2 mM/g VS of PAA pretreatment. Kinetic model analysis illustrated that the PAA pretreatment improved the biogas potential (Pt) of sludge AD, but prolonged the lag phase (λ) of AD. Mechanistic studies revealed that reactive oxygen species (ROS) (HO•, O2-•, 1O2 and CH3C(O)OO•) were the major intermediate products of PAA decomposition. These ROS effectively promoted the decomposition and solubilization of sludge, and provided more biodegradable organic matter for the following AD reactions. 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing showed that some functional microorganisms associated with hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis as well as methanogenesis, such as Hydrogenispora, Romboutsia, Longivirga, Methanosarcina and Methanosaet, were significantly enriched in reactors pretreated with PAA. Redundancy analysis and variation partitioning analysis indicated that functional microorganisms were significantly correlated with intermediate metabolites (soluble carbohydrate, soluble protein, soluble chemical oxygen demand and volatile fatty acids) and cumulative biogas production. This study provides a fresh understanding of the effects and mechanisms of PAA pretreatment on sludge AD, updates the insights into the response of functional microorganisms to PAA pretreatment, and the findings obtained might provide a fundamental basis for chemical pretreatment of sludge AD using oxidants.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wanying Ren
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha, 410082, PR China; Key Laboratory of Environmental Biology and Pollution Control (Hunan University), Ministry of Education, Changsha, 410082, PR China
| | - Yanru Zhang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha, 410082, PR China; Key Laboratory of Environmental Biology and Pollution Control (Hunan University), Ministry of Education, Changsha, 410082, PR China; Hunan Academy of Forestry and State Key Laboratory of Utilization of Woody Oil Resource, Changsha, 410004, PR China
| | - Xiaoping Liu
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha, 410082, PR China; Key Laboratory of Environmental Biology and Pollution Control (Hunan University), Ministry of Education, Changsha, 410082, PR China
| | - Shanhong Li
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha, 410082, PR China; Key Laboratory of Environmental Biology and Pollution Control (Hunan University), Ministry of Education, Changsha, 410082, PR China
| | - Hui Li
- Hunan Academy of Forestry and State Key Laboratory of Utilization of Woody Oil Resource, Changsha, 410004, PR China
| | - Yunbo Zhai
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha, 410082, PR China; Key Laboratory of Environmental Biology and Pollution Control (Hunan University), Ministry of Education, Changsha, 410082, PR China.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Nguyen HVM, Tak S, Hur J, Shin HS. Fluorescence spectroscopy in the detection and management of disinfection by-product precursors in drinking water treatment processes: A review. CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 343:140269. [PMID: 37748659 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.140269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2023] [Revised: 09/22/2023] [Accepted: 09/23/2023] [Indexed: 09/27/2023]
Abstract
Monitoring and prevention of the formation of disinfection by-products (DBPs) is paramount in drinking water treatment plants (DWTP) to ensure human health safety. This review provides an overview of how fluorescence techniques are developed to predict DBP formation and to evaluate the reduction of fluorescence components and DBPs following individual DWTP processes. Evidence has shown that common DBPs, nitrogenous DBPs and specific emerging DBPs exhibit positive linear relationships with terrestrial, anthropogenic, tryptophan-like, and eutrophic humic-like fluorescence. Due to the interrelationships of both regulated and emerging DBP types with fluorescence components, the limitations arise when attempting to predict emerging DBPs solely through linear relationships. Monitoring the reduction of DBP precursors after each treatment process can be achieved by studying the relationship between fluorescence components and DBPs. During the coagulation process, highest reduction rates are observed for terrestrial humic-like fluorescence. Advanced treatments such as granular, powdered, silver-impregnated activated carbon, magnetic ion exchange resins, and reverse osmosis, have revealed a significant reduction of fluorescent DBP precursors, ranging from 53% to 100%. During chlorination, the reduction rate follows the order: terrestrial humic-like > microbial humic-like > protein/tryptophan-like fluorescence. This review provides insights into the reduction of fluorescence signatures following individual DWTP processes, which offers information regarding DBP formation. These insights could assist in optimizing the treatment process to more effectively manage DBP formation. For the identification of emerging DBP generation, the utilization of advanced models is imperative to precisely predict emerging DBPs and to more accurately trace DBP precursors within DWTPs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hang Vo-Minh Nguyen
- Department of Environment Energy Engineering, Seoul National University of Science & Technology, 232 Gongneung-ro, Seoul, 01811, South Korea
| | - Surbhi Tak
- Department of Environment & Energy, Sejong University, Seoul, 05006, South Korea
| | - Jin Hur
- Department of Environment & Energy, Sejong University, Seoul, 05006, South Korea.
