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Bourne Y, Sulzenbacher G, Chabaud L, Aráoz R, Radić Z, Conrod S, Taylor P, Guillou C, Molgó J, Marchot P. The Cyclic Imine Core Common to the Marine Macrocyclic Toxins Is Sufficient to Dictate Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor Antagonism. Mar Drugs 2024; 22:149. [PMID: 38667766 PMCID: PMC11050823 DOI: 10.3390/md22040149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2024] [Revised: 03/22/2024] [Accepted: 03/25/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Macrocyclic imine phycotoxins are an emerging class of chemical compounds associated with harmful algal blooms and shellfish toxicity. Earlier binding and electrophysiology experiments on nAChR subtypes and their soluble AChBP surrogates evidenced common trends for substantial antagonism, binding affinities, and receptor-subtype selectivity. Earlier, complementary crystal structures of AChBP complexes showed that common determinants within the binding nest at each subunit interface confer high-affinity toxin binding, while distinctive determinants from the flexible loop C, and either capping the nest or extending toward peripheral subsites, dictate broad versus narrow receptor subtype selectivity. From these data, small spiroimine enantiomers mimicking the functional core motif of phycotoxins were chemically synthesized and characterized. Voltage-clamp analyses involving three nAChR subtypes revealed preserved antagonism for both enantiomers, despite lower subtype specificity and binding affinities associated with faster reversibility compared with their macrocyclic relatives. Binding and structural analyses involving two AChBPs pointed to modest affinities and positional variability of the spiroimines, along with a range of AChBP loop-C conformations denoting a prevalence of antagonistic properties. These data highlight the major contribution of the spiroimine core to binding within the nAChR nest and confirm the need for an extended interaction network as established by the macrocyclic toxins to define high affinities and marked subtype specificity. This study identifies a minimal set of functional pharmacophores and binding determinants as templates for designing new antagonists targeting disease-associated nAChR subtypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yves Bourne
- Lab “Architecture et Fonction des Macromolécules Biologiques” (AFMB), Aix-Marseille Univ, CNRS, Faculté des Sciences Campus Luminy, 13288 Marseille cedex 09, France; (Y.B.); (G.S.)
| | - Gerlind Sulzenbacher
- Lab “Architecture et Fonction des Macromolécules Biologiques” (AFMB), Aix-Marseille Univ, CNRS, Faculté des Sciences Campus Luminy, 13288 Marseille cedex 09, France; (Y.B.); (G.S.)
| | - Laurent Chabaud
- Institut de Chimie des Substances Naturelles (ICSN), Univ Paris-Saclay, CNRS, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France; (L.C.); (C.G.)
| | - Rómulo Aráoz
- Service d’Ingénierie Moléculaire pour la Santé (SIMoS) EMR CNRS 9004, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé, Institut des Sciences du Vivant Frédéric Joliot, CEA, INRAE, Université Paris-Saclay, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France; (R.A.); (J.M.)
| | - Zoran Radić
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences (SSPPS), University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0751, USA; (Z.R.); (P.T.)
| | - Sandrine Conrod
- Centre de Recherche en Neurobiologie et Neurophysiologie de Marseille (CRN2M), Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, 13344 Marseille, France;
| | - Palmer Taylor
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences (SSPPS), University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0751, USA; (Z.R.); (P.T.)
| | - Catherine Guillou
- Institut de Chimie des Substances Naturelles (ICSN), Univ Paris-Saclay, CNRS, 91198 Gif-sur-Yvette, France; (L.C.); (C.G.)
| | - Jordi Molgó
- Service d’Ingénierie Moléculaire pour la Santé (SIMoS) EMR CNRS 9004, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé, Institut des Sciences du Vivant Frédéric Joliot, CEA, INRAE, Université Paris-Saclay, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France; (R.A.); (J.M.)
| | - Pascale Marchot
- Lab “Architecture et Fonction des Macromolécules Biologiques” (AFMB), Aix-Marseille Univ, CNRS, Faculté des Sciences Campus Luminy, 13288 Marseille cedex 09, France; (Y.B.); (G.S.)
- Centre de Recherche en Neurobiologie et Neurophysiologie de Marseille (CRN2M), Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, 13344 Marseille, France;
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Norambuena-Subiabre L, Carbonell P, Salgado P, Zamora C, Espinoza-González O. Sources and profiles of toxins in shellfish from the south-central coast of Chile (36°‒ 43° S). HARMFUL ALGAE 2024; 133:102608. [PMID: 38485442 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2024.102608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2023] [Revised: 02/22/2024] [Accepted: 02/27/2024] [Indexed: 03/19/2024]
Abstract
The study of marine toxins in shellfish is of the utmost importance to ensure people's food safety. Marine toxins in shellfish and microalgae in the water column off the south-central coast of Chile (36°‒43° S) were studied in a network of 64 stations over a 14-month period. The relative abundance of harmful species Alexandrium catenella, Alexandrium ostenfeldii, Protoceratium reticulatum, Dinophysis acuminata, Dinophysis acuta, Pseudo-nitzschia seriata group and P. delicatissima group was analyzed. The detection and quantification of lipophilic toxins and domoic acid (DA) in shellfish was determined by UHPLC-MS/MS, and for Paralytic Shellfish Toxins (PSTs) by HPLC-FD with post-column oxidation, while for a culture of A. ostenfeldii a Hylic-UHPLC-MS/MS was used. Results showed that DA, gonyautoxin (GTX)-2, GTX-3 and pectenotoxin (PTX)-2 were detected below the permitted limits, while Gymnodimine (GYM)-A and 13-desmethylespirolide C (SPX-1) were below the limit of quantitation. According to the distribution and abundance record of microalgae, DA would be associated to P. seriata and P. delicatissima-groups, PTX-2 to D. acuminata, and GTX-2, GTX-3, GYM-A, and SPX-1 to A. ostenfeldii. However, the toxin analysis of an A. ostenfeldii culture from the Biobío region only showed the presence of the paralytic toxins C2, GTX-2, GTX-3, GTX-5 and saxitoxin, therefore, the source of production of GYM and SPX is still undetermined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis Norambuena-Subiabre
- Instituto de Fomento Pesquero (IFOP), Centro de Estudios de Algas Nocivas (CREAN), Padre Harter 574, Puerto Montt, Chile.
| | - Pamela Carbonell
- Instituto de Fomento Pesquero (IFOP), Centro de Estudios de Algas Nocivas (CREAN), Padre Harter 574, Puerto Montt, Chile
| | - Pablo Salgado
- Instituto de Fomento Pesquero (IFOP), Centro de Estudios de Algas Nocivas (CREAN), Enrique Abello 0552, Punta Arenas, Chile
| | - Claudia Zamora
- Instituto de Fomento Pesquero (IFOP), Centro de Estudios de Algas Nocivas (CREAN), Enrique Abello 0552, Punta Arenas, Chile
| | - Oscar Espinoza-González
- Instituto de Fomento Pesquero (IFOP), Centro de Estudios de Algas Nocivas (CREAN), Padre Harter 574, Puerto Montt, Chile
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Accoroni S, Cangini M, Angeletti R, Losasso C, Bacchiocchi S, Costa A, Taranto AD, Escalera L, Fedrizzi G, Garzia A, Longo F, Macaluso A, Melchiorre N, Milandri A, Milandri S, Montresor M, Neri F, Piersanti A, Rubini S, Suraci C, Susini F, Vadrucci MR, Mudadu AG, Vivaldi B, Soro B, Totti C, Zingone A. Marine phycotoxin levels in shellfish-14 years of data gathered along the Italian coast. HARMFUL ALGAE 2024; 131:102560. [PMID: 38212084 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2023.102560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Revised: 11/27/2023] [Accepted: 12/06/2023] [Indexed: 01/13/2024]
Abstract
Along the Italian coasts, toxins of algal origin in wild and cultivated shellfish have been reported since the 1970s. In this study, we used data gathered by the Veterinary Public Health Institutes (IZS) and the Italian Environmental Health Protection Agencies (ARPA) from 2006 to 2019 to investigate toxicity events along the Italian coasts and relate them to the distribution of potentially toxic species. Among the detected toxins (OA and analogs, YTXs, PTXs, STXs, DAs, AZAs), OA and YTX were those most frequently reported. Levels exceeding regulatory limits in the case of OA (≤2,448 μg equivalent kg-1) were associated with high abundances of Dinophysis spp., and in the case of YTXs (≤22 mg equivalent kg-1) with blooms of Gonyaulax spinifera, Lingulodinium polyedra, and Protoceratium reticulatum. Seasonal blooms of Pseudo-nitzschia spp. occur all along the Italian coast, but DA has only occasionally been detected in shellfish at concentrations always below the regulatory limit (≤18 mg kg-1). Alexandrium spp. were recorded in several areas, although STXs (≤13,782 µg equivalent kg-1) rarely and only in few sites exceeded the regulatory limit in shellfish. Azadinium spp. have been sporadically recorded, and AZAs have been sometimes detected but always in low concentrations (≤7 µg equivalent kg-1). Among the emerging toxins, PLTX-like toxins (≤971 μg kg-1 OVTX-a) have often been detected mainly in wild mussels and sea urchins from rocky shores due to the presence of Ostreopsis cf. ovata. Overall, Italian coastal waters harbour a high number of potentially toxic species, with a few HAB hotspots mainly related to DSP toxins. Nevertheless, rare cases of intoxications have occurred so far, reflecting the whole Mediterranean Sea conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Monica Cangini
- National Reference Laboratory for Marine Biotoxins, CRM, Cesenatico, FC, Italy
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Angela Garzia
- DiSVA, Università Politecnica delle Marche, Ancona, Italy
| | | | | | | | - Anna Milandri
- National Reference Laboratory for Marine Biotoxins, CRM, Cesenatico, FC, Italy
| | - Stefania Milandri
- National Reference Laboratory for Marine Biotoxins, CRM, Cesenatico, FC, Italy
| | | | - Francesca Neri
- DiSVA, Università Politecnica delle Marche, Ancona, Italy
| | | | - Silva Rubini
