DNA Recognition Mechanism of the ONECUT Homeodomain of Transcription Factor HNF-6

HNF6 and HNF4α expression in adenocarcinomas of the liver, pancreaticobiliary tract, and gastrointestinal tract: an immunohistochemical study of 480 adenocarcinomas of the digestive system

Hepatocyte nuclear factors (HNF) 6 and 4α are master transcriptional regulators of development and maintenance of the liver and pancreaticobiliary tract in mice and humans. However, little is known about the prevalence of HNF6 and HNF4α expression in carcinomas of the hepatobiliary tract and pancreas. We aimed to reveal the diagnostic utility of HNF6 and HNF4α immunolabelling in adenocarcinomas of these organs. We investigated HNF6 and HNF4α expression by immunohistochemistry using a total of 480 adenocarcinomas of the digestive system, including 282 of the hepatobiliary tract and pancreas and 198 of the gastrointestinal tract. HNF6 expression was primarily restricted to intrahepatic cholangiocarcinomas (CCs) (63%, n=80) and gallbladder adenocarcinomas (43%, n=88), among others. Notably, small duct intrahepatic CCs almost invariably expressed HNF6 (90%, n=42), showing stark contrast to a low prevalence in large duct intrahepatic CCs (10%, n=21; p<0.0001). HNF6 expression was infrequent in extrahepatic CCs (9%, n=55) and pancreatic ductal adenocarcinomas (7%, n=58), and it was rare in adenocarcinomas of the gastrointestinal tract [oesophagus/oesophagogastric junction (EGJ) (2%, n=45), stomach (2%, n=86), duodenum (0%, n=25), and colorectum (0%, n=42)]. In contrast, HNF4α was widely expressed among adenocarcinomas of the digestive system, including intrahepatic CCs (88%), extrahepatic CCs (94%), adenocarcinomas of the gallbladder (98%), pancreas (98%), oesophagus/EGJ (96%), stomach (98%), duodenum (80%), and colorectum (100%). HNF6 was frequently expressed in and almost restricted to intrahepatic CCs of small duct type and gallbladder adenocarcinomas, while HNF4α was expressed throughout adenocarcinomas of the digestive system. HNF6 immunolabelling may be useful in distinguishing small duct intrahepatic CCs from other types of CC as well as metastatic gastrointestinal adenocarcinomas.

Neuronal miR-9 promotes HSV-1 epigenetic silencing and latency by repressing Oct-1 and Onecut family genes

Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) latent infection entails repression of viral lytic genes in neurons. By functional screening using luciferase-expressing HSV-1, we identify ten neuron-specific microRNAs potentially repressing HSV-1 neuronal replication. Transfection of miR-9, the most active candidate from the screen, decreases HSV-1 replication and gene expression in Neuro-2a cells. Ectopic expression of miR-9 from lentivirus or recombinant HSV-1 suppresses HSV-1 replication in male primary mouse neurons in culture and mouse trigeminal ganglia in vivo, and reactivation from latency in the primary neurons. Target prediction and validation identify transcription factors Oct-1, a known co-activator of HSV transcription, and all three Onecut family members as miR-9 targets. Knockdown of ONECUT2 decreases HSV-1 yields in Neuro-2a cells. Overexpression of each ONECUT protein increases HSV-1 replication in Neuro-2a cells, human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neurons, and primary mouse neurons, and accelerates reactivation from latency in the mouse neurons. Mutagenesis, ChIP-seq, RNA-seq, ChIP-qPCR and ATAC-seq results suggest that ONECUT2 can nonspecifically bind to viral genes via its CUT domain, globally stimulate viral gene transcription, reduce viral heterochromatin and enhance the accessibility of viral chromatin. Thus, neuronal miR-9 promotes viral epigenetic silencing and latency by targeting multiple host transcription factors important for lytic gene activation.

CUT homeobox genes: transcriptional regulation of neuronal specification and beyond

CUT homeobox genes represent a captivating gene class fulfilling critical functions in the development and maintenance of multiple cell types across a wide range of organisms. They belong to the larger group of homeobox genes, which encode transcription factors responsible for regulating gene expression patterns during development. CUT homeobox genes exhibit two distinct and conserved DNA binding domains, a homeodomain accompanied by one or more CUT domains. Numerous studies have shown the involvement of CUT homeobox genes in diverse developmental processes such as body axis formation, organogenesis, tissue patterning and neuronal specification. They govern these processes by exerting control over gene expression through their transcriptional regulatory activities, which they accomplish by a combination of classic and unconventional interactions with the DNA. Intriguingly, apart from their roles as transcriptional regulators, they also serve as accessory factors in DNA repair pathways through protein-protein interactions. They are highly conserved across species, highlighting their fundamental importance in developmental biology. Remarkably, evolutionary analysis has revealed that CUT homeobox genes have experienced an extraordinary degree of rearrangements and diversification compared to other classes of homeobox genes, including the emergence of a novel gene family in vertebrates. Investigating the functions and regulatory networks of CUT homeobox genes provides significant understanding into the molecular mechanisms underlying embryonic development and tissue homeostasis. Furthermore, aberrant expression or mutations in CUT homeobox genes have been associated with various human diseases, highlighting their relevance beyond developmental processes. This review will overview the well known roles of CUT homeobox genes in nervous system development, as well as their functions in other tissues across phylogeny.