| | - Hyun-Sang Shin
- Department of Environment Energy Engineering, Seoul National University of Science & Technology, 232 Gongneung-ro, Seoul, 01811, South Korea.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Xu S, Wu Y, Bu L, Deng L, Li G, Zhou S, Shi Z. Molecular insights towards changing behaviors of organic matter in a full-scale water treatment plant using FTICR-MS. CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 330:138731. [PMID: 37086984 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.138731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2023] [Revised: 04/05/2023] [Accepted: 04/18/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The changing behavior of organic matter in a full-scale water treatment process was characterized based on the three-dimensional excitation-emission matrix (3D-EEM) and Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (FTICR-MS). Polyaluminum chloride (PAC) as a coagulant can help to effectively remove soluble microbial by-products-like and aromatic protein-like substances during coagulation and sedimentation, corresponding to tannin and coagulated aromatic regions. The leakage of soluble microbial products during sand filtration resulted in an increase in the intensity of biomass-like regions. Nitrogen-containing compounds have higher weighted average value of double bond equivalents (DBEw) and the modified aromaticity index (AImod-w) than nitrogen-free compounds. Water treatment can preferentially remove unsaturated nitrogen-containing compounds with more O atoms and higher-oxidation-state carbon. The dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and UV254 were not correlated well with changes in nitrogen-containing compounds due to the preferential removal of nitrogen-containing compounds. This study revealed the specificity of organic matter removal during water treatment, and it was helpful in optimizing treatment processes for various raw water to ensure water quality.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shunkai Xu
- Key Laboratory of Building Safety and Energy Efficiency, Ministry of Education, Department of Water Engineering and Science, College of Civil Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha, 410082, China; Beijing General Municipal Engineering Design & Research Institute Co. Ltd., Beijing 100082, China
| | - Yangtao Wu
- Key Laboratory of Building Safety and Energy Efficiency, Ministry of Education, Department of Water Engineering and Science, College of Civil Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha, 410082, China; Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China.
| | - Lingjun Bu
- Key Laboratory of Building Safety and Energy Efficiency, Ministry of Education, Department of Water Engineering and Science, College of Civil Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha, 410082, China
| | - Lin Deng
- Key Laboratory of Building Safety and Energy Efficiency, Ministry of Education, Department of Water Engineering and Science, College of Civil Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha, 410082, China
| | - Guangchao Li
- Key Laboratory of Building Safety and Energy Efficiency, Ministry of Education, Department of Water Engineering and Science, College of Civil Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha, 410082, China.
| | - Shiqing Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Building Safety and Energy Efficiency, Ministry of Education, Department of Water Engineering and Science, College of Civil Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha, 410082, China
| | - Zhou Shi
- Key Laboratory of Building Safety and Energy Efficiency, Ministry of Education, Department of Water Engineering and Science, College of Civil Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha, 410082, China
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Tang G, Li B, Zhang B, Hu S, Chen S, Liu T, Wang Q, Qiao H, Zheng X. Temperature effects on microbial dissolved organic matter metabolisms: Linking size fractions, fluorescent compositions, and functional groups. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 864:161175. [PMID: 36572301 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.161175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2022] [Revised: 12/19/2022] [Accepted: 12/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
This study elucidated the compositional and structural variations of size fractions of microbially-induced dissolved organic matter (DOM) caused by short-term temperature changes (5 to 35 °C), taking riverine DOM as an example. A simple and efficient method combining fractionation-[parallel factor analysis and two-dimensional Fourier-transform infrared correlation spectroscopy (PARAFAC-2D FTIR COS)]-correlation was introduced to link fluorescent DOM components and their structures in terms of surface functional groups. Results indicated that the higher temperature stimulated the decomposition of aromatics (sizes decreased from 10 kDa-0.22 μm to <10 kDa) and the transformation of proteins to humics (with sizes <0.22 μm); while both the higher and lower temperatures inhibited the utilization of larger-sized DOM (>0.22 μm, especially the non-fluorescence part) and synthesis of larger-sized microbial-derived proteins and humics (>0.22 μm), which may result in more smaller-sized (<10 kDa) and refractory aromatics transported from rivers to oceans in the warming future. However, the structure-determined DOM behaviors could be less affected by temperature since the fluorescent proteins and humics revealed similar functional group compositions, such as carboxyl, hydroxyl, carbonyl/aldehyde, carboxylic anhydride, and carboxamide groups. These findings have strong implications for DOM biogeochemistry in future temperature-shock scenarios. The proposed method will support in-depth analyses of structure-regulated processes from a mechanistic perspective.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gang Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Eco-hydraulics in Northwest Arid Region, Xi'an University of Technology, Xi'an 710048, China; Melbourne Climate Futures Academy, Climate & Energy College, School of Geography, Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia; State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Integrated Surface Water-Groundwater Pollution Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China.
| | - Binrui Li
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Integrated Surface Water-Groundwater Pollution Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China; Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC J1K 2R1, Canada
| | - Bowei Zhang
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Integrated Surface Water-Groundwater Pollution Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Shiwen Hu
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Integrated Surface Water-Groundwater Pollution Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Shuling Chen
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Integrated Surface Water-Groundwater Pollution Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Tong Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Eco-hydraulics in Northwest Arid Region, Xi'an University of Technology, Xi'an 710048, China
| | - Qianqian Wang
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Integrated Surface Water-Groundwater Pollution Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Han Qiao
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Integrated Surface Water-Groundwater Pollution Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Xing Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Eco-hydraulics in Northwest Arid Region, Xi'an University of Technology, Xi'an 710048, China.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Chen X, Wu Y, Zhang W, Bu L, Zhu S, Sheng D, Zhou S, Crittenden JC. Insight into the mechanisms of trichloronitromethane formation by vacuum ultraviolet: QSAR model and FTICR-MS analysis. J Environ Sci (China) 2023; 125:215-222. [PMID: 36375907 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2021.11.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2021] [Revised: 11/20/2021] [Accepted: 11/21/2021] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) photolysis is recognized as an environmental-friendly treatment process. Nitrate (NO3-) and natural organic matter (NOM) are widely present in water source. We investigated trichloronitromethane (TCNM) formation during chlorination after VUV photolysis, because TCNM is an unregulated highly toxic disinfection byproduct. In this study: (1) we found reactive nitrogen species that is generated under VUV photolysis of NO3- react with organic matter to form nitrogen-containing compounds and subsequently form TCNM during chlorination; (2) we found the mere presence of 0.1 mmol/L NO3- can result in the formation of up to 63.96 µg/L TCNM; (3) we found the changes in pH (6.0-8.0), chloride (1-4 mmol/L), and bicarbonate (1-4 mmol/L) cannot effectively diminish TCNM formation; and, (4) we established the quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) model, which indicated a linear relationship between TCNM formation and the Hammett constant (σ) of model compounds; and, (5) we characterized TCNM precursors in water matrix after VUV photolysis and found 1161 much more nitrogen-containing compounds with higher aromaticity were generated. Overall, this study indicates more attention should be paid to reducing the formation risk of TCNM when applying VUV photolysis process at scale.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaojun Chen
- Key Laboratory of Building Safety and Energy Efficiency, Ministry of Education, Department of Water Engineering and Science, College of Civil Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China
| | - Yangtao Wu
- Key Laboratory of Building Safety and Energy Efficiency, Ministry of Education, Department of Water Engineering and Science, College of Civil Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China.