- IZS della Lombardia e dell'Emilia-Romagna, Ferrara, Italy
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Cecilia Totti
- DiSVA, Università Politecnica delle Marche, Ancona, Italy
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Montuori E, De Luca D, Penna A, Stalberga D, Lauritano C. Alexandrium spp.: From Toxicity to Potential Biotechnological Benefits. Mar Drugs 2023; 22:31. [PMID: 38248656 PMCID: PMC10821459 DOI: 10.3390/md22010031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2023] [Revised: 12/27/2023] [Accepted: 12/28/2023] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Many dinoflagellates of the genus Alexandrium are well known for being responsible for harmful algal blooms (HABs), producing potent toxins that cause damages to other marine organisms, aquaculture, fishery, tourism, as well as induce human intoxications and even death after consumption of contaminated shellfish or fish. In this review, we summarize potential bioprospecting associated to the genus Alexandrium, including which Alexandrium spp. produce metabolites with anticancer, antimicrobial, antiviral, as well as anti-Alzheimer applications. When available, we report their mechanisms of action and targets. We also discuss recent progress on the identification of secondary metabolites with biological properties favorable to human health and aquaculture. Altogether, this information highlights the importance of studying which culturing conditions induce the activation of enzymatic pathways responsible for the synthesis of bioactive metabolites. It also suggests considering and comparing clones collected in different locations for toxin monitoring and marine bioprospecting. This review can be of interest not only for the scientific community, but also for the entire population and industries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleonora Montuori
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Viale F. Stagno d’Alcontres 31, 98166 Messina, Italy;
- Department of Ecosustainable Marine Biotechnology, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Via Acton 55, 80133 Napoli, Italy
| | - Daniele De Luca
- Research Infrastructure for Marine Biological Resources Department, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Villa Comunale, 80121 Napoli, Italy;
| | - Antonella Penna
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, University of Urbino, Campus E. Mattei, 61029 Urbino, Italy;
| | - Darta Stalberga
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Division of Clinical Chemistry and Pharmacology, Linköping University, SE-58183 Linköping, Sweden;
| | - Chiara Lauritano
- Department of Ecosustainable Marine Biotechnology, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Via Acton 55, 80133 Napoli, Italy
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Rossignoli AE, Mariño C, Martín H, Blanco J. First Report of Two Gymnodimines and Two Tetrodotoxin Analogues in Invertebrates from the North Atlantic Coast of Spain. Mar Drugs 2023; 21:md21040232. [PMID: 37103371 PMCID: PMC10144553 DOI: 10.3390/md21040232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2023] [Revised: 03/29/2023] [Accepted: 04/03/2023] [Indexed: 04/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Gymnodimine D (GYM D), 16-desmethyl gymnodimine D (16-desmethyl GYM D), and two tetrodotoxin analogues have been found in invertebrates obtained from the north Atlantic coast of Spain from May 2021 to October 2022. It is the first report of GYMD and 16-desmethyl GYM D in invertebrates worldwide and of the tetrodotoxin analogues, 5,6,11 trideoxy tetrodotoxin (5,6,11 trideoxy TTX) and its isomer (referred to as 5,6,11 trideoxy-epi-TTX), in the north Atlantic Coast of Spain. In this study, we also report for the first time the detection of tetrodotoxin (TTX) in three species (the cnidaria Calliactis parasitica, an unidentified species, and the bivalve Tellina donacina). The prevalence was medium for GYM D and 16-desmethyl GYM D and low for TTXs overall. The concentrations recorded were variable, with maximum values of GYM D in the bivalve Cerastoderma edule (8.8 μg GYM A equivalents kg-1), of 16-desmethyl GYM D in the bivalve Magellana gigas (10 μg GYM A equivalents kg-1) and of TTX and 5,6,11 trideoxy TTX in the cnidaria C. parasitica (49.7 and 233 μg TTX equivalents kg-1, respectively). There is very scarce information about these compounds. Therefore, the reporting of these new detections will increase the knowledge on the current incidence of marine toxins in Europe that the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), in particular, and the scientific community, in general, have. This study also highlights the importance of analyzing toxin analogues and metabolites for effective monitoring programs and adequate health protection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Araceli E Rossignoli
- Centro de Investigacións Mariñas (CIMA), Pedras de Corón s/n, 36620 Vilanova de Arousa, Spain
| | - Carmen Mariño
- Centro de Investigacións Mariñas (CIMA), Pedras de Corón s/n, 36620 Vilanova de Arousa, Spain
| | - Helena Martín
- Centro de Investigacións Mariñas (CIMA), Pedras de Corón s/n, 36620 Vilanova de Arousa, Spain
| | - Juan Blanco
- Centro de Investigacións Mariñas (CIMA), Pedras de Corón s/n, 36620 Vilanova de Arousa, Spain
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Kim HS, Park H, Wang H, Kim T, Ki JS. Saxitoxins-producing potential of the marine dinoflagellate Alexandrium affine and its environmental implications revealed by toxins and transcriptome profiling. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2023; 185:105874. [PMID: 36689843 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2023.105874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2022] [Revised: 12/08/2022] [Accepted: 01/04/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The marine dinoflagellate Alexandrium occurs widely in coastal waters, and some of them can produce saxitoxins (STXs) that cause paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP). Alexandrium affine is a harmful algal bloom (HAB)-forming species off the coast of Asia; however, its ability to produce STXs has been controversial. In the present study, we detected STXs in A. affine Alex02 isolated from the southern coast of Korea. The total STXs equivalent (STXs eq) and profiles of Alex02 varied depending on the tested environmental conditions, including the temperature and nitrate concentrations. STXs toxicity levels of A. affine Alex02 (<0.8 STXs eq fmol cell-1) were significantly lower than those of toxic A. catenella Alex03 and A. pacificum Alex05. On a genetic basis, we identified all the STX biosynthesis sxt genes, except sxtX in A. affine, via large-scale transcriptome analysis. Interestingly, the two proteins, sxtA4 and sxtG, were similar in sequence and domain structure to those of other toxic dinoflagellates and cyanobacteria; however, their transcript levels were extremely low. Our results suggest that A. affine has the potential to produce STXs, while its toxicity is much lower or negligible, which is unlikely to cause PSP incidents in marine environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Han-Sol Kim
- Department of Biotechnology, Sangmyung University, Seoul, 03016, South Korea
| | - Hyunjun Park
- Department of Biotechnology, Sangmyung University, Seoul, 03016, South Korea
| | - Hui Wang
- Department of Biotechnology, Sangmyung University, Seoul, 03016, South Korea
| | - Taehee Kim
- Department of Biotechnology, Sangmyung University, Seoul, 03016, South Korea
| | - Jang-Seu Ki
- Department of Biotechnology, Sangmyung University, Seoul, 03016, South Korea.
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Wang J, Li R, Liu B, Zhang Q, Wang X, Zhu Y, Zhang Y. Occurrence and distribution of lipophilic marine algal toxins in the coastal seawater of Southeast China and the South China Sea. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2023; 187:114584. [PMID: 36642003 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2023.114584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2022] [Revised: 12/23/2022] [Accepted: 01/02/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The composition, levels, and spatial distribution of dissolved lipophilic marine algal toxins (LMATs) including cyclic imines (CIs), yessotoxins (YTXs), okadaic acid (OA) and its derivatives, pectenotoxins (PTXs), azaspiracids (AZAs), and brevetoxins (BTXs) in the coastal waters of Southeast China (Xiamen) and the South China Sea (Hainan Island and Beibu Gulf) were investigated and compared for the first time. Dissolved AZA3 was firstly detected in the coastal seawater of China. OA and PTX2 were widely distributed in the three areas studied. Gymnodimine (GYM), 13-desmethyl spirolide C (SPX1), YTX, and homo-yessotoxins (h-YTX) were found mainly in the South China Sea. The average ∑LMAT concentrations in the coastal waters of Xiamen, Hainan Island, and Beibu Gulf were 10.02 ng/L, 4.21 ng/L, and 44.27 ng/L, respectively. More groups and much higher concentrations of LMATs occurred in the South China Sea than that in the other sea areas of China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiuming Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science of China (Xiamen University), College of the Environment and Ecology, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - Ruilong Li
- College of Light Industry and Food Engineering, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
| | - Beibei Liu
- Institute of Environmental and Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Tropical Agricultural Sciences, Haikou 570100, China
| | - Qinzhou Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science of China (Xiamen University), College of the Environment and Ecology, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - Xiang Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science of China (Xiamen University), College of the Environment and Ecology, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - Yaxian Zhu
- Department of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, China
| | - Yong Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science of China (Xiamen University), College of the Environment and Ecology, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China.