Brain-wide mapping of efferent projections of glutamatergic (Onecut3+ ) neurons in the lateral mouse hypothalamus

AIM

This study mapped the spatiotemporal positions and connectivity of Onecut3+ neuronal populations in the developing and adult mouse brain.

METHODS

We generated fluorescent reporter mice to chart Onecut3+ neurons for brain-wide analysis. Moreover, we crossed Onecut3-iCre and Mapt-mGFP (Tau-mGFP) mice to visualize axonal projections. A dual Cre/Flp-dependent AAV construct in Onecut3-iCre cross-bred with Slc17a6-FLPo mice was used in an intersectional strategy to map the connectivity of glutamatergic lateral hypothalamic neurons in the adult mouse.

RESULTS

We first found that Onecut3 marks a hitherto undescribed Slc17a6+ /Vglut2+ neuronal cohort in the lateral hypothalamus, with the majority expressing thyrotropin-releasing hormone. In the adult, Onecut3+ /Vglut2+ neurons of the lateral hypothalamus had both intra- and extrahypothalamic efferents, particularly to the septal complex and habenula, where they targeted other cohorts of Onecut3+ neurons and additionally to the neocortex and hippocampus. This arrangement suggests that intrinsic reinforcement loops could exist for Onecut3+ neurons to coordinate their activity along the brain's midline axis.

CONCLUSION

We present both a toolbox to manipulate novel subtypes of hypothalamic neurons and an anatomical arrangement by which extrahypothalamic targets can be simultaneously entrained.

The homeodomain drives favorable DNA binding energetics of prostate cancer target ONECUT2

The ONECUT transcription factors feature a CUT and a homeodomain, evolutionarily conserved elements that bind DNA cooperatively, but the process remains mechanistically enigmatic. Using an integrative DNA binding analysis of ONECUT2, a driver of aggressive prostate cancer, we show that the homeodomain energetically stabilizes the ONECUT2-DNA complex through allosteric modulation of CUT. Further, evolutionarily conserved base-interactions in both the CUT and homeodomain are necessary for the favorable thermodynamics. We have identified a novel arginine pair unique to the ONECUT family homeodomain that can adapt to DNA sequence variations. Base interactions in general, including by this arginine pair, are critical for optimal DNA binding and transcription in a prostate cancer model. These findings provide fundamental insights into DNA binding by CUT-homeodomain proteins with potential therapeutic implications.

One-Sentence Summary

Base-specific interactions regulate homeodomain-mediated stabilization of DNA binding by the ONECUT2 transcription factor.

Evidence that direct inhibition of transcription factor binding is the prevailing mode of gene and repeat repression by DNA methylation

Cytosine methylation efficiently silences CpG-rich regulatory regions of genes and repeats in mammalian genomes. To what extent this entails direct inhibition of transcription factor (TF) binding versus indirect inhibition via recruitment of methyl-CpG-binding domain (MBD) proteins is unclear. Here we show that combinatorial genetic deletions of all four proteins with functional MBDs in mouse embryonic stem cells, derived neurons or a human cell line do not reactivate genes or repeats with methylated promoters. These do, however, become activated by methylation-restricted TFs if DNA methylation is removed. We identify several causal TFs in neurons, including ONECUT1, which is methylation sensitive only at a motif variant. Rampantly upregulated retrotransposons in methylation-free neurons feature a CRE motif, which activates them in the absence of DNA methylation via methylation-sensitive binding of CREB1. Our study reveals methylation-sensitive TFs in vivo and argues that direct inhibition, rather than indirect repression by the tested MBD proteins, is the prevailing mechanism of methylation-mediated repression at regulatory regions and repeats.

Genetic control of retinal ganglion cell genesis

Retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) are the only projection neurons in the neural retina. They receive and integrate visual signals from upstream retinal neurons in the visual circuitry and transmit them to the brain. The function of RGCs is performed by the approximately 40 RGC types projecting to various central brain targets. RGCs are the first cell type to form during retinogenesis. The specification and differentiation of the RGC lineage is a stepwise process; a hierarchical gene regulatory network controlling the RGC lineage has been identified and continues to be elaborated. Recent studies with single-cell transcriptomics have led to unprecedented new insights into their types and developmental trajectory. In this review, we summarize our current understanding of the functions and relationships of the many regulators of the specification and differentiation of the RGC lineage. We emphasize the roles of these key transcription factors and pathways in different developmental steps, including the transition from retinal progenitor cells (RPCs) to RGCs, RGC differentiation, generation of diverse RGC types, and central projection of the RGC axons. We discuss critical issues that remain to be addressed for a comprehensive understanding of these different aspects of RGC genesis and emerging technologies, including single-cell techniques, novel genetic tools and resources, and high-throughput genome editing and screening assays, which can be leveraged in future studies.