| | - Weiqiu Zhang
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering and the Brook Byers Institute for Sustainable Systems, Georgia Institute of Technology, Georgia 30332, USA
| | - Lingjun Bu
- Key Laboratory of Building Safety and Energy Efficiency, Ministry of Education, Department of Water Engineering and Science, College of Civil Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China.
| | - Shumin Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Building Safety and Energy Efficiency, Ministry of Education, Department of Water Engineering and Science, College of Civil Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China
| | - Da Sheng
- Key Laboratory of Building Safety and Energy Efficiency, Ministry of Education, Department of Water Engineering and Science, College of Civil Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China
| | - Shiqing Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Building Safety and Energy Efficiency, Ministry of Education, Department of Water Engineering and Science, College of Civil Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China
| | - John C Crittenden
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering and the Brook Byers Institute for Sustainable Systems, Georgia Institute of Technology, Georgia 30332, USA
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Liu F, Zhao Q, Ding J, Li L, Wang K, Zhou H, Jiang M, Wei J. Sources, characteristics, and in situ degradation of dissolved organic matters: A case study of a drinking water reservoir located in a cold-temperate forest. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2023; 217:114857. [PMID: 36427638 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2022.114857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2022] [Revised: 11/11/2022] [Accepted: 11/17/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Dissolved organic matter (DOM) plays a pivotal role in the biogeochemical cycles of elements and the regulation of forest ecosystem functions. However, studies on the regional and seasonal characteristics of DOM in cold-temperate montane forests are still not comprehensive. In this study, samples of water, soil, and sediment from different sites in the forest drainage basin were collected, and their DOM was characterized by an excitation-emission matrix and parallel factor analysis (EEM-PARAFAC). The results showed that terrestrial-sourced humic-like substances were the dominant DOM in the studied reservoir and inflowing rivers. The quality and quantity of DOM exhibited spatiotemporal variations with the influence of terrain and monsoonal precipitation. The average concentration of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) in the wet season was 11.62 mg/L, which was higher than that in the dry season (8.18 mg/L). Higher humification index (HIX) values were observed in the wet season and upstream water than in the dry season and reservoir water. Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (FTICR-MS) was used to further develop a molecular-level understanding of the in situ degradation process of DOM. The results indicated that photodegradation rather than biodegradation may play a dominant role in the in situ degradation of terrestrial-sourced humic-like substances under natural conditions. The biodegradability of DOM was enhanced after the in situ degradation process. Additionally, a significant decrease in the precursors of disinfectant byproducts in DOM was observed after in situ degradation. To our knowledge, this is the first study of the sources, characteristics, and in situ degradation of DOM in a reservoir in a cold-temperate forest. These findings help better understand the quality, quantity, and biogeochemical process of DOM in the studied reservoir and may contribute to the selection of drinking water treatment technologies for water supply.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fan Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resources and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150090, China
| | - Qingliang Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resources and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150090, China
| | - Jing Ding
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resources and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150090, China.