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Blanco J, Arévalo F, Moroño Á, Correa J, Rossignoli AE, Lamas JP. Spirolides in Bivalve Mollusk of the Galician (NW Spain) Coast: Interspecific, Spatial, Temporal Variation and Presence of an Isomer of 13-Desmethyl Spirolide C. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 15:13. [PMID: 36668833 PMCID: PMC9861247 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15010013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2022] [Revised: 12/10/2022] [Accepted: 12/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Spirolides are cyclic imines whose risks to human health have not been sufficiently evaluated. To determine the possible impact of these compounds in Galicia (NW Spain), their presence and concentration in bivalve mollusk were studied from 2014 to 2021. Only 13-desmethyl spirolide C (13desmSPXC) and an isomer have been detected, and always at low concentrations. Mussel, Mytilus galloprovincialis, was the species which accumulated more spirolides, but the presence of its isomer was nearly restricted to cockle, Cerastoderma edule, and two clam species, Venerupis corrugata and Polititapes rhomboides. On average, the highest 13desmSPXC levels were found in autumn-winter, while those of its isomer were recorded in spring-summer. Both compounds showed decreasing trends during the study period. Geographically, the concentration tends to decrease from the southern to the north-eastern locations, but temporal variability predominates over spatial variability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Blanco
- Centro de Investigacións Mariñas, Xunta de Galicia, Pedras de Corón, 36620 Vilanova de Arousa, Spain
| | - Fabiola Arévalo
- Instituto Tecnolóxico para o Control de Medio Mariño de Galicia (INTECMAR), Xunta de Galicia, Peirao de Vilaxoán s/n, 36611 Vilagarcía de Arousa, Spain
| | - Ángeles Moroño
- Instituto Tecnolóxico para o Control de Medio Mariño de Galicia (INTECMAR), Xunta de Galicia, Peirao de Vilaxoán s/n, 36611 Vilagarcía de Arousa, Spain
| | - Jorge Correa
- Instituto Tecnolóxico para o Control de Medio Mariño de Galicia (INTECMAR), Xunta de Galicia, Peirao de Vilaxoán s/n, 36611 Vilagarcía de Arousa, Spain
| | - Araceli E. Rossignoli
- Centro de Investigacións Mariñas, Xunta de Galicia, Pedras de Corón, 36620 Vilanova de Arousa, Spain
| | - Juan Pablo Lamas
- Instituto Tecnolóxico para o Control de Medio Mariño de Galicia (INTECMAR), Xunta de Galicia, Peirao de Vilaxoán s/n, 36611 Vilagarcía de Arousa, Spain
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9
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Stability and Chemical Conversion of the Purified Reference Material of Gymnodimine-A under Different Temperature and pH Conditions. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14110744. [PMID: 36355994 PMCID: PMC9695126 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14110744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2022] [Revised: 10/26/2022] [Accepted: 10/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Gymnodimines (GYMs) are a group of fast-acting phycotoxins and their toxicological effects on human beings are still unclear due to the lack of sufficiently well-characterized large quantities of purified toxins for toxicology studies. In this study, a certified reference material (CRM) of GYM-A was prepared from the dinoflagellate Karenia selliformis, followed by multi-step chromatography separation and purification. Subsequently, the stability of GYM-A in methanolic media was evaluated at different temperature (-20, 4, and 20 °C) and pH (3, 5, and 7) conditions for 8 months, and the conversion products of GYM-A were explored by liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS). The results show that the stability of GYM-A decreased with increasing temperature and pH values. The GYM-A was stable during storage at -20 °C regardless of pH, but it decreased rapidly (81.8% ± 9.3%) at 20 °C in pH 7 solution after 8 months. Moreover, the concentrations of GYM-A did not significantly change at all temperatures in solutions with pH 3 (p > 0.05). It is recommended that GYM-A should be stored at low temperature (≤-20 °C) and pH (≤3) conditions for long-term storage in aqueous methanolic media. In addition, two conversion products of GYM-A, tentatively named as GYM-K (m/z 540) and GYM-L (m/z 524), were identified in the samples stored at high levels of pH and temperature. Based on the LC-HRMS data, the hypothetical chemical structures of both converting derivatives were proposed. A useful strategy for long-term storage of GYM-A CRM in aqueous methanolic media was suggested and two hypothesized conversion products of GYM-A were discovered in this study.
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Pan W, Ji Y, Qiu J, Wang G, Tang Z, Li A. Comparative study on the esterification of gymnodimine in different shellfish exposed to the dissolved toxin in seawater. HARMFUL ALGAE 2022; 115:102233. [PMID: 35623689 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2022.102233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2021] [Revised: 03/31/2022] [Accepted: 04/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Some lipophilic phycotoxins dissolved in seawater can be accumulated by bivalves via the filtering process. To explore the relationship between the bioaccumulation of gymnodimine-A (GYM-A) and free fatty acids (FFAs) of shellfish, three species of bivalves (venus clam Meretrix meretrix, mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis, and ark shell Anadara kagoshimensis) were exposed to dissolved GYM-A for 7 days in the same seawater system. Results indicated that GYM-A can be accumulated by these bivalves from the dissolved phase and esterified with FFAs reaching over 90% in most tissues of bivalves. Gymnodimine-A and its esters mainly distributed in the gills of shellfish, and the highest concentration of toxins occurred in mussel, followed by ark shell and venus clam. Similar percent of different fatty acid esters occurred in the experimental shellfish, in which the C16:0, C17:0, C18:0, C18:1, C20:1, C20:2, C22:2, and C22:6-GYM-A esters were the main metabolites of GYM-A. The binding capacity of fatty acids and GYM-A varied in different FFAs, which can explain why the C20:1-GYM-A ester dominated the ester profile while C16:0 was the most abundant fatty acid in all samples. Comparing with the FFA profile of shellfish in the control groups, overexpression of some FFAs occurred in the tissues of shellfish exposed to GYM-A in the experimental groups, which suggested that biosynthesis of FFAs was affected by the accumulation and metabolism of GYM-A in bivalves. Multiple fatty acids including some valuably nutritional FFAs such as eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) were consumed in the esterification metabolism of GYM-A, which hinted that the lipid metabolism and nutritional quality of shellfish affected by the contamination of GYMs should be explored and assessed in future works.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wanyu Pan
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, No 238, Songling Road, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Ying Ji
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, No 238, Songling Road, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Jiangbing Qiu
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, No 238, Songling Road, Qingdao 266100, China; Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ocean University of China, Ministry of Education, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Guixiang Wang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, No 238, Songling Road, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Zhixuan Tang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, No 238, Songling Road, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Aifeng Li
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, No 238, Songling Road, Qingdao 266100, China; Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ocean University of China, Ministry of Education, Qingdao 266100, China.
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11
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Kim YS, An HJ, Kim J, Jeon YJ. Current Situation of Palytoxins and Cyclic Imines in Asia-Pacific Countries: Causative Phytoplankton Species and Seafood Poisoning. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19084921. [PMID: 35457784 PMCID: PMC9026528 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19084921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2022] [Revised: 04/11/2022] [Accepted: 04/13/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Among marine biotoxins, palytoxins (PlTXs) and cyclic imines (CIs), including spirolides, pinnatoxins, pteriatoxins, and gymnodimines, are not managed in many countries, such as the USA, European nations, and South Korea, because there are not enough poisoning cases or data for the limits on these biotoxins. In this article, we review unregulated marine biotoxins (e.g., PlTXs and CIs), their toxicity, causative phytoplankton species, and toxin extraction and detection protocols. Due to global warming, the habitat of the causative phytoplankton has expanded to the Asia-Pacific region. When ingested by humans, shellfish that accumulated toxins can cause various symptoms (muscle pain or diarrhea) and even death. There are no systematic reports on the occurrence of these toxins; however, it is important to continuously monitor causative phytoplankton and poisoning of accumulating shellfish by PlTXs and CI toxins because of the high risk of toxicity in human consumers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young-Sang Kim
- Laboratory of Marine Bioresource Technology, Department of Marine Life Science, School of Marine Biomedical Sciences, Jeju National University, Jeju City 63243, Korea;
- Marine Science Institute, Jeju National University, Jeju City 63333, Korea
| | - Hyun-Joo An
- Asia Glycomics Reference Site, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 34134, Korea;
- Graduate School of Analytical Science and Technology, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 34134, Korea
| | - Jaeseong Kim
- Water and Eco-Bio Corporation, Kunsan National University, Kunsan 54150, Korea;
| | - You-Jin Jeon
- Laboratory of Marine Bioresource Technology, Department of Marine Life Science, School of Marine Biomedical Sciences, Jeju National University, Jeju City 63243, Korea;
- Marine Science Institute, Jeju National University, Jeju City 63333, Korea
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +82-64-754-3475
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12
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Pradhan B, Ki JS. Phytoplankton Toxins and Their Potential Therapeutic Applications: A Journey toward the Quest for Potent Pharmaceuticals. Mar Drugs 2022; 20:md20040271. [PMID: 35447944 PMCID: PMC9030253 DOI: 10.3390/md20040271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2022] [Revised: 04/12/2022] [Accepted: 04/16/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Phytoplankton are prominent organisms that contain numerous bioactive substances and secondary metabolites, including toxins, which can be valuable to pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, and biotechnological industries. Studies on toxins produced by phytoplankton such as cyanobacteria, diatoms, and dinoflagellates have become more prevalent in recent years and have sparked much interest in this field of research. Because of their richness and complexity, they have great potential as medicinal remedies and biological exploratory probes. Unfortunately, such toxins are still at the preclinical and clinical stages of development. Phytoplankton toxins are harmful to other organisms and are hazardous to animals and human health. However, they may be effective as therapeutic pharmacological agents for numerous disorders, including dyslipidemia, obesity, cancer, diabetes, and hypertension. In this review, we have focused on the properties of different toxins produced by phytoplankton, as well as their beneficial effects and potential biomedical applications. The anticancer properties exhibited by phytoplankton toxins are mainly attributed to their apoptotic effects. As a result, phytoplankton toxins are a promising strategy for avoiding postponement or cancer treatment. Moreover, they also displayed promising applications in other ailments and diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease, diabetes, AIDS, fungal, bacterial, schizophrenia, inflammation, allergy, osteoporosis, asthma, and pain. Preclinical and clinical applications of phytoplankton toxins, as well as future directions of their enhanced nano-formulations for improved clinical efficacy, have also been reviewed.