DNA-binding properties of the MADS-domain transcription factor SEPALLATA3 and mutant variants characterized by SELEX-seq

We studied the DNA-binding profile of the MADS-domain transcription factor SEPALLATA3 and mutant variants by SELEX-seq. DNA-binding characteristics of SEPALLATA3 mutant proteins lead us to propose a novel DNA-binding mode. MIKC-type MADS-domain proteins, which function as essential transcription factors in plant development, bind as dimers to a 10-base-pair AT-rich motif termed CArG-box. However, this consensus motif cannot fully explain how the abundant family members in flowering plants can bind different target genes in specific ways. The aim of this study was to better understand the DNA-binding specificity of MADS-domain transcription factors. Also, we wanted to understand the role of a highly conserved arginine residue for binding specificity of the MADS-domain transcription factor family. Here, we studied the DNA-binding profile of the floral homeotic MADS-domain protein SEPALLATA3 by performing SELEX followed by high-throughput sequencing (SELEX-seq). We found a diverse set of bound sequences and could estimate the in vitro binding affinities of SEPALLATA3 to a huge number of different sequences. We found evidence for the preference of AT-rich motifs as flanking sequences. Whereas different CArG-boxes can act as SEPALLATA3 binding sites, our findings suggest that the preferred flanking motifs are almost always the same and thus mostly independent of the identity of the central CArG-box motif. Analysis of SEPALLATA3 proteins with a single amino acid substitution at position 3 of the DNA-binding MADS-domain further revealed that the conserved arginine residue, which has been shown to be involved in a shape readout mechanism, is especially important for the recognition of nucleotides at positions 3 and 8 of the CArG-box motif. This leads us to propose a novel DNA-binding mode for SEPALLATA3, which is different from that of other MADS-domain proteins known.

Host Transcription Factors in Hepatitis B Virus RNA Synthesis

The hepatitis B virus (HBV) chronically infects over 250 million people worldwide and is one of the leading causes of liver cancer and hepatocellular carcinoma. HBV persistence is due in part to the highly stable HBV minichromosome or HBV covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA) that resides in the nucleus. As HBV replication requires the help of host transcription factors to replicate, focusing on host protein–HBV genome interactions may reveal insights into new drug targets against cccDNA. The structural details on such complexes, however, remain poorly defined. In this review, the current literature regarding host transcription factors’ interactions with HBV cccDNA is discussed.

CBP and p300 coactivators contribute to the maintenance of Isl1 expression by the Onecut transcription factors in embryonic spinal motor neurons

Onecut transcription factors are required to maintain Islet1 (Isl1) expression in developing spinal motor neurons (MNs), and this process is critical for proper MN differentiation. However, the mechanisms whereby OC stimulate Isl1 expression remain unknown. CREB-binding protein (CBP) and p300 paralogs are transcriptional coactivators that interact with OC proteins in hepatic cells. In the embryonic spinal cord, CBP and p300 play key roles in neurogenesis and MN differentiation. Here, using chromatin immunoprecipitation and in ovo electroporation in chicken spinal cord, we provide evidence that CBP and p300 contribute to the regulation of Isl1 expression by the OC factors in embryonic spinal MNs. CBP and p300 are detected on the CREST2 enhancer of Isl1 where OC factors are also bound. Inhibition of CBP and p300 activity inhibits activation of the CREST2 enhancer and prevents the stimulation of Isl1 expression by the OC factors. These observations suggest that CBP and p300 coactivators cooperate with OC factors to maintain Isl1 expression in postmitotic MNs.

ONECUT transcription factors induce neuronal characteristics and remodel chromatin accessibility

Remodeling of chromatin accessibility is necessary for successful reprogramming of fibroblasts to neurons. However, it is still not fully known which transcription factors can induce a neuronal chromatin accessibility profile when overexpressed in fibroblasts. To identify such transcription factors, we used ATAC-sequencing to generate differential chromatin accessibility profiles between human fibroblasts and iNeurons, an in vitro neuronal model system obtained by overexpression of Neurog2 in induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). We found that the ONECUT transcription factor sequence motif was strongly associated with differential chromatin accessibility between iNeurons and fibroblasts. All three ONECUT transcription factors associated with this motif (ONECUT1, ONECUT2 and ONECUT3) induced a neuron-like morphology and expression of neuronal genes within two days of overexpression in fibroblasts. We observed widespread remodeling of chromatin accessibility; in particular, we found that chromatin regions that contain the ONECUT motif were in- or lowly accessible in fibroblasts and became accessible after the overexpression of ONECUT1, ONECUT2 or ONECUT3. There was substantial overlap with iNeurons, still, many regions that gained accessibility following ONECUT overexpression were not accessible in iNeurons. Our study highlights both the potential and challenges of ONECUT-based direct neuronal reprogramming.

Expression Profiling Analysis Reveals Key MicroRNA-mRNA Interactions in Early Retinal Degeneration in Retinitis Pigmentosa

Purpose

The aim of this study was to identify differentially expressed microRNAs (miRNAs) that might play an important role in the etiology of retinal degeneration in a genetic mouse model of retinitis pigmentosa (rd10 mice) at initial stages of the disease.

Methods

miRNAs–mRNA interaction networks were generated for analysis of biological pathways involved in retinal degeneration.