| | - Lili Li
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resources and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150090, China
| | - Kun Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resources and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150090, China
| | - Huimin Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resources and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150090, China
| | - Miao Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resources and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150090, China
| | - Jian Wei
- Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Xu Y, Wang B, Ding S, Zhao M, Ji Y, Xie W, Feng Z, Feng Y. Hydrothermal carbonization of kitchen waste: An analysis of solid and aqueous products and the application of hydrochar to paddy soil. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 850:157953. [PMID: 35963404 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.157953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2022] [Revised: 08/05/2022] [Accepted: 08/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) technology can potentially be used to safely and sustainably utilize kitchen waste (KW). However, the characteristics of HTC solid products (hydrochar) and aqueous products (HAP) based on different types of KW have not yet been clarified. Here, four types of KW, cellulose-based (CL), skeleton-based (SK), protein-based (PT), and starch-based (ST) KW, were used for HTC at 180 °C, 220 °C, and 260 °C. The basic physicochemical properties and structures of hydrochars and HAP were analyzed, and the effects of different hydrochars on rice growth were characterized. HTC decreased the H/C and O/C of KW. All hydrochars were acidic (3.12 to 6.78) and the pH values increased with the HTC temperature, while high HTC temperature reduced the porosity of hydrochars. HTC promoted the enrichment of total carbon (up to 78.1 %), total nitrogen (up to 62.6 %), and total phosphorus (up to 171.6 %) in KW. More carbon (60.7-88.0 %) and nitrogen (up to 87.4 %) were present in the hydrochars than in the HAP. The relative content of C1s increased and O1s decreased in CL and ST hydrochars as the HTC temperature increased, while the opposite pattern was observed for SK and PT hydrochars. The dissolved organic matter (DOM) of different hydrochars and HAP were mainly humus-like substances. The biodegradability of the DOM in HAP was often higher than the corresponding hydrochar, and their DOM biodegradability increased with the HTC temperature. The content of heavy metals from different hydrochars did not exceed the relevant thresholds of fertilizer standards. Rice grain yield increased by 3.7-11.1 % in the hydrochar treatments without phosphate fertilizer addition compared with the control treatment. The results of this study provide new theoretical and empirical insights into the potential for HTC technology to be used for the recycling of KW and its products in the agricultural environment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yongji Xu
- Research Center for Global Changes and Ecosystem Carbon Sequestration & Mitigation, College of Applied Meteorology, Nanjing University of Information Science & Technology, Nanjing 210044, China; Key Laboratory of Agro-Environment in Downstream of Yangtze Plain, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Agricultural Resources and Environment, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing 210014, China
| | - Bingyu Wang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, School of Environmental and Biological Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210094, China
| | - Shudong Ding
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Environment in Downstream of Yangtze Plain, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Agricultural Resources and Environment, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing 210014, China; School of the Environment and Safety Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212001, China
| | - Mengying Zhao
- Research Center for Global Changes and Ecosystem Carbon Sequestration & Mitigation, College of Applied Meteorology, Nanjing University of Information Science & Technology, Nanjing 210044, China
| | - Yang Ji
- Research Center for Global Changes and Ecosystem Carbon Sequestration & Mitigation, College of Applied Meteorology, Nanjing University of Information Science & Technology, Nanjing 210044, China.
| | - Wenping Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Soil and Sustainable Agriculture, Institute of Soil Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Nanjing 210008, China
| | - Zhaozhong Feng
- Research Center for Global Changes and Ecosystem Carbon Sequestration & Mitigation, College of Applied Meteorology, Nanjing University of Information Science & Technology, Nanjing 210044, China
| | - Yanfang Feng
- Key Laboratory of Agro-Environment in Downstream of Yangtze Plain, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Agricultural Resources and Environment, Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Nanjing 210014, China; School of the Environment and Safety Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212001, China
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Correlation Analysis of the Carboxyl and Carbonyl Groups of Natural Organic Matter and the Formation Potential of Trihalomethanes and Chloral Hydrate. Molecules 2022; 27:molecules27217454. [DOI: 10.3390/molecules27217454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2022] [Revised: 10/21/2022] [Accepted: 10/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural organic matter (NOM) has always been considered the main precursor of disinfection by-products (DBPs) during the chlorine disinfection of drinking water. This research focuses on investigating the correlation between the functional group (carboxyl and carbonyl groups) content of NOM and the formation of trichloromethane (TCM) and chloral hydrate (CH). The quantitative determination of carboxyl groups, carbonyl groups, TCM, and CH were conducted during the drinking water treatment processes with different coagulant dosages and with/without pre-oxidation by KMnO4 or NaClO. The most appropriate coagulant for the removal of conventional components was polyaluminum chloride (PAC), and the dosage was 110 mg/L. Up to 43.7% and 14.5% of the carboxyl and carbonyl groups, respectively, were removed through the coagulation and sedimentation processes, which can be enhanced by increasing PAC dosage. The filtration process further increased the removal rates of these two functional groups to 59.8% and 33.5%, respectively. The formation potential of the TCM and CH decreased as the PAC dosage increased. Pre-oxidation by KMnO4 (0.8–1.0 mg/L) effectively controlled the formation of DBPs while increasing the carboxyl and carbonyl group content. Pre-oxidation by NaClO decreased the formation of TCM rather than CH, and a suitable amount (0.5–1.0 mg/L) decreased the carboxyl and carbonyl groups. It was found that there was a good linear correlation between carboxyl groups and TCM and CH. The linear fit R2 values of the carboxyl groups to TCM and CH were 0.6644 and 0.7957, respectively. The linear fit R2 values of the carbonyl groups to TCM and CH were 0.5373 and 0.7595, respectively.
Collapse
|
13
|
Wang F, Pan J, Hu Y, Zhou J, Wang H, Huang X, Chu W, van der Hoek JP. Effects of biological activated carbon filter running time on disinfection by-product precursor removal. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 838:155936. [PMID: 35580672 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.155936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2022] [Revised: 04/25/2022] [Accepted: 05/10/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Biological activated carbon (BAC) filtration is usually considered to be able to decrease formation potentials (FPs) of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in drinking water treatment plant (DWTP). However, BAC filters with long running time may release microbial metabolites to effluents and therefore increase FPs of nitrogenous DBPs with high toxicity. To verify this hypothesis, this study continuously tracked BAC filters in a DWTP for one year, and assessed effects of old (running time 8-9 years) and new (running time 0-13 months) BAC filters on FPs of 15 regulated and unregulated DBPs. Results revealed that dissolved organic carbon (DOC) removal was slightly higher in the new BAC than the old one. All fluorescent components of dissolved organic matter evidently declined after new BAC filtration, but fulvic acid-like and soluble microbial product-like substances increased after old BAC filtration, which could be caused by microbial leakage. Correspondingly, new BAC filter generally removed more DBP FPs than the old one. 46.5% HAA7 FPs from chlorination and 44.3% THM4 FPs from chloramination were removed by new BAC filter. However, some DBP FPs, especially HAN FPs, were poorly removed or even increased by the old BAC filter. Proteobacteria could be a main contributor for DBP precursor removal in BAC filters. Herminiimonas, most abundant genera in new BAC filter, may explain its better DOC and UV254 removal performance and lower DBP FPs, while Bradyrhizobium, most abundant genera in old BAC filter, might produce more extracellular polymeric substances and therefore increased N-DBP FPs in old BAC effluent. This study provided insight into variations of DBP FPs and microbial communities in the new and old BAC filters, and will be helpful for the optimization of DWTP design and operation for public health.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Feifei Wang
- School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University, 200444 Shanghai, PR China
| | - Jiazheng Pan
- School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University, 200444 Shanghai, PR China.
