Black-White disparities in women's physical health: The role of socioeconomic status and racism-related stressors

Instrumental, Affective, and Patient-Centered Communication Between Cardiologists and Patients with Low Socioeconomic Status: An Observational Study

One of the essential elements in managing health is having adequate communication with health care providers. Unfortunately, patients with a low socioeconomic status (SES) often experience less adequate communication with their doctor. In the current study, we explore and compare the communication of both doctors and patients from lower and higher sociodemographic backgrounds on three factors: instrumental, affective, and patient-centered communication. In total, 45 cardiology consultations were observed, transcribed, and coded (16 low-SES, 16 middle-SES, 13 high-SES). Our analyses showed that, compared to higher-SES patients, low-SES patients voiced less of their concerns, answered questions of the doctor more often with one word, and expressed less utterances overall. Naturally, we found that doctors expressed more utterances overall toward low-SES patients. For doctors, no differences regarding instrumental, affective, or patient-centered communication were found. These findings suggest that low-SES patients are more passive communicators and communication differences based on SES exist predominantly for patients' communication. The revealed communication differences may lead to a less adequate interaction and potentially worse patient outcomes, further increasing the socioeconomic health gap. Hence, doctors should become even more aware of socioeconomic patient communication differences so that they can appropriately encourage low-SES patients to become more active communicators.

Black Americans suppress emotions when prejudice is believed to stem from shared ignorance

Past research examining lay theories of the origins of prejudice has focused on white Americans and has not considered how Black Americans' lay theories of prejudice may impact emotion regulation following discrimination. Across three samples of Black Americans (N = 419), the present research examined relationships between endorsement of two lay theories of prejudice origins (1, beliefs that prejudice stems from shared social ignorance and 2, that prejudice stems from malice). Stronger beliefs that prejudice stems from shared ignorance were associated with greater expression suppression following experiences of racial discrimination (studies 1b and 2), which was, in turn, associated with psychological distress (study 2). By centering the beliefs and experiences of Black Americans in response to discrimination events, the present research has implications for understanding how emotion regulation following racial discrimination is impacted by marginalized groups' conceptualizations of prejudice. Future research should investigate how these factors impact health disparities.

Superwoman Schema and self-rated health in black women: Is socioeconomic status a moderator?

BACKGROUND

The Superwoman Schema (SWS) construct elucidates Black women's socialization to be strong, suppress their emotions, resist vulnerability, succeed despite limited resources, and help others at their own expense. Drawing from intersectionality and social psychological research on self-schemas, this study examined the extent to which SWS was associated with Black women's self-rated health. We also investigated whether socioeconomic status (SES) moderated the association between SWS, its five dimensions, and self-rated health.

METHODS

Data were from the Mechanisms Underlying Stress and Emotions (MUSE) in African-American Women's Health Study, a cohort of African American self-identified women. SWS was assessed using Giscombé's 35-item Superwoman Schema Scale. Socioeconomic status was measured by household income and educational attainment. Ordered logistic regression models were used and statistical interactions were run to test for moderation (N = 408).

RESULTS

First, SWS dimension "obligation to help others" was associated with worse self-rated health (p < .05). Second, household income, but not education, moderated the association between SWS and self-rated health (p < .05): SWS overall was associated with worse self-rated health among higher income women but better self-rated health among lower income women. Third, income moderated the association between SWS dimension "obligation to present an image of strength" and self-rated health (p < .05): presenting strength was associated with better self-rated health for lower income women only. Fourth, moderation results revealed that SWS dimension "obligation to help others" was inversely associated with self-rated health particularly among higher income women.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings speak to the complex interplay between SES and SWS dimensions as they relate to Black women's perceived health.

Parent-child conflict and adolescent health literacy in Mexico: Results from a nationwide dyad study in Mexico

Research suggests that health literacy (HL) is critical in preventing and managing health problems. However, over half of adults in Mexico report having inadequate health literacy. Research suggests the parent-child relationship can be a key predictor of developmental competencies; however, little research has examined how dyadic family interactions relate to HL. This study examined whether parent-child relationship conflict was associated with adolescent health literacy among families living in Mexico. Data from a parent-child dyads in Mexico were gathered using online surveys (N = 746, 373 parent-child dyads). Our findings suggested that child-reported family conflict-but not parent-reported family conflict - was associated with lower adolescent health literacy. Researchers and practitioners should consider how parent-child conflict may impact adolescent health outcomes, and prioritise child reports in data collection.