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13
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Li L, El Khoury A, Clement BO, Wu C, Harran PG. Asymmetric Organocatalysis Enables Rapid Assembly of Portimine Precursor Chains. Org Lett 2022; 24:2607-2612. [PMID: 35377667 DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.2c00556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Sequential organocatalytic additions of 2-furanone and dihydroxyacetone derivatives to a crotonaldehyde lynchpin provide polyhydroxylated chains reminiscent of lactonized deoxo Kdn type sugars. Further homologation via Kulinkovich ring opening of the butyrolactone and acylation of the zinc homoenolate derived from the incipient cyclopropanol allows assembly of functionalized chain precursors to portimine. Our experiments probe the stability and reactivity of monosubstituted methylidene pyrrolines and generate advanced intermediates useful for exploring the biosynthesis and de novo synthesis of portimine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liubo Li
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California-Los Angeles, 607 Charles E. Young Drive East, Los Angeles, California 90095-1569, United States
| | - Anton El Khoury
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California-Los Angeles, 607 Charles E. Young Drive East, Los Angeles, California 90095-1569, United States
| | - Brennan O'Neil Clement
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California-Los Angeles, 607 Charles E. Young Drive East, Los Angeles, California 90095-1569, United States
| | - Carolyn Wu
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California-Los Angeles, 607 Charles E. Young Drive East, Los Angeles, California 90095-1569, United States
| | - Patrick G Harran
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California-Los Angeles, 607 Charles E. Young Drive East, Los Angeles, California 90095-1569, United States
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14
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Alzheimer’s Disease and Toxins Produced by Marine Dinoflagellates: An Issue to Explore. Mar Drugs 2022; 20:md20040253. [PMID: 35447926 PMCID: PMC9029327 DOI: 10.3390/md20040253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2022] [Revised: 03/21/2022] [Accepted: 03/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
This paper examined the toxins naturally produced by marine dinoflagellates and their effects on increases in β-amyloid plaques along with tau protein hyperphosphorylation, both major drivers of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). This approach is in line with the demand for certain natural compounds, namely those produced by marine invertebrates that have the potential to be used in the treatment of AD. Current advances in AD treatment are discussed as well as the main factors that potentially affect the puzzling global AD pattern. This study focused on yessotoxins (YTXs), gymnodimine (GYM), spirolides (SPXs), and gambierol, all toxins that have been shown to reduce β-amyloid plaques and tau hyperphosphorylation, thus preventing the neuronal or synaptic dysfunction that ultimately causes the cell death associated with AD (or other neurodegenerative diseases). Another group of toxins described, okadaic acid (OA) and its derivatives, inhibit protein phosphatase activity, which facilitates the presence of phosphorylated tau proteins. A few studies have used OA to trigger AD in zebrafish, providing an opportunity to test in vivo the effectiveness of new drugs in treating or attenuating AD. Constraints on the production of marine toxins for use in these tests have been considered. Different lines of research are anticipated regarding the action of the two groups of toxins.
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15
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Selection, Characterization, and Optimization of DNA Aptamers against Challenging Marine Biotoxin Gymnodimine-A for Biosensing Application. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14030195. [PMID: 35324692 PMCID: PMC8949142 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14030195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2022] [Revised: 02/28/2022] [Accepted: 03/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Gymnodimines (GYMs), belonging to cyclic imines (CIs), are characterized as fast-acting toxins, and may pose potential risks to human health and the aquaculture industry through the contamination of sea food. The existing detection methods of GYMs have certain defects in practice, such as ethical problems or the requirement of complicated equipment. As novel molecular recognition elements, aptamers have been applied in many areas, including the detection of marine biotoxins. However, GYMs are liposoluble molecules with low molecular weight and limited numbers of chemical groups, which are considered as “challenging” targets for aptamers selection. In this study, Capture-SELEX was used as the main strategy in screening aptamers targeting gymnodimine-A (GYM-A), and an aptamer named G48nop, with the highest KD value of 95.30 nM, was successfully obtained by screening and optimization. G48nop showed high specificity towards GYM-A. Based on this, a novel aptasensor based on biolayer interferometry (BLI) technology was established in detecting GYM-A. This aptasensor showed a detection range from 55 to 1400 nM (linear range from 55 to 875 nM) and a limit of detection (LOD) of 6.21 nM. Spiking experiments in real samples indicated the recovery rate of this aptasensor, ranging from 96.65% to 109.67%. This is the first study to report an aptamer with high affinity and specificity for the challenging marine biotoxin GYM-A, and the new established aptasensor may be used as a reliable and efficient tool for the detection and monitoring of GYMs in the future.
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16
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Ji Y, Yan G, Wang G, Liu J, Tang Z, Yan Y, Qiu J, Zhang L, Pan W, Fu Y, Li T, Luo X, Lan W, Wang Z, Li W, Li A. Prevalence and distribution of domoic acid and cyclic imines in bivalve mollusks from Beibu Gulf, China. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2022; 423:127078. [PMID: 34523496 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.127078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2021] [Revised: 08/26/2021] [Accepted: 08/27/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Beibu Gulf is an important shellfish aquaculture area in the northwest of the South China Sea, China. In this study, the toxin profile and spatial-temporal distribution of domoic acid (DA) and 10 lipophilic phycotoxins were systematically analyzed in the bivalve mollusks collected in Beibu Gulf from October 2018 to October 2020. Neurotoxin DA was first detected in the mollusks from the investigative regions with a prevalence of 17.7%, peaking at 401 µg kg-1. Cyclic imines (CIs) including gymnodimine-A (GYM-A, 46.6%) and 13-desmethyl-spirolide-C (SPX1, 15.8%) predominated the lipophilic phycotoxins in shellfish, peaking at 10.1 µg kg-1 and 19.6 µg kg-1, respectively. Gymnodimine-A partially accompanied by SPX1 was detected in all batches of shellfish samples, suggesting that Alexandrium ostenfeldii and Karenia selliformis were possible sources of CIs-group toxins in Beibu Gulf. During the investigative period, relatively higher levels of DA occurred in shellfishes from March to August, while slightly higher contents of CIs in mollusks appeared in October and December. Spatial distribution of the targeted phycotoxins demonstrated that shellfishes tended to accumulate relatively higher contents of toxins in Lianzhou, Qinzhou and Tieshan bays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Ji
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China; Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ocean University of China, Ministry of Education, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Guowang Yan
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China; Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ocean University of China, Ministry of Education, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Guixiang Wang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China; Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ocean University of China, Ministry of Education, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Jianwei Liu
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China; Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ocean University of China, Ministry of Education, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Zhixuan Tang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China; Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ocean University of China, Ministry of Education, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Yeju Yan
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China; Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ocean University of China, Ministry of Education, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Jiangbing Qiu
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China; Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ocean University of China, Ministry of Education, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Lei Zhang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China; Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ocean University of China, Ministry of Education, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Wanyu Pan
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China; Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ocean University of China, Ministry of Education, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Yilei Fu
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China; Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ocean University of China, Ministry of Education, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Tianshen Li
- Marine Environmental Monitoring Center of Guangxi, Beihai 536000, China
| | - Xin Luo
- Marine Environmental Monitoring Center of Guangxi, Beihai 536000, China
| | - Wenlu Lan
- Marine Environmental Monitoring Center of Guangxi, Beihai 536000, China
| | - Zhaohui Wang
- College of Life Science and Technology, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Weiguo Li
- College of Life Science and Technology, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Aifeng Li
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China; Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ocean University of China, Ministry of Education, Qingdao 266100, China.
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17
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Gu H, Wu Y, Lü S, Lu D, Tang YZ, Qi Y. Emerging harmful algal bloom species over the last four decades in China. HARMFUL ALGAE 2022; 111:102059. [PMID: 35016757 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2021.102059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2020] [Revised: 05/20/2021] [Accepted: 05/22/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The first recorded micro-algae bloom in Chinese coastal waters dates back to 1933 and was caused by a mixture of Noctiluca scintillans and Skeletonema costatum sensu lato along the Zhejiang coast (the East China Sea). While well-documented harmful algal blooms (HABs) appeared to be extremely scarce from the 1950s to 1990, both the frequency and intensity have been reportedly increasing since 1990. Among them, the fish-killing HABs, mainly caused by Karenia mikimotoi, Karlodinium digitatum, Karlodinium veneficum, Margalefidinium polykrikoides, and Heterocapsa spp., have intensified. Karenia mikimotoi was responsible for at least two extremely serious events in the Pearl River Estuary in 1998 and the Taiwan Strait (in the East China Sea) in 2012, which appeared to be associated with abnormal climate conditions and excessive nutrients loading. Other major toxic algal blooms have been caused by the species responsible for paralytic shellfish poisoning (including Alexandrium catenella, Alexandrium pacificum, Gymnodinium catenatum) and diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (including Dinophysis spp., and a couple of benthic dinoflagellates). Consequent closures of shellfish farms have resulted in enormous economic losses, while consumption of contaminated shellfish has led to occasional human mortality in the Bohai Sea and the East China Sea. Expansions of these HABs species along the coastline of China have occurred over the last four decades and, due to the projected global changes in the climate and marine environments and other anthropological activities, there is potential for the emergence of new types of HABs in China in the future. This literature review aimed to present an updated overview of HABs species over the last four decades in China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haifeng Gu
- Third Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Xiamen 361005, China; Observation and Research Station of Island and Coastal Ecosystem in the Western Taiwan Straits, Ministry of Natural Resources, Xiamen 361005, China
| | - Yiran Wu
- Third Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Xiamen 361005, China
| | - Songhui Lü
- College of Life Science and Technology, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Douding Lu
- Second Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Hangzhou 310012, China
| | - Ying Zhong Tang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Marine Ecology and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 7 Nanhai Road, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Yuzao Qi
- College of Life Science and Technology, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, China.