| | - Yulin Hu
- School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University, 200444 Shanghai, PR China
| | - Jie Zhou
- School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University, 200444 Shanghai, PR China
| | - Haoqian Wang
- School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University, 200444 Shanghai, PR China
| | - Xin Huang
- School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University, 200444 Shanghai, PR China
| | - Wenhai Chu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, 200092 Shanghai, PR China.
| | - Jan Peter van der Hoek
- Department of Water Management, Delft University of Technology, 2628 CN Delft, the Netherlands; Research & Innovation Program, Waternet, 1096 AC Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Zhang Y, Liu C, Li Y, Song L, Yang J, Zuo R, Li J, Teng Y, Wang J. Spectroscopic Characteristics and Speciation Distribution of Fe(III) Binding to Molecular Weight-Dependent Standard Pahokee Peat Fulvic Acid. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19137838. [PMID: 35805509 PMCID: PMC9266197 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19137838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2022] [Revised: 06/22/2022] [Accepted: 06/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022]
Abstract
Peat-derived organic matter, as powerful chelators, is of great significance for the transport of Fe to the ocean and the enhancement of dissolved Fe. However, the iron binding capacity of molecular weight (MW)-fractionated dissolved organic matter is variable, due to its structure and composition heterogeneity. In this work, we used the standard Pahokee Peat fulvic acid (PPFA) as an example, and investigated the spectroscopy properties and Fe(III) binding ability of PPFA and different molecular weight fractions by UV−Vis absorbance and fluorescence spectroscopy and the Donnan Membrane Technique (DMT). The results showed binding sites for Fe(III) at the 263 nm and >320 nm regions in differential absorbance spectra. Upon increasing the iron concentration to 18.00 μmol·L−1, the critical binding capacity was exceeded, which resulted in a decrease in absorbance. Fe(III) was found to prefer to bind to humic-like components, and ultraviolet humic-like fluorophores displayed stronger binding strength. High molecular weight PPFA fractions (>10 kDa) possessed more aromatic and hydrophobic components, displayed a higher degree of humification, and exhibited higher metal binding potential. Furthermore, the speciation analysis and stability constant (cK) were calculated using Donnan membrane equilibrium. The correlation between cK values and PPFA spectral properties demonstrated that aromaticity, hydrophobicity, molecular weight and humification degree were crucial indices of PPFA−Fe(III) affinity. Significantly, the humification degree, represented by HIX, showed the strongest correlation (r = 0.929, p = 0.003), which could be used to estimate the binding strength. This study provides further understanding of the complexation mechanism of iron and DOM in the peat environment and identifies the considerable effect of molecular weight.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yaqin Zhang
- College of Water Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China; (Y.Z.); (C.L.); (Y.L.); (R.Z.); (J.L.); (Y.T.); (J.W.)
- Engineering Research Center of Groundwater Pollution Control and Remediation, Ministry of Education of China, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Chang Liu
- College of Water Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China; (Y.Z.); (C.L.); (Y.L.); (R.Z.); (J.L.); (Y.T.); (J.W.)
- Engineering Research Center of Groundwater Pollution Control and Remediation, Ministry of Education of China, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Yuxia Li
- College of Water Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China; (Y.Z.); (C.L.); (Y.L.); (R.Z.); (J.L.); (Y.T.); (J.W.)
- Engineering Research Center of Groundwater Pollution Control and Remediation, Ministry of Education of China, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Liuting Song
- College of Water Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China; (Y.Z.); (C.L.); (Y.L.); (R.Z.); (J.L.); (Y.T.); (J.W.)
- Engineering Research Center of Groundwater Pollution Control and Remediation, Ministry of Education of China, Beijing 100875, China
- Correspondence: (L.S.); (J.Y.)
| | - Jie Yang
- College of Water Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China; (Y.Z.); (C.L.); (Y.L.); (R.Z.); (J.L.); (Y.T.); (J.W.)
- Engineering Research Center of Groundwater Pollution Control and Remediation, Ministry of Education of China, Beijing 100875, China
- Correspondence: (L.S.); (J.Y.)
| | - Rui Zuo
- College of Water Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China; (Y.Z.); (C.L.); (Y.L.); (R.Z.); (J.L.); (Y.T.); (J.W.)
- Engineering Research Center of Groundwater Pollution Control and Remediation, Ministry of Education of China, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Jian Li
- College of Water Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China; (Y.Z.); (C.L.); (Y.L.); (R.Z.); (J.L.); (Y.T.); (J.W.)
- Engineering Research Center of Groundwater Pollution Control and Remediation, Ministry of Education of China, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Yanguo Teng
- College of Water Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China; (Y.Z.); (C.L.); (Y.L.); (R.Z.); (J.L.); (Y.T.); (J.W.)