Race and sex differences in ROS production and SOD activity in HUVECs

Black individuals and men are predisposed to an earlier onset and higher prevalence of hypertension, compared with White individuals and women, respectively. Therefore, the influence of race and sex on reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity following induced inflammation was evaluated in female and male human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) from Black and White individuals. It was hypothesized that HUVECs from Black individuals and male HUVECs would exhibit greater ROS production and impaired SOD activity. Inflammation was induced in HUVEC cell lines (n = 4/group) using tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α, 50ng/ml). There were no between group differences in ROS production or SOD activity in HUVECs from Black and White individuals, and HUVECs from Black individuals exhibited similar SOD activity at 24hr compared with 4hr of TNF-α treatment (p>0.05). However, HUVECs from White individuals exhibited significantly greater SOD Activity (p<0.05) at 24hr as compared to 4hr in the control condition but not with TNF-α treatment (p>0.05). Female HUVECs exhibited significantly lower ROS production than male HUVECs in the control condition and following TNF-α induced inflammation (p<0.05). Only female HUVECs exhibited significant increases in SOD activity with increased exposure time to TNF-α induced inflammation (p<0.05). HUVECs from White individuals alone exhibit blunted SOD activity when comparing control and TNF-α conditions. Further, compared to female HUVECs, male HUVECs exhibit a pro-inflammatory state.

Stress indicators in minorities with multiple sclerosis

Black Americans with multiple sclerosis (MS) experience higher levels of disease-related disability compared to White Americans (Marrie et al., 2006). Comorbidities such as depression and anxiety, which are underdiagnosed and undertreated in this population, negatively impact quality of life and treatment outcomes for people living with multiple sclerosis (plwMS) (D'Alisa et al., 2006; Marrie et al., 2009; Stepleman et al., 2014). Acts of discrimination toward Black Americans is associated with stress, which is a contributing factor for depression (Carter, 2017; Nadimpalli, 2015; Williams and Mohammed, 2009). This study compared the severity of multiple sclerosis symptoms amongst Black Americans and White Americans, and whether worsened MS symptoms in Black Americans are associated with increased experiences of discrimination. Data was analyzed from 143 plwMS in the Stress Indicators in Minorities with Multiple Sclerosis (SiMMS) study. Using the Mann-Whitney U test, significant differences were found on the NIH Emotional Distress - Anxiety measure (U = 1466.500, p = 0.045) and NIH Sleep Disturbance measure (U = 1467.000, p = 0.044) between the Black participant and the White participant groups. Discrimination was significantly correlated with both NIH Emotional Distress - Anxiety (r = 0.677, p < .001) and NIH Sleep Disturbance (r = 0.446, p = .007) in Black MS individuals. Additionally, several physiological condition and psychological outcome measures were correlated with the NIH Emotional Distress - Anxiety and NIH Sleep Disturbance measures. This study contributes to literature highlighting the negative impacts of discrimination and race related stress on the physical and mental health of Black Americans.

Patients' Perspectives on Race and the Use of Race-Based Algorithms in Clinical Decision-Making: a Qualitative Study

BACKGROUND

Clinical algorithms that incorporate race as a modifying factor to guide clinical decision-making have recently been criticized for propagating racial bias in medicine. Equations used to calculate lung or kidney function are examples of clinical algorithms that have different diagnostic parameters depending on an individual's race. While these clinical measures have multiple implications for clinical care, patients' awareness of and their perspectives on the application of such algorithms are unknown.

OBJECTIVE

To examine patients' perspectives on race and the use of race-based algorithms in clinical decision-making.

DESIGN

Qualitative study using semi-structured interviews.

PARTICIPANTS

Twenty-three adult patients recruited at a safety-net hospital in Boston, MA.

APPROACH

Interviews were analyzed using thematic content analysis and modified grounded theory.

KEY RESULTS

Among the 23 study participants, 11 were women and 15 self-identified as Black or African American. Three categories of themes emerged: The first theme described definitions and the individual meanings participants ascribed to the term race. The second theme described perspectives on the role and consideration of race in clinical decision-making. Most study participants were unaware that race has been used as a modifying factor in clinical equations and rejected the incorporation of race in these equations. The third theme related to exposure to and experience of racism in healthcare settings. Experiences described by non-White participants ranged from microaggressions to overt acts of racism, including perceived racist encounters with healthcare providers. In addition, patients alluded to a deep mistrust in the healthcare system as a major barrier to equitable care.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that most patients are unaware of how race has been used to make risk assessments and guide clinical care. Further research on patients' perspectives is needed to inform the development of anti-racist policies and regulatory agendas as we move forward to combat systemic racism in medicine.