Results

Of more than 1900 miRNAs analyzed, we selected 19 miRNAs on the basis of (1) a significant differential expression in rd10 retinas compared with control samples and (2) an inverse expression relationship with predicted mRNA targets involved in biological pathways relevant to retinal biology and/or degeneration. Seven of the selected miRNAs have been associated with retinal dystrophies, whereas, to our knowledge, nine have not been previously linked to any disease.

Conclusions

This study contributes to our understanding of the etiology and progression of retinal degeneration.

ONECUT2 is a targetable master regulator of lethal prostate cancer that suppresses the androgen axis

Treatment of prostate cancer (PC) by androgen suppression promotes the emergence of aggressive variants that are androgen receptor (AR) independent. Here we identify the transcription factor ONECUT2 (OC2) as a master regulator of AR networks in metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC). OC2 acts as a survival factor in mCRPC models, suppresses the AR transcriptional program by direct regulation of AR target genes and the AR licensing factor FOXA1, and activates genes associated with neural differentiation and progression to lethal disease. OC2 appears active in a substantial subset of human prostate adenocarcinoma and neuroendocrine tumors. Inhibition of OC2 by a newly identified small molecule suppresses metastasis in mice. These findings suggest that OC2 displaces AR-dependent growth and survival mechanisms in many cases where AR remains expressed, but where its activity is bypassed. OC2 is also a potential drug target in the metastatic phase of aggressive PC.

The molecular functions of hepatocyte nuclear factors - In and beyond the liver

The hepatocyte nuclear factors (HNFs) namely HNF1α/β, FOXA1/2/3, HNF4α/γ and ONECUT1/2 are expressed in a variety of tissues and organs, including the liver, pancreas and kidney. The spatial and temporal manner of HNF expression regulates embryonic development and subsequently the development of multiple tissues during adulthood. Though the HNFs were initially identified individually based on their roles in the liver, numerous studies have now revealed that the HNFs cross-regulate one another and exhibit synergistic relationships in the regulation of tissue development and function. The complex HNF transcriptional regulatory networks have largely been elucidated in rodent models, but less so in human biological systems. Several heterozygous mutations in these HNFs were found to cause diseases in humans but not in rodents, suggesting clear species-specific differences in mutational mechanisms that remain to be uncovered. In this review, we compare and contrast the expression patterns of the HNFs, the HNF cross-regulatory networks and how these liver-enriched transcription factors serve multiple functions in the liver and beyond, extending our focus to the pancreas and kidney. We also summarise the insights gained from both human and rodent studies of mutations in several HNFs that are known to lead to different disease conditions.

A genetic signature of the evolution of loss of flight in the Galapagos cormorant

We have a limited understanding of the genetic and molecular basis of evolutionary changes in the size and proportion of limbs. We studied wing and pectoral skeleton reduction leading to flightlessness in the Galapagos cormorant (Phalacrocorax harrisi). We sequenced and de novo assembled the genomes of four cormorant species and applied a predictive and comparative genomics approach to find candidate variants that may have contributed to the evolution of flightlessness. These analyses and cross-species experiments in Caenorhabditis elegans and in chondrogenic cell lines implicated variants in genes necessary for transcriptional regulation and function of the primary cilium. Cilia are essential for Hedgehog signaling, and humans affected by skeletal ciliopathies suffer from premature bone growth arrest, mirroring skeletal features associated with loss of flight.

Crystal structure of Pseudomonas aeruginosa RsaL bound to promoter DNA reaffirms its role as a global regulator involved in quorum-sensing

Pseudomonas aeruginosa possesses at least three well-defined quorum-sensing (QS) (las, rhl and pqs) systems that control a variety of important functions including virulence. RsaL is a QS repressor that reduces QS signal production and ensures homeostasis by functioning in opposition to LasR. However, its regulatory role in signal homeostasis remains elusive. Here, we conducted a ChIP-seq assay and revealed that RsaL bound to two new targets, the intergenic regions of PA2228/PA2229 and pqsH/cdpR, which are required for PQS synthesis. Deletion of rsaL reduced transcription of pqsH and cdpR, thus decreasing PQS signal production. The ΔrsaL strain exhibited increased pyocyanin production and reduced biofilm formation, which are dependent on CdpR or PqsH activity. In addition, we solved the structure of the RsaL–DNA complex at a 2.4 Å resolution. Although the overall sequence similarity is quite low, RsaL folds into a HTH-like structure, which is conserved among many transcriptional regulators. Complementation results of the rsaL knockout cells with different rsaL mutants further confirmed the critical role of the DNA-binding residues (including Arg20, Gln27, Gln38, Gly35, Ser37 and Ser42) that are essential for DNA binding. Our findings reveal new targets of RsaL and provide insight into the detailed characterization of the RsaL–DNA interaction.