- Engineering Research Center of Groundwater Pollution Control and Remediation, Ministry of Education of China, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Jinsheng Wang
- College of Water Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China; (Y.Z.); (C.L.); (Y.L.); (R.Z.); (J.L.); (Y.T.); (J.W.)
- Engineering Research Center of Groundwater Pollution Control and Remediation, Ministry of Education of China, Beijing 100875, China
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Duan P, Wei M, Yao L, Li M. Relationship between non-point source pollution and fluorescence fingerprint of riverine dissolved organic matter is season dependent. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 823:153617. [PMID: 35124063 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.153617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2021] [Revised: 01/27/2022] [Accepted: 01/28/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The source identification of water pollution and quantification of pollution sources are vital for water environment management. Dissolved organic matter (DOM) affects the form, solubility, and toxicity of pollutants, so the migration and transformation of DOM are crucial for water quality assessment. Therefore, the aim of this study was to identify pollution sources and quantify their contribution in water environments using fluorescence fingerprint of DOM. The Danjiangkou Reservoir and its main tributaries were selected as the study area. The DOM fluorescence components of pollution source samples were analyzed and the quantitative relationship between DOM spectral indices and nitrate isotopes (δ15N-NO3- and δ18O-NO3-) was established. It was found that humic-like substances were mainly derived from non-point source (NPS) pollution and protein-like substances were from point source (PS) pollution. The fluorescence index (FI) of DOM was positively correlated with PS pollution and negatively correlated with NPS pollution. The quantitative relationship between three-dimensional (3D) fluorescence spectra characteristics of DOM and water quality indicators or NPS pollution was established, which realized the convenient quantitative evaluation of pollution load and pollution source contribution using DOM fluorescence spectra characteristics. The strength of the correlation between DOM fluorescence spectra characteristics and water quality indicators (or NPS pollution) was affected by seasonal rainfall due to changes in the contribution of PS and NPS pollution. This study provides a new approach for source identification of water pollution and quantification of pollution sources using 3D fluorescence fingerprint of DOM.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pengfei Duan
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Water Security for Water Source Region of Mid-line of South-to-North Diversion Project, Nanyang Normal University, Nanyang 473061, PR China
| | - Mengjiao Wei
- Key Laboratory of Pollution Processes and Environmental Criteria of the Ministry of Education, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Remediation and Pollution Control for Urban Ecological Environment, Numerical Simulation Group for Water Environment, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, PR China
| | - Lunguang Yao
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Water Security for Water Source Region of Mid-line of South-to-North Diversion Project, Nanyang Normal University, Nanyang 473061, PR China
| | - Ming Li
- College of Natural Resources and Environment, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, PR China.
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Sheng D, Bu L, Zhu S, Wu Y, Wang J, Zhou S. Organic chloramines formation from algal organic matters: Insights from Fourier transform-ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry. WATER RESEARCH 2021; 206:117746. [PMID: 34678699 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2021.117746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2021] [Revised: 10/04/2021] [Accepted: 10/06/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Release of algal organic matter (AOM) from algae poses great threats to drinking water safety. As organic nitrogen in AOM is relatively higher compared to natural organic matter (NOM), the organic chloramine formation during chlorination cause overestimation of effective chlorine, which may lead to a biological risk. This study compared the organic chloramine formation from AOM and NOM, and confirmed that AOM tend to form more organic chloramines during chlorination. Furthermore, it was found that hydrophilic fraction and high molecular weight (>100 kDa) fraction of AOM generated major organic chloramines due to a high content of protein. Based on the results of Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (FT-ICR MS), Spearman's rank correlation was used to analyze the relationship between molecular composition of AOM and organic chloramine formation. Notably, molecules with high correlation to organic chloramine formation located in a triangle region of van Krevelen diagram, which is a typical area of peptides. Therefore, it indicates that the precursors of organic chloramine in AOM are mainly proteins/peptides, and appropriate treatment processes (e.g., biological treatment or membrane filtration) should be addressed to effectively remove the precursors before chlorination.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Da Sheng
- Key Laboratory of Building Safety and Energy Efficiency, Ministry of Education, Department of Water Engineering and Science, College of Civil Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha, Hunan 410082, China
| | - Lingjun Bu
- Key Laboratory of Building Safety and Energy Efficiency, Ministry of Education, Department of Water Engineering and Science, College of Civil Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha, Hunan 410082, China
| | - Shumin Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Building Safety and Energy Efficiency, Ministry of Education, Department of Water Engineering and Science, College of Civil Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha, Hunan 410082, China
| | - Yangtao Wu
- Key Laboratory of Building Safety and Energy Efficiency, Ministry of Education, Department of Water Engineering and Science, College of Civil Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha, Hunan 410082, China
| | - Jue Wang
- Key Laboratory of Building Safety and Energy Efficiency, Ministry of Education, Department of Water Engineering and Science, College of Civil Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha, Hunan 410082, China
| | - Shiqing Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Building Safety and Energy Efficiency, Ministry of Education, Department of Water Engineering and Science, College of Civil Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha, Hunan 410082, China.