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18
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Long M, Krock B, Castrec J, Tillmann U. Unknown Extracellular and Bioactive Metabolites of the Genus Alexandrium: A Review of Overlooked Toxins. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:905. [PMID: 34941742 PMCID: PMC8703713 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13120905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2021] [Revised: 12/08/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Various species of Alexandrium can produce a number of bioactive compounds, e.g., paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs), spirolides, gymnodimines, goniodomins, and also uncharacterised bioactive extracellular compounds (BECs). The latter metabolites are released into the environment and affect a large range of organisms (from protists to fishes and mammalian cell lines). These compounds mediate allelochemical interactions, have anti-grazing and anti-parasitic activities, and have a potentially strong structuring role for the dynamic of Alexandrium blooms. In many studies evaluating the effects of Alexandrium on marine organisms, only the classical toxins were reported and the involvement of BECs was not considered. A lack of information on the presence/absence of BECs in experimental strains is likely the cause of contrasting results in the literature that render impossible a distinction between PSTs and BECs effects. We review the knowledge on Alexandrium BEC, (i.e., producing species, target cells, physiological effects, detection methods and molecular candidates). Overall, we highlight the need to identify the nature of Alexandrium BECs and urge further research on the chemical interactions according to their ecological importance in the planktonic chemical warfare and due to their potential collateral damage to a wide range of organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc Long
- IFREMER, Centre de Brest, DYNECO Pelagos, 29280 Plouzané, France;
| | - Bernd Krock
- Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany;
| | - Justine Castrec
- University Brest, CNRS, IRD, Ifremer, LEMAR, 29280 Plouzané, France;
- Station de Recherches Sous-Marines et Océanographiques (STARESO), Punta Revellata, BP33, 20260 Calvi, France
| | - Urban Tillmann
- Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany;
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19
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Hort V, Abadie E, Arnich N, Dechraoui Bottein MY, Amzil Z. Chemodiversity of Brevetoxins and Other Potentially Toxic Metabolites Produced by Karenia spp. and Their Metabolic Products in Marine Organisms. Mar Drugs 2021; 19:656. [PMID: 34940655 PMCID: PMC8709462 DOI: 10.3390/md19120656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2021] [Revised: 11/17/2021] [Accepted: 11/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent decades, more than 130 potentially toxic metabolites originating from dinoflagellate species belonging to the genus Karenia or metabolized by marine organisms have been described. These metabolites include the well-known and large group of brevetoxins (BTXs), responsible for foodborne neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (NSP) and airborne respiratory symptoms in humans. Karenia spp. also produce brevenal, brevisamide and metabolites belonging to the hemi-brevetoxin, brevisin, tamulamide, gymnocin, gymnodimine, brevisulcenal and brevisulcatic acid groups. In this review, we summarize the available knowledge in the literature since 1977 on these various identified metabolites, whether they are produced directly by the producer organisms or biotransformed in marine organisms. Their structures and physicochemical properties are presented and discussed. Among future avenues of research, we highlight the need for more toxin occurrence data with analytical techniques, which can specifically determine the analogs present in samples. New metabolites have yet to be fully described, especially the groups of metabolites discovered in the last two decades (e.g tamulamides). Lastly, this work clarifies the different nomenclatures used in the literature and should help to harmonize practices in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent Hort
- Laboratory for Food Safety, Pesticides and Marine Biotoxins Unit, ANSES (French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety), 94701 Maisons-Alfort, France
| | - Eric Abadie
- MARBEC (MARine Biodiversity, Exploitation and Conservation), Université de Montpellier, CNRS, Ifremer, IRD, 34200 Sète, France;
| | - Nathalie Arnich
- Risk Assessment Directorate, ANSES (French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety), 94701 Maisons-Alfort, France;
| | - Marie-Yasmine Dechraoui Bottein
- Université Côte d’Azur, CNRS, UMR 7035 ECOSEAS, 06103 Nice, France;
- Federative Research Institute—Marine Ressources, Université Côte d’Azur, CNRS, 06108 Nice, France
| | - Zouher Amzil
- Ifremer (French Research Institute for Exploitation of the Sea), 44311 Nantes, France
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20
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Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) in Mussels from the Eastern Cantabrian Sea: Toxicity, Toxin Profile, and Co-Occurrence with Cyclic Imines. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13110761. [PMID: 34822545 PMCID: PMC8617803 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13110761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2021] [Revised: 10/25/2021] [Accepted: 10/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In the late autumn of 2018 and 2019, some samples taken by the official monitoring systems of Cantabria and the Basque Country were found to be paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP)-positive using a mouse bioassay. To confirm the presence of PSP toxins and to obtain their profile, these samples were analyzed using an optimized version of the Official Method AOAC 2005.06 and using LC–MS/MS (HILIC). The presence of some PSP toxins (PSTs) in that geographical area (~600 km of coast) was confirmed for the first time. The estimated toxicities ranged from 170 to 983 µg STXdiHCl eq.·kg−1 for the AOAC 2005.06 method and from 150 to 1094 µg STXdiHCl eq.·kg−1 for the LC–MS/MS method, with a good correlation between both methods (r2 = 0.94). Most samples contained STX, GTX2,3, and GTX1,4, and some also had NEO and dcGTX2. All of the PSP-positive samples also contained gymnodimine A, with the concentrations of the two groups of toxins being significantly correlated. The PSP toxin profiles suggest that a species of the genus Alexandrium was likely the causative agent. The presence of gymnodimine A suggests that A. ostenfeldii could be involved, but the contribution of a mixture of Alexandrium species cannot be ruled out.
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21
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Ding XB, Aitken HRM, Pearl ES, Furkert DP, Brimble MA. Synthesis of the C4-C16 Polyketide Fragment of Portimines A and B. J Org Chem 2021; 86:12840-12850. [PMID: 34469687 DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.1c01463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Stereoselective synthesis of the C4-C16 polyketide fragment of portimines A and B is reported, enabled by our previously established method for the stereoselective synthesis of syn-α,α'-dihydroxyketones. The preparation of this advanced fragment provides insights useful for the total synthesis of portimines A and B. An asymmetric Evans aldol reaction was used to install the C10-C11 adjacent stereogenic centers before incorporation of indantrione, followed by epoxidation and epoxide opening to forge the challenging syn-α,α'-dihydroxyketone functionality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Bo Ding
- School of Chemical Sciences, The University of Auckland, 23 Symonds Street, Auckland 1010, New Zealand
| | - Harry R M Aitken
- School of Chemical Sciences, The University of Auckland, 23 Symonds Street, Auckland 1010, New Zealand
| | - Esperanza S Pearl
- School of Chemical Sciences, The University of Auckland, 23 Symonds Street, Auckland 1010, New Zealand
| | - Daniel P Furkert
- School of Chemical Sciences, The University of Auckland, 23 Symonds Street, Auckland 1010, New Zealand.,The Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, The University of Auckland, 3 Symonds Street, Auckland 1010, New Zealand
| | - Margaret A Brimble
- School of Chemical Sciences, The University of Auckland, 23 Symonds Street, Auckland 1010, New Zealand.,The Maurice Wilkins Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery, The University of Auckland, 3 Symonds Street, Auckland 1010, New Zealand
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22
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Lamas JP, Arévalo F, Moroño Á, Correa J, Rossignoli AE, Blanco J. Gymnodimine A in mollusks from the north Atlantic Coast of Spain: Prevalence, concentration, and relationship with spirolides. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2021; 279:116919. [PMID: 33744630 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2021.116919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2020] [Revised: 02/28/2021] [Accepted: 03/06/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Gymnodimine A has been found in mollusks obtained along the whole northern coast of Spain from April 2017 to December 2019. This is the first time that this toxin is detected in mollusks from the Atlantic coast of Europe. The prevalence of the toxin was, in general, low, being detected on average in approximately 6% of the obtained samples (122 out of 1900). The concentrations recorded were also, in general, low, with a median of 1.3 μg kg-1, and a maximum value of 23.93 μg kg-1. The maxima of prevalence and concentration were not geographically coincident, taking place the first at the easternmost part of the sampled area and the second at the westernmost part. In most cases (>94%), gymnodimine A and 13-desmethyl spirolide C were concurrently detected, suggesting that Alexandrium ostenfeldii could be the responsible producer species. The existence of cases in which gymnodimine A was detected alone suggests also that a Karenia species could also be involved. The geographical heterogeneity of the distribution suggests that blooms of the producer species are mostly local. Not all bivalves are equally affected, clams being less affected than mussels, oysters, and razor clams. Due to their relatively low toxicity, and their low prevalence and concentration, it seems that these toxins do not pose an important risk for the mollusk consumers in the area.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Pablo Lamas
- Intecmar (Instituto Tecnolóxico para o Control Do Medio Mariño de Galicia), Peirao de Vilaxoán S/n, Vilagarcía de Arousa, 36611, Pontevedra, Spain
| | - Fabiola Arévalo
- Intecmar (Instituto Tecnolóxico para o Control Do Medio Mariño de Galicia), Peirao de Vilaxoán S/n, Vilagarcía de Arousa, 36611, Pontevedra, Spain.
| | - Ángeles Moroño
- Intecmar (Instituto Tecnolóxico para o Control Do Medio Mariño de Galicia), Peirao de Vilaxoán S/n, Vilagarcía de Arousa, 36611, Pontevedra, Spain.
| | - Jorge Correa
- Intecmar (Instituto Tecnolóxico para o Control Do Medio Mariño de Galicia), Peirao de Vilaxoán S/n, Vilagarcía de Arousa, 36611, Pontevedra, Spain.
| | - Araceli E Rossignoli
- Centro de Investigacións Mariñas (CIMA), Pedras de Corón S/n, 36620, Vilanova de Arousa, Spain.
| | - Juan Blanco
- Centro de Investigacións Mariñas (CIMA), Pedras de Corón S/n, 36620, Vilanova de Arousa, Spain.
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23
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Bruhn CS, Wohlrab S, Krock B, Lundholm N, John U. Seasonal plankton succession is in accordance with phycotoxin occurrence in Disko Bay, West Greenland. HARMFUL ALGAE 2021; 103:101978. [PMID: 33980456 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2021.101978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2020] [Revised: 01/14/2021] [Accepted: 01/14/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Harmful algal blooms (HABs) are occurring more frequently in the world's oceans, probably as a consequence of climate change. HABs have not been considered a serious concern in the Arctic, even though the Arctic warms faster than any other region. While phycotoxins and toxin-producing phytoplankton have been found in Arctic waters on several occasions, there is a lack of information on seasonal succession of species and whether the occurrence of harmful species correlates with the presence of their respective phycotoxins. Hence, there is no baseline to assess future changes of HABs in this area. Here, we investigated two periods, from winter to spring and from the spring bloom until summer, in Disko Bay, West Greenland and followed the succession of toxins and their producers using metabarcoding, as well as analyses of particulate and dissolved toxins. We observed a typical seasonal succession with a spring bloom dominated by diatoms, followed by dinoflagellates in summer, with the two most important potentially toxic taxa found being Pseudo-nitzschia spp. and Alexandrium ostenfeldii. The Pseudo-nitzschia spp. peak correlated with a clear increase in particulate domoic acid, reaching 0.05 pg/L. Presence of Alexandrium ostenfeldii could be linked to an increase in spirolides, up to 56.4 pg/L in the particulate phase. Generally, the majority of detected dissolved toxins followed the succession pattern of the particulate toxins with a delay in time. Our results further show that Arctic waters are a suitable habitat for various toxin producers and that the strong seasonality of this environment is reflected by changing abundances of different toxins that pose a potential threat to the ecosystem and its beneficiaries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Sabine Bruhn
- Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany.
| | - Sylke Wohlrab
- Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany; Helmholtz Institute for Functional Marine Biodiversity, Ammerländer Heersstraße 231, 26129 Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Bernd Krock
- Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Nina Lundholm
- Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen, Øster Farimagsgade 5, 1353 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Uwe John
- Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany; Helmholtz Institute for Functional Marine Biodiversity, Ammerländer Heersstraße 231, 26129 Oldenburg, Germany.