The combination of sequence-specific and nonspecific DNA-binding modes of transcription factor SATB1

Transcription factor SATB1 (special AT-rich sequence binding protein 1) contains multiple DNA-binding domains (DBDs), i.e. two CUT-domain repeats (CUTr1 and CUTr2 from the N-terminus) and a homeodomain, and binds to the matrix attachment region (MAR) of DNA. Although CUTr1 and the homeodomain, but not CUTr2, are known to contribute to DNA binding, different research groups have not reached a consensus on which DBD is responsible for recognition of the target sequence in MAR, 5'-TAATA-3'. Here, we used isothermal titration calorimetry to demonstrate that CUTr1 has binding specificity to this motif, whereas the homeodomain shows affinity for a variety of DNAs without specificity. In line with nonspecific DNA-binding properties of the homeodomain, a mutation of the invariant Asn at position 51 of the homeodomain (typically in contact with the A base in a sequence-specific binding mode) did not affect the binding affinity significantly. The NMR analyses and computational modeling of the homeodomain, however, revealed the tertiary structure and DNA-binding mode that are typical of homeodomains capable of sequence-specific binding. We believe that the lack of highly conserved basic residues in the helix relevant to the base recognition loosens its fitting into the DNA groove and impairs the specific binding. The two DBDs, when fused in tandem, showed strong binding to DNA containing the 5'-TAATA-3' motif with an affinity constant >10(8) M(-1) and retained nonspecific binding activity. The combination of the sequence-specific and nonspecific DNA-binding modes of SATB1 should be advantageous in a search for target loci during transcriptional regulation.

HNF6 and Rev-erbα integrate hepatic lipid metabolism by overlapping and distinct transcriptional mechanisms

In this study, Zhang et al. investigated the role of hepatic nuclear factor 6 (HNF6) in adult liver metabolism. The results demonstrate that deletion of HNF6 in livers of adult C57Bl/6 mice leads to fatty liver and that HNF6 and Rev-erbα can coordinately regulate hepatic lipid metabolism.

Hepatocyte nuclear factor 6 (HNF6) is required for liver development, but its role in adult liver metabolism is not known. Here we show that deletion of HNF6 in livers of adult C57Bl/6 mice leads to hepatic steatosis in mice fed normal laboratory chow. Although HNF6 is known mainly as a transcriptional activator, hepatic loss of HNF6 up-regulated many lipogenic genes bound directly by HNF6. Many of these genes are targets of the circadian nuclear receptor Rev-erbα, and binding of Rev-erbα at these sites was lost when HNF6 was ablated in the liver. While HNF6 and Rev-erbα coordinately regulate hepatic lipid metabolism, each factor also affects additional gene sets independently. These findings highlight a novel mechanism of transcriptional repression by HNF6 and demonstrate how overlapping and distinct mechanisms of transcription factor function contribute to the integrated physiology of the liver.

Homeodomain proteins: an update

Here, we provide an update of our review on homeobox genes that we wrote together with Walter Gehring in 1994. Since then, comprehensive surveys of homeobox genes have become possible due to genome sequencing projects. Using the 103 Drosophila homeobox genes as example, we present an updated classification. In animals, there are 16 major classes, ANTP, PRD, PRD-LIKE, POU, HNF, CUT (with four subclasses: ONECUT, CUX, SATB, and CMP), LIM, ZF, CERS, PROS, SIX/SO, plus the TALE superclass with the classes IRO, MKX, TGIF, PBC, and MEIS. In plants, there are 11 major classes, i.e., HD-ZIP (with four subclasses: I to IV), WOX, NDX, PHD, PLINC, LD, DDT, SAWADEE, PINTOX, and the two TALE classes KNOX and BEL. Most of these classes encode additional domains apart from the homeodomain. Numerous insights have been obtained in the last two decades into how homeodomain proteins bind to DNA and increase their specificity by interacting with other proteins to regulate cell- and tissue-specific gene expression. Not only protein-DNA base pair contacts are important for proper target selection; recent experiments also reveal that the shape of the DNA plays a role in specificity. Using selected examples, we highlight different mechanisms of homeodomain protein-DNA interaction. The PRD class of homeobox genes was of special interest to Walter Gehring in the last two decades. The PRD class comprises six families in Bilateria, and tinkers with four different motifs, i.e., the PAIRED domain, the Groucho-interacting motif EH1 (aka Octapeptide or TN), the homeodomain, and the OAR motif. Homologs of the co-repressor protein Groucho are also present in plants (TOPLESS), where they have been shown to interact with small amphipathic motives (EAR), and in yeast (TUP1), where we find an EH1-like motif in MATα2.

Cross Talk Between GH-Regulated Transcription Factors HNF6 and CUX2 in Adult Mouse Liver