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
He S, Liu T, Kang C, Xue H, Sun S, Yu S. Photodegradation of dissolved organic matter of chicken manure: Property changes and effects on Zn 2+/Cu 2+ binding property. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 276:130054. [PMID: 33690046 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.130054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2020] [Revised: 01/30/2021] [Accepted: 02/18/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Untreated livestock manure contains high concentrations of dissolved organic matter (DOM), which can enter the environment through leaching and eluviation, showing an important impact on the environment. In this research, fresh chicken manure from a large-scale chicken farm was collected as the source of DOM. The infrared spectrum of the original DOM was characterized. TOC analysis, UV spectrum and 3D fluorescence spectrum were used to measure the properties of DOM before and after photodegradation. Infrared spectroscopy results show that chicken manure DOM may contain aliphatic and aromatic compounds, alcohols, phenols, polysaccharides and some protein substances; In three systems, the order of TOC removal rates of DOM was water + UV system (85%) > > water + simulated sunlight system (7.2%) > ice + simulated sunlight system (4.5%); Changes of UV spectra, fluorescence spectra, molecular weight distribution and pH value show that, in three systems, as the illumination time increased, photodegradation reduced pH value of the systems, aromaticity and humus contents of DOM, while increased the proportion of medium and/or small molecular weight components of DOM. The amounts of all these changes were proportional to DOM photodegradation rates in the system. The binding ability of DOM with Cu2+ and Zn2+ in water solution decreased significantly after the photodegradation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shuiyuan He
- Key Laboratory of Groundwater Resources and Environment, Jilin University, Ministry of Education, Changchun, 130021, Jilin, PR China
| | - Tingting Liu
- Key Laboratory of Groundwater Resources and Environment, Jilin University, Ministry of Education, Changchun, 130021, Jilin, PR China; Research Institute of Solid Waste Management, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China
| | - Chunli Kang
- Key Laboratory of Groundwater Resources and Environment, Jilin University, Ministry of Education, Changchun, 130021, Jilin, PR China.
| | - Honghai Xue
- Key Laboratory of Groundwater Resources and Environment, Jilin University, Ministry of Education, Changchun, 130021, Jilin, PR China; Key Laboratory of Songliao Aquatic Environment, Ministry of Education, Jilin Jianzhu University, China
| | - Siyang Sun
- Key Laboratory of Groundwater Resources and Environment, Jilin University, Ministry of Education, Changchun, 130021, Jilin, PR China
| | - Shuyi Yu
- Key Laboratory of Groundwater Resources and Environment, Jilin University, Ministry of Education, Changchun, 130021, Jilin, PR China
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Zhang X, Shen J, Huo X, Li J, Zhou Y, Kang J, Chen Z, Chu W, Zhao S, Bi L, Xu X, Wang B. Variations of disinfection byproduct precursors through conventional drinking water treatment processes and a real-time monitoring method. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 272:129930. [PMID: 35534977 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.129930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2020] [Revised: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/07/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
In this investigation, raw water (RW), settled water (SW), and filtered water (FW) collected from a drinking water treatment plant were fractionated into 24 natural organic matter (NOM) fractions with varying molecular weights and hydrophobicity. The yields of disinfection byproducts (DBPs) obtained during the chlorination of the NOM fractions were explored. Results revealed that the 0-1 kDa, 5-10 kDa, and hydrophobic DBP precursors dominated RW. Hydrophobic fractions cannot be effectively removed, which contributed to the high DBP precursors remaining in the FW. The optional optical parameters, including UVA (UV340, UV360, and UV380), UVB (UV280, UV300, and UV310), and UVC (UV254, UV260, and UV272), were analyzed to determine the DBP yields during chlorination of different NOM fractions. Results revealed that UVC could be applied to indicate the regulated DBP yields of the humified precursors. Contrary to the generally accepted view, for biologically derived precursors, their regulated DBPs and dichloroacetonitrile correlated better with UVA (e.g. UV340). Moreover, PARAFAC analysis was applied to decompose an array of 24 EEM spectra. Good linear correlations were found between the PARAFAC components and most DBP yields. Furthermore, four fluorescence parameters were proposed via a modified fluorescence picking method, which can serve as excellent surrogates of PARAFAC components. These fluorescence parameters were found to be effective in indicating most DBP yields. Finally, the fluorescence intensity at excitation wavelength/emission wavelength = 310/416 nm was found to be a promising built-in parameter for the real-time monitoring of DBP precursors, regardless of the humification degree of the precursors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoxiao Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150090, China; Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
| | - Jimin Shen
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150090, China
| | - Xiaoyu Huo
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150090, China
| | - Jianwei Li
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Wetland Ecology and Vegetation Restoration, School of Environment, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, 130117, China
| | - Yaoyu Zhou
- College of Resources and Environment, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, 410128, China
| | - Jing Kang
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150090, China
| | - Zhonglin Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150090, China.
| | - Wei Chu
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China.