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24
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Hassoun AER, Ujević I, Mahfouz C, Fakhri M, Roje-Busatto R, Jemaa S, Nazlić N. Occurrence of domoic acid and cyclic imines in marine biota from Lebanon-Eastern Mediterranean Sea. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 755:142542. [PMID: 33035983 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2020] [Revised: 09/07/2020] [Accepted: 09/18/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Marine biotoxins are naturally existing chemicals produced by toxic algae and can accumulate in marine biota. When consumed with seafood, these phycotoxins can cause human intoxication with symptoms varying from barely-noticed illness to death depending on the type of toxin and its concentration. Recently, the occurrence of marine biotoxins has been given special attention in the Mediterranean as it increased in frequency and severity due to anthropogenic pressures and climate change. Up to our knowledge, no previous study reported the presence of lipophilic toxins (LTs) and cyclic imines (CIs) in marine biota in Lebanon. Hence, this study reports LTs and CIs in marine organisms: one gastropod (Phorcus turbinatus), two bivalves (Spondylus spinosus and Patella rustica complex) and one fish species (Siganus rivulatus), collected from various Lebanese coastal areas. The results show values below the limit of detection (LOD) for okadaic acid, dinophysistoxin-1 and 2, pectenotoxin-1 and 2, yessotoxins, azaspiracids and saxitoxins. The spiny oyster (S. spinosus) showed the highest levels of domoic acid (DA; 3.88 mg kg-1), gymnodimine (GYM-B) and spirolide (SPX) (102.9 and 15.07 μg kg-1, respectively) in congruence with the occurrence of high abundance of Pseudo-nitzchia spp., Gymnodinium spp., and Alexandrium spp. DA levels were below the European Union (EU) regulatory limit, but higher than the Lowest Observed Adverse Effect Level (0.9 μg g-1) for neurotoxicity in humans and lower than the Acute Reference Dose (30 μg kg-1 bw) both set by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA, 2009). Based on these findings, it is unlikely that a health risk exists due to the exposure to these toxins through seafood consumption in Lebanon. Despite this fact, the chronic toxicity of DA, GYMs and SPXs remains unclear and the effect of the repetitive consumption of contaminated seafood needs to be more investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abed El Rahman Hassoun
- National Council for Scientific Research, National Center for Marine Sciences, P.O. Box, 534, Batroun, Lebanon.
| | - Ivana Ujević
- Laboratory of Plankton and Shellfish Toxicity, Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, Šetalište Ivana Meštrovića 63, 21000 Split, Croatia
| | - Céline Mahfouz
- National Council for Scientific Research, National Center for Marine Sciences, P.O. Box, 534, Batroun, Lebanon
| | - Milad Fakhri
- National Council for Scientific Research, National Center for Marine Sciences, P.O. Box, 534, Batroun, Lebanon
| | - Romana Roje-Busatto
- Laboratory of Plankton and Shellfish Toxicity, Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, Šetalište Ivana Meštrovića 63, 21000 Split, Croatia
| | - Sharif Jemaa
- National Council for Scientific Research, National Center for Marine Sciences, P.O. Box, 534, Batroun, Lebanon
| | - Nikša Nazlić
- Laboratory of Plankton and Shellfish Toxicity, Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries, Šetalište Ivana Meštrovića 63, 21000 Split, Croatia
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25
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Nieva JA, Krock B, Tillmann U, Tebben J, Zurhelle C, Bickmeyer U. Gymnodimine A and 13-desMethyl Spirolide C Alter Intracellular Calcium Levels via Acetylcholine Receptors. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12120751. [PMID: 33261221 PMCID: PMC7760841 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12120751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2020] [Revised: 11/23/2020] [Accepted: 11/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Gymnodimines and spirolides are cyclic imine phycotoxins and known antagonists of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs). We investigated the effect of gymnodimine A (GYM A) and 13-desmethyl spirolide C (SPX 1) from Alexandrium ostenfeldii on rat pheochromocytoma (PC12) cells by monitoring intracellular calcium levels ([Ca]i). Using whole cells, the presence of 0.5 µM of GYM A or SPX 1 induced an increase in [Ca]i mediated by acetylcholine receptors (AChRs) and inhibited further activation of AChRs by acetylcholine (ACh). To differentiate the effects of GYM A or SPX 1, the toxins were applied to cells with pharmacologically isolated nAChRs and muscarinic AChRs (mAChRs) as mediated by the addition of atropine and tubocurarine, respectively. GYM A and SPX 1 activated nAChRs and inhibited the further activation of nAChRs by ACh, indicating that both toxins mimicked the activity of ACh. Regarding mAChRs, a differential response was observed between the two toxins. Only GYM A activated mAChRs, resulting in elevated [Ca]i, but both toxins prevented a subsequent activation by ACh. The absence of the triketal ring system in GYM A may provide the basis for a selective activation of mAChRs. GYM A and SPX 1 induced no changes in [Ca]i when nAChRs and mAChRs were inhibited simultaneously, indicating that both toxins target AChRs.
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Zurhelle C, Harder T, Tillmann U, Tebben J. In Silico Modeling of Spirolides and Gymnodimines: Determination of S Configuration at Butenolide Ring Carbon C-4. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12110685. [PMID: 33138275 PMCID: PMC7692061 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12110685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2020] [Revised: 10/27/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Only few naturally occurring cyclic imines have been fully structurally elucidated or synthesized to date. The configuration at the C-4 carbon plays a pivotal role in the neurotoxicity of many of these metabolites, for example, gymnodomines (GYMs) and spirolides (SPXs). However, the stereochemistry at this position is not accessible by nuclear Overhauser effect-nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NOE-NMR) due to unconstrained rotation of the single carbon bond between C-4 and C-5. Consequently, the relative configuration of GYMs and SPXs at C-4 and its role in protein binding remains elusive. Here, we determined the stereochemical configuration at carbon C-4 in the butenolide ring of spirolide- and gymnodimine-phycotoxins by comparison of measured 13C NMR shifts with values obtained in silico using force field, semiempirical and density functional theory methods. This comparison demonstrated that modeled data support S configuration at C-4 for all studied SPXs and GYMs, suggesting a biosynthetically conserved relative configuration at carbon C-4 among these toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Zurhelle
- Department of Ecological Chemistry, Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany; (C.Z.); (T.H.); (U.T.)
| | - Tilmann Harder
- Department of Ecological Chemistry, Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany; (C.Z.); (T.H.); (U.T.)
- Faculty of Biology and Chemistry, University of Bremen, Leobener Straße 6, 28359 Bremen, Germany
| | - Urban Tillmann
- Department of Ecological Chemistry, Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany; (C.Z.); (T.H.); (U.T.)
| | - Jan Tebben
- Department of Ecological Chemistry, Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany; (C.Z.); (T.H.); (U.T.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-471-4831-1086
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Aráoz R, Barnes P, Séchet V, Delepierre M, Zinn-Justin S, Molgó J, Zakarian A, Hess P, Servent D. Cyclic imine toxins survey in coastal european shellfish samples: Bioaccumulation and mode of action of 28-O-palmitoyl ester of pinnatoxin-G. first report of portimine-A bioaccumulation. HARMFUL ALGAE 2020; 98:101887. [PMID: 33129465 PMCID: PMC7657664 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2020.101887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2020] [Revised: 07/11/2020] [Accepted: 07/24/2020] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Cyclic imine toxins exhibit fast acting neurotoxicity and lethality by respiratory arrest in mice explained by their potent antagonistic activity against muscular nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. We performed a survey of gymnodimine-A, 13-desmethyl spirolide-C, 13,19-didesmethyl spirolide-C, 20-methyl spirolide-G, pinnatoxin-A, pinnatoxin-G, portimine-A and 28-O-palmitoyl ester of pinnatoxin-G in 36 shellfish samples collected in coastal areas of 8 European countries using a microplate receptor binding assay and UPLC-MS/MS for toxin identification and quantification. The major toxins found in these samples were pinnatoxin-G, 20-methyl spirolide-G, 13-desmethyl spirolide-C, gymnodimine-A and portimine-A. Traces of 13,19-didesmethyl spirolide-C, pinnatoxin-A and 28-O-palmitoyl ester of pinnatoxin-G were also detected. The rapid death of mice was correlated with higher pinnatoxin-G concentrations in mussel digestive gland extracts injected intraperitoneally. Our survey included nontoxic control samples that were found to contain moderate to trace amounts of several cyclic imine toxins. Shellfish may bioaccumulate not only cyclic imine toxins but also a large number of acyl derivatives as a product of metabolic transformation of these neurotoxins. This is the first report in which portimine-A and 28-O-palmitoyl ester of pinnatoxin-G were detected in shellfish extracts from digestive glands of mussels collected in Ingril lagoon. The bioaccumulation of portimine-A is particularly of concern because it is cytotoxic and is able to induce apotosis. The mode of action of 28-O-palmitoyl ester of pinnatoxin-G was studied by receptor binding-assay and by two-electrode voltage clamp electrophysiology. The antagonistic behavior of the acylated pinnatoxin-G towards nicotinic acetylcholine receptor of muscle type is shown here for the first time. Since cyclic imine toxins are not regulated further monitoring of these emerging toxins is needed to improve evidence gathering of their occurrence in shellfish commercialized for human consumption in Europe given their potent antagonism against muscle and neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rómulo Aráoz
- Université Paris Saclay, CEA, INRAE, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SIMoS, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France; CNRS, ERL9004, 91191, Gif-sur-Yvette, France.