Hepatocyte-enriched nuclear factor (HNF)6 and CUX2 are GH and STAT5-regulated homeobox transcription factors. CUX2 shows female-specific expression and contributes to liver sex differences by repressing many male-biased genes and inducing many female-biased genes, whereas HNF6 is expressed at similar levels in male and female liver. In cell-based transfection studies, CUX2 inhibited HNF6 transcriptional regulation of the sex-specific gene promoters CYP2C11 and CYP2C12, blocking HNF6 repression of CYP2C11 and HNF6 activation of CYP2C12. These inhibitory actions of CUX2 can be explained by competition for HNF6 DNA binding, as demonstrated by in vitro EMSA analysis and validated in vivo by global analysis of the HNF6 cistrome. Approximately 40 000 HNF6-binding sites were identified in mouse liver chromatin, including several thousand sites showing significant sex differences in HNF6 binding. These sex-biased HNF6-binding sites showed strong enrichment for correspondingly sex-biased DNase hypersensitive sites and for proximity to genes showing local sex-biased chromatin marks and a corresponding sex-biased expression. Further, approximately 90% of the genome-wide binding sites for CUX2 were also bound by HNF6. These HNF6/CUX2 common binding sites were enriched for genomic regions more accessible in male than in female mouse liver chromatin and showed strongest enrichment for male-biased genes, suggesting CUX2 displacement of HNF6 as a mechanism to explain the observed CUX2 repression of male-biased genes in female liver. HNF6 binding was sex independent at a majority of its binding sites, and HNF6 peaks were frequently associated with cobinding by multiple other liver transcription factors, consistent with HNF6 playing a global regulatory role in both male and female liver.

Onecut1 and Onecut2 play critical roles in the development of the mouse retina

The entire repertoire of intrinsic factors that control the cell fate determination process of specific retinal neurons has yet to be fully identified. Single cell transcriptome profiling experiments of retinal progenitor cells revealed considerable gene expression heterogeneity between individual cells, especially among different classes of transcription factors. In this study, we show that two of those factors, Onecut1 and Onecut2, are expressed during mouse retinal development. Using mice that are deficient for each of these transcription factors, we further demonstrate a significant loss (∼70–80%) of horizontal cells in the absence of either of these proteins, while the other retinal cells appear at normal numbers. Microarray profiling experiments performed on knockout retinas revealed defects in horizontal cell genes as early as E14.5. Additional profiling assays showed an upregulation of several stress response genes in the adult Onecut2 knockout, suggesting that the integrity of the retina is compromised in the absence of normal numbers of horizontal cells. Interestingly, melanopsin, the gene coding for the photopigment found in photosensitive ganglion cells, was observed to be upregulated in Onecut1 deficient retinas, pointing to a possible regulatory role for Onecut1. Taken together, our data show that similar to Onecut1, Onecut2 is also necessary for the formation of normal numbers of horizontal cells in the developing retina.

Onecut1 and Onecut2 redundantly regulate early retinal cell fates during development

Previously, we have shown that Onecut1 (Oc1) and Onecut2 (Oc2) are expressed in retinal progenitor cells, developing retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), and horizontal cells (HCs). However, in Oc1-null mice, we only observed an 80% reduction in HCs, but no defects in other cell types. We postulated that the lack of defects in other cell types in Oc1-null retinas was a result of redundancy with Oc2. To test this theory, we have generated Oc2-null mice and now show that their retinas also only have defects in HCs, with a 50% reduction in their numbers. However, when both Oc1 and Oc2 are knocked out, the retinas exhibit more profound defects in the development of all early retinal cell types, including completely failed genesis of HCs, compromised generation of cones, reduced production (by 30%) of RGCs, and absence of starburst amacrine cells. Cone subtype diversification and RGC subtype composition also were affected in the double-null retina. Using RNA-Seq expression profiling, we have identified downstream genes of Oc1 and Oc2, which not only confirms the redundancy between the two factors and renders a molecular explanation for the defects in the double-null retinas, but also shows that the onecut factors suppress the production of the late cell type, rods, indicating that the two factors contribute to the competence of retinal progenitor cells for the early retinal cell fates. Our results provide insight into how onecut factors regulate the creation of cellular diversity in the retina and, by extension, in the central nervous system in general.

Structure solution of DNA-binding proteins and complexes with ARCIMBOLDO libraries

Protein-DNA interactions play a major role in all aspects of genetic activity within an organism, such as transcription, packaging, rearrangement, replication and repair. The molecular detail of protein-DNA interactions can be best visualized through crystallography, and structures emphasizing insight into the principles of binding and base-sequence recognition are essential to understanding the subtleties of the underlying mechanisms. An increasing number of high-quality DNA-binding protein structure determinations have been witnessed despite the fact that the crystallographic particularities of nucleic acids tend to pose specific challenges to methods primarily developed for proteins. Crystallographic structure solution of protein-DNA complexes therefore remains a challenging area that is in need of optimized experimental and computational methods. The potential of the structure-solution program ARCIMBOLDO for the solution of protein-DNA complexes has therefore been assessed. The method is based on the combination of locating small, very accurate fragments using the program Phaser and density modification with the program SHELXE. Whereas for typical proteins main-chain α-helices provide the ideal, almost ubiquitous, small fragments to start searches, in the case of DNA complexes the binding motifs and DNA double helix constitute suitable search fragments. The aim of this work is to provide an effective library of search fragments as well as to determine the optimal ARCIMBOLDO strategy for the solution of this class of structures.