| | - Shengxin Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150090, China
| | - Lanbo Bi
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150090, China
| | - Xiaotong Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150090, China
| | - Binyuan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, 150090, China
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Zhang X, Chen Z, Huo X, Kang J, Zhao S, Peng Y, Deng F, Shen J, Chu W. Application of Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry in deciphering molecular composition of soil organic matter: A review. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 756:144140. [PMID: 33293083 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.144140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2020] [Revised: 11/03/2020] [Accepted: 11/23/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Swiftly deciphering soil organic matter (SOM) composition is critical for research on soil degradation and restoration. Recent advances in analytical techniques (e.g., optical methods and mass spectrometry) have expanded our understanding of the composition, origin, and evolution of SOM. In particular, the use of Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometers (FTICR-MS) makes it possible to interpret SOM compositions at the molecular level. In this review, we discuss extraction, enrichment, and purification methods for SOM using FTICR-MS analysis; summarize ionization techniques, FTICR-MS mechanisms, data analysis methods, and molecular compositions of SOM in different environments (providing new insights into its origin and evolution); and discuss factors affecting its molecular diversity. Our results show that digenesis, combustion, pyrolysis, and biological metabolisms jointly contribute to the molecular diversity of SOM molecules. The SOM thus formed can further undergo photodegradation during transportation from land to fresh water (and subsequently oceans), resulting in the formation of dissolved organic matter (DOM). Better understanding the molecular features of DOM therefore accelerates our understanding of SOM evolution. In addition, we assess the degradation potential of SOM in different environments to better inform soil remediation methods. Finally, we discuss the merits and drawbacks of applying FTICR-MS on the analysis of SOM molecules, along with existing gaps in knowledge, challenges, and new opportunities for research in FTICR-MS applications and SOM identification.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoxiao Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China; Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
| | - Zhonglin Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China
| | - Xiaoyu Huo
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China
| | - Jing Kang
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China
| | - Shenxin Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China
| | - Yutao Peng
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Farmyard Soil Pollution Prevention-control and Remediation, College of Resources and Environmental Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Fengxia Deng
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China
| | - Jimin Shen
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China.
| | - Wei Chu
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China.
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Prasert T, Ishii Y, Kurisu F, Musikavong C, Phungsai P. Characterization of lower Phong river dissolved organic matters and formations of unknown chlorine dioxide and chlorine disinfection by-products by Orbitrap mass spectrometry. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 265:128653. [PMID: 33131752 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.128653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2020] [Revised: 10/14/2020] [Accepted: 10/15/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Dissolved organic matter (DOM) have been reported as precursors of disinfection byproducts (DBPs) and its molecular characteristics are rarely investigated due to its complexity. In this study, changes in the characteristics of DOM were investigated in the lower Phong River in Thailand in dry season and after the first rain in rainy season, using a non-targeted analysis with Orbitrap mass spectrometry. The river was rich with CHO features dominated by lignin-like molecules, while lipid-like molecules increase after domestic wastewater discharges. Wastewater discharge released DOM with higher molecular weight (MW) that was less oxygenated (low O/C) and less oxidized (low carbon oxidation state [Cos]). A lake affected by anthropogenic activities contributed more oxidized DOM into the river, while surface runoff carried DOM that is more oxygenated (high O/C), less hydrogenated (low H/C), and more oxidized (high Cos) to the stream. Water treatment further modified DOM to be lower MW. Approximately three hundred Cl-containing features (CHOCl) detected upstream were also found downstream. Disinfection by chlorine (Cl2) or chlorine dioxide (ClO2) formed both CHO and CHOCl DBPs. Low chlorine dosage applied to upstream and downstream samples resulted in many common unknown DBPs while increasing chlorine dosage resulted in more unique DBPs. At the same dosage, Cl2 reacted with DOM more than ClO2, including more oxidized molecules that are refractory to ClO2. Both Cl2 and ClO2 produced chlorinated and non-chlorinated DBPs, and some DBPs were commonly found by both disinfections. Cl2-produced DBPs were more unsaturated (higher [DBE-O]/C) and oxidized (higher Cos) than ClO2-DBPs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Thirawit Prasert
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Research Center for Environmental and Hazardous Substance Management, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, 40002, Thailand
| | - Yoshihiro Ishii
- Department of Urban Engineering, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo, Tokyo, 113-8656, Japan
| | - Futoshi Kurisu
- Research Center for Water Environment Technology, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo, Tokyo, 113-8656, Japan
| | - Charongpun Musikavong
- Environmental Assessment and Technology for Hazardous Waste Management Research Center, Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai, Songkhla, 90112, Thailand
| | - Phanwatt Phungsai
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Research Center for Environmental and Hazardous Substance Management, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, 40002, Thailand.
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Wu C, Li Q. Characteristics of organic matter removed from highly saline mature landfill leachate by an emergency disk tube-reverse osmosis treatment system. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 263:128347. [PMID: 33297272 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.128347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2020] [Revised: 09/10/2020] [Accepted: 09/12/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Some sanitary landfills in China are required to treat aging landfill leachate that is highly saline. In this study, the effectiveness of an emergency disk tube-reverse osmosis (DTRO) treatment system for such a refractory mature landfill leachate was evaluated. A molecular-level analysis was then applied to reveal the changes of the characteristics of leachate organic matter (OM). The DTRO system achieved >83% water recovery rate, reduced the electrical conductivity of effluent to 0.15-0.22 ms/cm, and reduced carbonaceous and nitrogenous pollutants to a level suitable for discharge. Furthermore, the vast majority of salts (e.g., chloride and sulfate ions), as well as refractory OM (e.g., humic- and fulvic-like substances), were effectively removed. The DTRO system can effectively remove a large number of macromolecular dissolved organic compounds with carbon number >23, as well as highly unsaturated compounds with DBE >12. Additionally, > 80% of the molecules assigned to the dissolved OM (DOM) were removed; even CHONS compounds with complex molecular structures were completely removed. The constitution of DOM in the DTRO effluent was simple, mainly comprising anti-sludge agents (e.g., small molecule alcohol and alkyl benzene sulfonic acid, etc.). However, the DOM in the resulting membrane concentrates was very similar to that in raw landfill leachate and the concentration was much higher. Therefore, an effective and feasible method should be developed to treat DTRO membrane concentrates because they pose high environmental risk.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chuanwei Wu
- Faculty of Geosciences and Environmental Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, 611756, China
| | - Qibin Li
- Faculty of Geosciences and Environmental Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, 611756, China.
| |
Collapse
|