| | - Paul Barnes
- Agri-food and Biosciences Institute, Veterinary Science Division, Stoney Road, Belfast BT4 3SD, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom
| | - Véronique Séchet
- Ifremer, Centre Atlantique, Laboratoire Phycotoxines, 44311 Nantes Cedex, France
| | - Muriel Delepierre
- Institut Pasteur, Department of Structural Biology and Chemistry CNRS, UMR3528, Paris France
| | - Sophie Zinn-Justin
- Institute for Integrative Biology of the Cell (I2BC), CEA, CNRS, Univ Paris-Sud, Université Paris-Saclay, Gif- sur -Yvette Cedex, France
| | - Jordi Molgó
- Université Paris Saclay, CEA, INRAE, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SIMoS, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France; CNRS, ERL9004, 91191, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Armen Zakarian
- University California Santa Barbara, Dept Chem & Biochem, Santa Barbara, CA 93106 United States
| | - Philipp Hess
- Ifremer, Centre Atlantique, Laboratoire Phycotoxines, 44311 Nantes Cedex, France
| | - Denis Servent
- Université Paris Saclay, CEA, INRAE, Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SIMoS, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France; CNRS, ERL9004, 91191, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
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28
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Díaz PA, Álvarez G, Seguel M, Marín A, Krock B. First detection of pectenotoxin-2 in shellfish associated with an intense spring bloom of Dinophysis acuminata on the central Chilean coast. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2020; 158:111414. [PMID: 32753198 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2020] [Revised: 06/16/2020] [Accepted: 06/24/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) toxins and pectenotoxins (PTX) produced by endemic species of the genus Dinophysis, mainly D. acuta and D. acuminata, pose a big threat to public health, artisanal fisheries and the aquaculture industry in Southern Chile. This work reports the first detection of lipophilic toxins, including pectenotoxin-2 (PTX-2) and gymnodimine-A (GYM-A), in hard razor clam (Tagelus dombeii) associated with an unprecedented spring bloom -38.4 × 103 cells L-1 in integrated hose sampler (0-10 m) - of Dinophysis acuminata in coastal waters of central Chile. The socio-economic challenges to small-scale fisheries are discussed. The study points to the pressing need for sound policies to face unexpected HAB event, probably due to biogeographical expansions, with a focus on fisheries management, participation of stakeholders, and development of adaptive capacities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricio A Díaz
- Centro i~mar & CeBiB, Universidad de Los Lagos, Casilla 557, Puerto Montt, Chile.
| | - Gonzalo Álvarez
- Facultad de Ciencias del Mar, Departamento de Acuicultura, Universidad Católica del Norte, Coquimbo, Chile; Centro de Investigación y Desarrollo Tecnológico en Algas (CIDTA), Facultad de Ciencias del Mar, Larrondo 1281, Universidad Católica del Norte, Coquimbo, Chile
| | - Miriam Seguel
- Centro Regional de Análisis de Recursos y Medio Ambiente (CERAM), Universidad Austral de Chile, Los Pinos s/n, Balneario Pelluco, Puerto Montt, Chile
| | - Andrés Marín
- Centro de Estudios del Desarrollo Regional y Políticas Públicas (CEDER), Universidad de Los Lagos, Osorno, Chile
| | - Bernd Krock
- Alfred Wegener Institut-Helmholtz Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
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Mardones JI, Norambuena L, Paredes J, Fuenzalida G, Dorantes-Aranda JJ, Chang KJL, Guzmán L, Krock B, Hallegraeff G. Unraveling the Karenia selliformis complex with the description of a non-gymnodimine producing Patagonian phylotype. HARMFUL ALGAE 2020; 98:101892. [PMID: 33129450 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2020.101892] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2020] [Revised: 07/28/2020] [Accepted: 08/11/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Karenia selliformis is a bloom-forming toxic dinoflagellate known for production of gymnodimines (GYMs) and causing mass mortalities of marine fauna. Blooms have been reported from coastal waters of New Zealand, Mexico, Tunisia, Kuwait, Iran, China and Chile. Based on molecular phylogeny, morphology, toxin production, pigment composition and cell growth of Chilean K. selliformis isolated in 2018 (CREAN_KS01 and CREAN_KS02), this study revealed a more complex diversity within this species than previously thought. A phylogenetic reconstruction based on the large sub-unit ribosomal nucleotide (LSU rDNA) and Internal Transcriber Spacer (ITS) sequences of 12 worldwide isolates showed that within the K. selliformis clade there are at least two different phylotypes with clear phenotypic differences. Morphological differences related to the dorsal-ventral compression, shape of the hyposome and the presence of pores on the left lobe of the hyposome. A comparison of pigment signatures among worldwide isolates revealed the existence of both acyl-oxyfucoxanthin and fucoxanthin-rich strains within the phylotypes. A LC-MS/MS screening on both Chilean 2018 K. selliformis strains showed for first time no GYMs production among cultured clones of this species. However, both CREAN_KS01 and CREAN_KS02 contained two compounds with the same mass transition as brevenal, a brevetoxin related compound. A fish gill cell-based assay showed that the CREAN_KS02 strain was highly cytotoxic but pure GYM standard did not exhibit loss of cell viability, even at cell concentrations equivalent or exceeding those reported in nature. The fatty acid profile of CREAN_KS02 included high levels of saturated (14:0; 16:0) and polyunsaturated (18:3ω6+18:5ω3; 22:6ω3) fatty acids but superoxide production in this strain was low (0.86±0.53 pmol O2- cell-1 h-1). A factorial T-S growth experiment using the CREAN_KS02 strain showed a μmax of 0.41±0.03 d-1 at high salinity and temperature, which points to its optimal environmental niche in offshore waters during the summer season. In conclusion, the present study provides evidence for significant genetic and phenotypic variability among worldwide isolates, which points to the existence of a K. selliformis "species complex". The massive fauna mortality during K. selliformis bloom events in the Chilean coast cannot be explained by GYMs nor brevetoxins, but can to a large extent be accounted for by the high production of long-chain PUFAs and/or still uncharacterized highly toxic compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge I Mardones
- Centro de Estudios de Algas Nocivas (CREAN), Instituto de Fomento Pesquero (IFOP), Puerto Montt, Chile.
| | - Luis Norambuena
- Centro de Estudios de Algas Nocivas (CREAN), Instituto de Fomento Pesquero (IFOP), Puerto Montt, Chile
| | - Javier Paredes
- Centro de Estudios de Algas Nocivas (CREAN), Instituto de Fomento Pesquero (IFOP), Puerto Montt, Chile
| | - Gonzalo Fuenzalida
- Centro de Estudios de Algas Nocivas (CREAN), Instituto de Fomento Pesquero (IFOP), Puerto Montt, Chile
| | | | - Kim J Lee Chang
- CSIRO Ocean and Atmosphere, GPO Box 1538, Hobart, TAS, 7001, Australia
| | - Leonardo Guzmán
- Centro de Estudios de Algas Nocivas (CREAN), Instituto de Fomento Pesquero (IFOP), Puerto Montt, Chile
| | - Bernd Krock
- Alfred Wegener Institut-Helmholtz Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Gustaaf Hallegraeff
- Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies (IMAS), University of Tasmania, Australia
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Cyclic Imines (CIs) in Mussels from North-Central Adriatic Sea: First Evidence of Gymnodimine A in Italy. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12060370. [PMID: 32512714 PMCID: PMC7354633 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12060370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2020] [Revised: 05/25/2020] [Accepted: 05/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Cyclic imines (CIs) are emerging marine lipophilic toxins (MLTs) occurring in microalgae and shellfish worldwide. The present research aimed to study CIs in mussels farmed in the Adriatic Sea (Italy) during the period 2014–2015. Twenty-eight different compounds belonging to spirolides (SPXs), gymnodimines (GYMs), pinnatoxins (PnTXs) and pteriatoxins (PtTXs) were analyzed by the official method for MLTs in 139 mussel samples collected along the Marche coast. Compounds including 13-desmethyl spirolide C (13-desMe SPX C) and 13,19-didesmethyl spirolide C (13,19-didesMe SPX C) were detected in 86% of the samples. The highest levels were generally reported in the first half of the year reaching 29.2 µg kg−1 in January/March with a decreasing trend until June. GYM A, for the first time reported in Italian mussels, was found in 84% of the samples, reaching the highest concentration in summer (12.1 µg kg−1). GYM A and SPXs, submitted to tissue distribution studies, showed the tendency to accumulate mostly in mussel digestive glands. Even if SPX levels in mussels were largely below the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) reference of 400 μg SPXs kg−1, most of the samples contained CIs for the large part of the year. Since chronic toxicity data are still missing, monitoring is surely recommended.