Racial, Lifestyle, and Healthcare Contributors to Perceived Cancer Risk among Physically Active Adolescent and Young Adult Women Aged 18-39 Years

The cancer incidence among adolescents and young adults (AYAs) has significantly increased in recent years, but there is limited information about the factors that influence the perceived cancer risk among AYAs. A cross-sectional, web-based survey of 281 physically active Black and White AYA women was administered to assess the influences of demographic characteristics, family history of cancer, cancer risk factor knowledge, and lifestyle-related risk and protective behaviors on perceived cancer risk. Linear regression analyses were performed in SAS version 9.4. Self-reported Black race (β = -0.62, 95% CI: -1.07, -0.17) and routine doctor visits (β = -0.62, 95% CI: -1.18, -0.07) were related to a lower perceived cancer risk. Family history of cancer (β = 0.56, 95% CI: 0.13, 0.99), cancer risk factor knowledge (β = 0.11, 95% CI: 0.03, 0.19), and current smoking status (β = 0.80, 95% CI: 0.20, 1.40) were related to a higher perceived cancer risk. Perceptions of cancer risk varied among this sample of physically active, AYA women. Lower perceptions of cancer risk among Black AYA women demonstrate a need for culturally tailored cancer educational information that presents objective data on lifetime cancer risk. Reportedly higher perceptions of cancer risk among AYA smokers presents an ideal opportunity to promote smoking cessation interventions. Future interventions to address cancer risk perception profiles among physically active, AYA women should tailor approaches that are inclusive of these unique characteristics.

Implicit and explicit racial prejudice among medical professionals: updated estimates from a population-based study

Background

Prior research provides evidence of implicit and explicit anti-Black prejudice among US physicians. However, we know little about whether racialized prejudice varies among physicians and non-physician healthcare workers relative to the general population.

Methods

Using ordinary least squares models and data from Harvard's Project Implicit (2007-2019), we assessed the associations between self-reported occupational status (physician, non-physician healthcare worker) and implicit (N = 1,500,268) and explicit prejudice (N = 1,429,677) toward Black, Arab-Muslim, Asian, and Native American populations, net of demographic characteristics. We used STATA 17 for all statistical analyses.

Findings

Physicians and non-physician healthcare workers exhibited more implicit and explicit anti-Black and anti-Arab-Muslim prejudice than the general population. After controlling for demographics, these differences became non-significant for physicians but remained for non-physician healthcare workers (β = 0.027 and 0.030, p < 0.01). Demographic controls largely explained anti-Asian prejudice among both groups, and physicians and non-physician healthcare workers exhibited comparatively lower (β = -0.124, p < 0.01) and similar levels of anti-Native implicit prejudice, respectively. Finally, white non-physician healthcare workers exhibited the highest levels of anti-Black prejudice.

Interpretation

Demographic characteristics explained racialized prejudice among physicians, but not fully among non-physician healthcare workers. More research is needed to understand the causes and consequences of elevated levels of prejudice among non-physician healthcare workers. By acknowledging implicit and explicit prejudice as important reflections of systemic racism, this study highlights the need to understand the role of healthcare providers and systems in generating health disparities.

Funding

UW-Madison Centennial Scholars Program, Society of Family Planning Research Fund, UW Center for Demography and Ecology, the County Health Rankings and Roadmaps Program and the National Institutes of Health (NIH).

Integration of Case-Based Dialogue to Enhance Medical Students' Understanding of Using Health Communication to Address Social Determinants of Health

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

With the ever-growing diversity within our communities, it is imperative that we integrate social determinants of health (SDOH) such as racial disparity, economic instability, lack of transportation, intimate partner violence, and limited social supports, and the importance of health literacy into undergraduate medical education. By incorporating evidence-based curriculum on the disproportionality within healthcare faced by racial and ethnic minorities, we have the opportunity to develop more culturally sensitive providers. The purpose of this study was to assess the impact of a case-based debrief experience on medical students' knowledge about how social determinants of health can impact health and healthcare within a family medicine clinical setting and their intent to practice in an underserved community.

METHODS

We utilized a retrospective paired-sample t-test analysis of program data from 640 third-year medical students who engaged in a family medicine clerkship between July 2020, and April 2022. For inclusion in the study, students must have engaged in a case-based exercise and corresponding small group debrief around the impact of social determinants of health on patient care.

RESULTS

We found a statistically significant improvement in students' reported knowledge about SDOH, as well as the confidence and intent to work with and care for individuals of diverse cultural and socioeconomic backgrounds.

CONCLUSION

Medical students must have the knowledge and self-efficacy to understand how social determinants of health can impact health and healthcare within a family medicine clinical setting. As a result of integrating more active learning strategies such as the case-base and debrief experience, students may have a more robust medical education experience.