Onecut1 is essential for horizontal cell genesis and retinal integrity

Horizontal cells are interneurons that synapse with photoreceptors in the outer retina. Their genesis during development is subject to regulation by transcription factors in a hierarchical manner. Previously, we showed that Onecut 1 (Oc1), an atypical homeodomain transcription factor, is expressed in developing horizontal cells (HCs) and retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) in the mouse retina. Herein, by knocking out Oc1 specifically in the developing retina, we show that the majority (∼80%) of HCs fail to form during early retinal development, implying that Oc1 is essential for HC genesis. However, no other retinal cell types, including RGCs, were affected in the Oc1 knock-out. Analysis of the genetic relationship between Oc1 and other transcription factor genes required for HC development revealed that Oc1 functions downstream of FoxN4, in parallel with Ptf1a, but upstream of Lim1 and Prox1. By in utero electroporation, we found that Oc1 and Ptf1a together are not only essential, but also sufficient for determination of HC fate. In addition, the synaptic connections in the outer plexiform layer are defective in Oc1-null mice, and photoreceptors undergo age-dependent degeneration, indicating that HCs are not only an integral part of the retinal circuitry, but also are essential for the survival of photoreceptors. In sum, these results demonstrate that Oc1 is a critical determinant of HC fate, and reveal that HCs are essential for photoreceptor viability, retinal integrity, and normal visual function.

Molecular antagonism between X-chromosome and autosome signals determines nematode sex

Sex is determined in Caenorhabditis elegans by the ratio of X chromosomes to the sets of autosomes, the X:A signal. A set of genes called X signal elements (XSEs) communicates X-chromosome dose by repressing the masculinizing sex determination switch gene xol-1 (XO lethal) in a dose-dependent manner. xol-1 is active in 1X:2A embryos (males) but repressed in 2X:2A embryos (hermaphrodites). Here we showed that the autosome dose is communicated by a set of autosomal signal elements (ASEs) that act in a cumulative, dose-dependent manner to counter XSEs by stimulating xol-1 transcription. We identified new ASEs and explored the biochemical basis by which ASEs antagonize XSEs to determine sex. Multiple antagonistic molecular interactions carried out on a single promoter explain how different X:A values elicit different sexual fates. XSEs (nuclear receptors and homeodomain proteins) and ASEs (T-box and zinc finger proteins) bind directly to several sites on xol-1 to counteract each other's activities and thereby regulate xol-1 transcription. Disrupting ASE- and XSE-binding sites in vivo recapitulated the misregulation of xol-1 transcription caused by disrupting cognate signal element genes. XSE- and ASE-binding sites are distinct and nonoverlapping, suggesting that direct competition for xol-1 binding is not how XSEs counter ASEs. Instead, XSEs likely antagonize ASEs by recruiting cofactors with reciprocal activities that induce opposite transcriptional states. Most ASE- and XSE-binding sites overlap xol-1's -1 nucleosome, which carries activating chromatin marks only when xol-1 is turned on. Coactivators and corepressors tethered by proteins similar to ASEs and XSEs are known to deposit and remove such marks. The concept of a sex signal comprising competing XSEs and ASEs arose as a theory for fruit flies a century ago. Ironically, while the recent work of others showed that the fly sex signal does not fit this simple paradigm, our work shows that the worm signal does.

Re-visiting protein-centric two-tier classification of existing DNA-protein complexes

Background

Precise DNA-protein interactions play most important and vital role in maintaining the normal physiological functioning of the cell, as it controls many high fidelity cellular processes. Detailed study of the nature of these interactions has paved the way for understanding the mechanisms behind the biological processes in which they are involved. Earlier in 2000, a systematic classification of DNA-protein complexes based on the structural analysis of the proteins was proposed at two tiers, namely groups and families. With the advancement in the number and resolution of structures of DNA-protein complexes deposited in the Protein Data Bank, it is important to revisit the existing classification.

Results

On the basis of the sequence analysis of DNA binding proteins, we have built upon the protein centric, two-tier classification of DNA-protein complexes by adding new members to existing families and making new families and groups. While classifying the new complexes, we also realised the emergence of new groups and families. The new group observed was where β-propeller was seen to interact with DNA. There were 34 SCOP folds which were observed to be present in the complexes of both old and new classifications, whereas 28 folds are present exclusively in the new complexes. Some new families noticed were NarL transcription factor, Z-α DNA binding proteins, Forkhead transcription factor, AP2 protein, Methyl CpG binding protein etc.

Conclusions

Our results suggest that with the increasing number of availability of DNA-protein complexes in Protein Data Bank, the number of families in the classification increased by approximately three fold. The folds present exclusively in newly classified complexes is suggestive of inclusion of proteins with new function in new classification, the most populated of which are the folds responsible for DNA damage repair. The proposed re-visited classification can be used to perform genome-wide surveys in the genomes of interest for the presence of DNA-binding proteins. Further analysis of these complexes can aid in developing algorithms for identifying DNA-binding proteins and their family members from mere sequence information.

Onecut 1 and Onecut 2 are potential regulators of mouse retinal development

Our current study focuses on the expression of two members of the onecut transcription factor family, Onecut1 (Oc1) and Onecut2 (Oc2), in the developing mouse retina. By immunofluorescence staining, we found that Oc1 and Oc2 had very similar expression patterns throughout retinal development. Both factors started to be expressed in the retina at around embryonic day (E) 11.5. At early stages (E11.5 and E12.5), they were expressed in both the neuroblast layer (NBL) and ganglion cell layer (GCL). As development progressed (from E14.5 to postnatal day [P] 0), expression diminished in the retinal progenitor cells and became more restricted to the GCL. By P5, Oc1 and Oc2 were expressed at very low levels in the GCL. By co-labeling with transcription factors known to be involved in retinal ganglion cell (RGC) development, we found that Oc1 and Oc2 had extensive overlap with Math5 in the NBL, and that they completely overlapped with Pou4f2 and Isl1 in the GCL, but only partially in the NBL. Co-labeling of Oc1 with cell cycle markers confirmed that Oc1 was expressed in both proliferating retinal progenitors and postmitotic retinal cells. In addition, we demonstrated that expression of Oc1 and Oc2 did not require Math5, Isl1, or Pou4f2. Thus, Oc1 and Oc2 may regulate the formation of RGCs in a pathway independent of Math5, Pou4f2, and Isl1. Furthermore, we showed that Oc1 and Oc2 were expressed in both developing and mature horizontal cells (HCs). Therefore the two factors may also function in the genesis and maintenance of HCs.

Homeodomain subtypes and functional diversity

The homeodomain is a protein domain of about 60 amino acids that is encoded by homeobox genes. The homeodomain is a DNA binding domain, and hence homeodomain proteins are essentially transcription factors (TFs). They have been shown to play major roles in many developmental processes of animals, as well as fungi and plants. A primary function of homeodomain proteins is to regulate the expression of other genes in development and differentiation. Thousands of homeobox genes have been identified, and they can be grouped into many different classes. Often other conserved protein domains are found linked to a homeodomain. Several particular types of homeobox genes are organized into chromosomal clusters. The best-known cluster, the HOX cluster, is found in all bilaterian animals. Tetrapods contain four HOX clusters that arose through duplication in early vertebrate evolution. The genes in these clusters are called Hox genes. Lower chordates, insects and nematodes tend to have only one HOX cluster. Of particular interest is that many of the HOX cluster genes function in the process of pattern formation along the anterior-posterior body axis. Many other types of homeodomain proteins play roles in the determination of cell fates and cell differentiation. Homeobox genes thus perform key roles for all aspects of the development of an organism.

Ceramide synthases in mammalians, worms, and insects: emerging schemes

The ceramide synthase (CerS) gene family comprises a group of highly conserved transmembrane proteins, which are found in all studied eukaryotes. The key feature of the CerS proteins is their role in ceramide synthase activity. Therefore, their original name ‘longevity assurance gene (Lass) homologs’, after the founding member, the yeast longevity assurance gene lag1, was altered to ‘CerS’. All CerS have high sequence similarity in a domain called LAG1 motif and a subset of CerS proteins is predicted to contain a Homeobox (Hox) domain. These domains could be the key to the multiple roles CerS have. CerS proteins play a role in diverse biological processes such as proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, stress response, cancer, and neurodegeneration. In this review, we focus on CerS structure and biological function with emphasis of biological functions in the widely used model systems Caenorhabditis elegans and Drosophila melanogaster. Also, we focus on the accumulating data suggesting a role for CerS in lipid homeostasis.

Transcription factor onecut3 regulates intrahepatic biliary development in zebrafish

Members of the onecut family of transcription factors play important roles in the development of the liver and pancreas. We have shown previously that onecut1 (hnf6) is important during the terminal stages of intrahepatic biliary development in zebrafish. Here we report the characterization of a third zebrafish onecut gene, onecut3 (oc3), and assay its expression during development and its role in biliary duct formation using morpholino antisense oligonucleotide-mediated knockdown. These experiments reveal an important role for oc3 during the earliest stages of zebrafish biliary development, and suggest that zebrafish oc3 is the functional ortholog of mammalian hnf6, a gene that directs biliary differentiation from bipotential progenitor cells. Consistent with this, zebrafish hnf6 expression was significantly reduced in oc3-deficient larvae. Knockdown of hnf6 in wild-type zebrafish larvae also significantly reduced oc3 expression, suggesting a complex interaction between onecut family member proteins during the latter stages of zebrafish biliary development.

Crystal structure and DNA binding of the homeodomain of the stem cell transcription factor Nanog

The transcription factor Nanog is an upstream regulator in early mammalian development and a key determinant of pluripotency in embryonic stem cells. Nanog binds to promoter elements of hundreds of target genes and regulates their expression by an as yet unknown mechanism. Here, we report the crystal structure of the murine Nanog homeodomain (HD) and analysis of its interaction with a DNA element derived from the Tcf3 promoter. Two Nanog amino acid pairs, unique among HD sequences, appear to affect the mechanism of nonspecific DNA recognition as well as maintain the integrity of the structural scaffold. To assess selective DNA recognition by Nanog, we performed electrophoretic mobility shift assays using a panel of modified DNA binding sites and found that Nanog HD preferentially binds the TAAT(G/T)(G/T) motif. A series of rational mutagenesis experiments probing the role of six variant residues of Nanog on its DNA binding function establish their role in affecting binding affinity but not binding specificity. Together, the structural and functional evidence establish Nanog as a distant member of a Q50-type HD despite having considerable variation at the sequence level.