Gendered Racial Microaggressions, Psychosocial Resources, and Depressive Symptoms among Black Women Attending a Historically Black University

The current study integrates stress process model and intersectionality framework to explore psychological effects of an intersectional stressor experienced by black women: gendered racial microaggressions (GRMs). Prior research suggests GRMS negatively influence black women's mental health. However, it is unclear whether specific dimensions of GRMS are more or less impactful to mental health. This study investigates: To what extent do black women experience GRMS overall and its specific dimensions: Assumptions of Beauty and Sexual Objectification; Silenced and Marginalized; Strong Black Woman Stereotype; Angry Black Woman Stereotype? What is the relationship between GRMS and depressive symptoms? Do psychosocial resources (i.e., social support, self-esteem, mastery) mediate the association between GRMS and depressive symptoms? We use data from black women attending a historically Black university in the Southeast (N = 202). We employed ordinary least squares regression analysis and performed mediation analysis. Study results revealed a positive association between GRMS and depressive symptoms; the Angry Black Woman Stereotype GRMS dimension had the most robust influence on depressive symptoms. Psychosocial resources partially mediated the relationship between GRMS and depressive symptoms. Study results suggest that sociological stress research underestimates the influence of stress on black women's health when intersectional stressors like GRMS are not included in analytic models.

Pushing Past Limits: How Efficacious Is High-Effort Coping for Self-Rated Health among African American and Caribbean Black Women?

Due to systemic oppression, Black women experience distinct risks across the life course, such as exposure to various stressors that shape lower ratings of self-rated health. This is important given that self-rated health is a stronger indicator of current morbidity and subsequent mortality than physician assessments. However, there has been limited consideration of the role of coping in shaping self-rated health among this group. John Henryism, or high-effort coping, is a culturally relevant coping style that reflects the broader societal, cultural, and historical context that shapes lived experiences of Black populations navigating racism and capitalism in the U.S., and has received limited consideration in health research among Black women. Additionally, less is known regarding how ethnicity shapes John Henryism and health processes among Black women specifically. Therefore, the present study examined the association between John Henryism and self-rated health among African American and Caribbean Black women (n = 1580) collectively, and explored this association among Caribbean Black women specifically, utilizing the National Survey of American Life (NSAL 2001-2003). Findings show that while John Henryism was not directly associated with self-rated health among either group, once sociodemographic characteristics and stress exposure were accounted for, John Henryism was associated with lower odds of fair or poor self-rated health among both groups.

"Moving on Up? Neighborhood Status and Racism-Related Distress among Black Americans"

At all levels of socioeconomic status, Black Americans can expect to live shorter and sicker lives than their White counterparts. This study advances the perspective that anti-Black stigma from Whites precludes Blacks from reaping the full health rewards of higher status, particularly within the context of neighborhoods. To test this hypothesis, I merge census data with rich survey and biomarker data from the Nashville Stress and Health Study, a representative sample of Black and White adults from Davidson County, Tennessee (n = 1,252). Initially, I find that Blacks who reside in higher-status and mostly White communities exhibit lower levels of neuroendocrine stress hormones, relative to their peers living in disadvantaged Black neighborhoods. But Blacks in higher-status areas also report more perceived discrimination. In turn, perceived discrimination is associated with chronic bodily pain, as well as elevated stress hormones and blood pressure tied to high goal-striving stress, or fears of being blocked from reaching life goals. After accounting for racism-related stressors, Blacks exhibit comparable levels of physiological distress regardless of neighborhood context. The inverse is true for Whites, who report fewer stressors in higher-status neighborhoods, and less physiological distress than Blacks overall. Findings are discussed within the context of social evolutionary theories of the human brain and are dovetailed with broader racial health disparities in the United States.

Hair Stylists as Lay Health Workers: Perspectives of Black Women on Salon-Based Health Promotion

Lay health workers (LHWs) have been effective in delivering health promotion to underserved, vulnerable populations. Hair stylists are well positioned to serve as LHWs in addressing health disparities among Black women in the U.S. The purpose of this qualitative study was to explore the extent to which hair stylists influence their Black female clients and clients' preferences for their stylist's role in salon-based health promotion programming. Eight virtual platform focus groups were conducted with Black women (n = 39) who receive hair care services from a licensed hair stylist across the U.S. Most participants had a college degree (89.8%), health insurance (92.3%), a primary care provider (89.7%), and the majority had at least one chronic disease (56.4%). Participants reported higher potential for influence related to level of trust in the stylists and for stylists they find relatable and credible. Trust, relatability, and credibility were further determined by racial and gender congruence. Client interviewees felt stylists should model healthy behaviors and reported they may not be receptive to stylist-delivered health promotion out of the context of a hair-health connection. In this sample of well-educated clients, there was an expressed preference for stylists to provide referral to healthcare professionals or solicit experts for health topics out of the scope of haircare rather than guide the health promotion efforts themselves. Findings from this study can inform future development of acceptable salon-based, stylist-led health promotion programs that partner stylists with health experts to deliver health promotion.