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Ji Y, Che Y, Wright EJ, McCarron P, Hess P, Li A. Fatty acid ester metabolites of gymnodimine in shellfish collected from China and in mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) exposed to Karenia selliformis. HARMFUL ALGAE 2020; 92:101774. [PMID: 32113591 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2020.101774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2019] [Revised: 01/04/2020] [Accepted: 02/10/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Marine shellfish exposed to the microalgae Karenia selliformis can accumulate gymnodimines (GYM). Shellfish samples collected from Beihai City in Guangxi Autonomous Region, and Ningde City in Fujian Province, in the South China Sea, as well as mussels Mytilus galloprovincialis fed on K. selliformis under laboratory conditions were analyzed. Gymnodimines and various fatty acid ester metabolites were detected in the clam Antigona lamellaris and pen shell Atrina pectinata, while no esters were found in the oyster Crassostrea sp. and the gastropod Batillaria zonalis despite positive detection of free GYM in both species. When present, the predominant acyl esters observed were 18:0-GYM-A and 20:1-GYM-A. Under laboratory conditions GYM-A was accumulated and metabolized to fatty acid esters in mussels exposed to K. selliformis, with 16:0-GYM-A and 20:1-GYM-A as the major variants. A novel compound with the same accurate mass as GYM-A and its 16:0 fatty acid ester were observed in the experimental mussels but was not present in the microalgal strain to which mussels were exposed. No significant differences of reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels and antioxidant enzymes were found between mussels fed on K. selliformis or GYM-free microalgae Isochrysis galbana. This suggests the accumulation of GYM and its metabolites does not significantly impact the physiological status of mussels. While it is currently not proven that GYM affects human health, risk assessments should consider the presence of GYM esters in naturally contaminated shellfish as part of exposure analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Ji
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China; Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ocean University of China, Ministry of Education, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Yijia Che
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China; Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ocean University of China, Ministry of Education, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Elliott J Wright
- Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - Pearse McCarron
- Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | | | - Aifeng Li
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China; Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ocean University of China, Ministry of Education, Qingdao 266100, China.
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Minamino K, Murata M, Tsuchikawa H. Synthesis of 7,6-Spirocyclic Imine with Butenolide Ring Provides Evidence for the Relative Configuration of Marine Toxin 13-desMe Spirolide C. Org Lett 2019; 21:8970-8975. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.9b03373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Kou Minamino
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Osaka University, 1-1 Machikaneyama, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-0043, Japan
| | - Michio Murata
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Osaka University, 1-1 Machikaneyama, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-0043, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Tsuchikawa
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Osaka University, 1-1 Machikaneyama, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-0043, Japan
- Research Promotion Institute, Oita University, 1-1 Idaigaoka, Hasama, Yufu, Oita 879-5593, Japan
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Verma A, Barua A, Ruvindy R, Savela H, Ajani PA, Murray SA. The Genetic Basis of Toxin Biosynthesis in Dinoflagellates. Microorganisms 2019; 7:E222. [PMID: 31362398 PMCID: PMC6722697 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms7080222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2019] [Revised: 07/23/2019] [Accepted: 07/27/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
In marine ecosystems, dinoflagellates can become highly abundant and even dominant at times, despite their comparatively slow growth rates. One factor that may play a role in their ecological success is the production of complex secondary metabolite compounds that can have anti-predator, allelopathic, or other toxic effects on marine organisms, and also cause seafood poisoning in humans. Our knowledge about the genes involved in toxin biosynthesis in dinoflagellates is currently limited due to the complex genomic features of these organisms. Most recently, the sequencing of dinoflagellate transcriptomes has provided us with valuable insights into the biosynthesis of polyketide and alkaloid-based toxin molecules in dinoflagellate species. This review synthesizes the recent progress that has been made in understanding the evolution, biosynthetic pathways, and gene regulation in dinoflagellates with the aid of transcriptomic and other molecular genetic tools, and provides a pathway for future studies of dinoflagellates in this exciting omics era.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arjun Verma
- Climate Change Cluster, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney 2007, Australia.
| | - Abanti Barua
- Climate Change Cluster, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney 2007, Australia
- Department of Microbiology, Noakhali Science and Technology University, Chittagong 3814, Bangladesh
| | - Rendy Ruvindy
- Climate Change Cluster, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney 2007, Australia
| | - Henna Savela
- Finnish Environment Institute, Marine Research Centre, 00790 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Penelope A Ajani
- Climate Change Cluster, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney 2007, Australia
| | - Shauna A Murray
- Climate Change Cluster, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney 2007, Australia
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Comparison of amnesic, paralytic and lipophilic toxins profiles in cockle (Acanthocardia tuberculata) and smooth clam (Callista chione) from the central Adriatic Sea (Croatia). Toxicon 2019; 159:32-37. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2018.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2018] [Revised: 12/03/2018] [Accepted: 12/21/2018] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
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Fribley AM, Xi Y, Makris C, Alves-de-Souza C, York R, Tomas C, Wright JLC, Strangman WK. Identification of Portimine B, a New Cell Permeable Spiroimine That Induces Apoptosis in Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma. ACS Med Chem Lett 2019; 10:175-179. [PMID: 30783499 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.8b00473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2018] [Accepted: 12/26/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Spiroimines are a class of compounds produced by marine dinoflagellates with a wide range of toxicity and therapeutic potential. The smallest of the cyclic imines, portimine, is far less toxic than other known members in several animal models. Portimine has also been shown to induce apoptosis and reduce the growth of a variety of cancer cell lines at low nanomolar concentrations. In an effort to discover new spiroimines, the current study undertook a metabolomic analysis of cultures of cyclic imine-producing dinoflagellates, and a new analog of portimine was discovered in which the five-membered cyclic ether is open. Further scrutiny with human oral cavity squamous cell carcinoma (OCSCC) cell lines revealed that the open ring congener was less potent than portimine A but could still lead to the accumulation of apoptotic gene transcripts, fragment genomic DNA, and reduce cancer cell proliferation in the range of 100-200 nM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew M. Fribley
- Carman and Ann Adams Department of Pediatrics, Division of Hematology/Oncology and the Molecular Therapeutics Program, Karmanos Cancer Institute, Wayne State University, 421 East Canfield, Detroit, Michigan 48201, United States
| | - Yue Xi
- Carman and Ann Adams Department of Pediatrics, Division of Hematology/Oncology and the Molecular Therapeutics Program, Karmanos Cancer Institute, Wayne State University, 421 East Canfield, Detroit, Michigan 48201, United States
| | - Christina Makris
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of North Carolina Wilmington, 601 South College Road, Wilmington, North Carolina 28403, United States
| | - Catharina Alves-de-Souza
- Algal Resources Collection, MARBIONC at Crest Research Park, University of North Carolina Wilmington, 5600 Marvin Moss K. Lane, Wilmington, North Carolina 28409, United States
| | - Robert York
- Algal Resources Collection, MARBIONC at Crest Research Park, University of North Carolina Wilmington, 5600 Marvin Moss K. Lane, Wilmington, North Carolina 28409, United States
| | - Carmelo Tomas
- Algal Resources Collection, MARBIONC at Crest Research Park, University of North Carolina Wilmington, 5600 Marvin Moss K. Lane, Wilmington, North Carolina 28409, United States
| | - Jeffrey L. C. Wright
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of North Carolina Wilmington, 601 South College Road, Wilmington, North Carolina 28403, United States
- Biomolecular Discovery Group, MARBIONC at Crest Research Park, University of North Carolina Wilmington, 5600 Marvin Moss K. Lane, Wilmington, North Carolina 28409, United States
| | - Wendy K. Strangman
- Biomolecular Discovery Group, MARBIONC at Crest Research Park, University of North Carolina Wilmington, 5600 Marvin Moss K. Lane, Wilmington, North Carolina 28409, United States
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Identification of Novel Gymnodimines and Spirolides from the Marine Dinoflagellate Alexandrium ostenfeldii. Mar Drugs 2018; 16:md16110446. [PMID: 30441860 PMCID: PMC6266918 DOI: 10.3390/md16110446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2018] [Revised: 10/26/2018] [Accepted: 11/05/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Cyclic imine toxins are neurotoxic, macrocyclic compounds produced by marine dinoflagellates. Mass spectrometric screenings of extracts from natural plankton assemblages revealed a high chemical diversity among this toxin class, yet only few toxins are structurally known. Here we report the structural characterization of four novel cyclic-imine toxins (two gymnodimines (GYMs) and two spirolides (SPXs)) from cultures of Alexandrium ostenfeldii. A GYM with m/z 510 (1) was identified as 16-desmethylGYM D. A GYM with m/z 526 was identified as the hydroxylated degradation product of (1) with an exocyclic methylene at C-17 and an allylic hydroxyl group at C-18. This compound was named GYM E (2). We further identified a SPX with m/z 694 as 20-hydroxy-13,19-didesmethylSPX C (10) and a SPX with m/z 696 as 20-hydroxy-13,19-didesmethylSPX D (11). This is the first report of GYMs without a methyl group at ring D and SPXs with hydroxyl groups at position C-20. These compounds can be conceived as derivatives of the same nascent polyketide chain, supporting the hypothesis that GYMs and SPXs are produced through common biosynthetic genes. Both novel GYMs 1 and 2 were detected in significant amounts in extracts from natural plankton assemblages (1: 447 pg; 2: 1250 pg; 11: 40 pg per mL filtered seawater respectively).
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Qiu J, Rafuse C, Lewis NI, Li A, Meng F, Beach DG, McCarron P. Screening of cyclic imine and paralytic shellfish toxins in isolates of the genus Alexandrium (Dinophyceae) from Atlantic Canada. HARMFUL ALGAE 2018; 77:108-118. [PMID: 30005797 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2018.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2017] [Revised: 05/18/2018] [Accepted: 05/18/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The dinoflagellate genus Alexandrium Halim has frequently been associated with harmful algal blooms. Although a number of species from this genus are known to produce paralytic shellfish toxins (PST) and/or cyclic imines (CI), studies on comprehensive toxin profiling using techniques capable of detecting the full range of PST and CI analogues are limited. Isolates of Alexandrium spp. from Atlantic Canada were analyzed by targeted and untargeted liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS). Results showed a number of distinct profiles and wide ranging cell quotas of PST and spirolides (SPX) in both A. catenella (Whedon & Kofoid) Balech and A. ostenfedii (Paulsen) Balech & Tangen. The concentration of PST in A. catenella ranged from 0.0029 to 54 fmol cell-1 with the major components being C2 and GTX4. In addition, putative PST metabolites were confirmed for the first time in A. catenella by high resolution MS/MS. By comparison, A. ostenfeldii isolates showed much lower concentrations of PST (<LOD to 2 fmol cell-1) and high total levels of SPX (14 to 43 fmol cell-1). The SPX profile of the A. ostenfeldii strains mainly included 13-desmethyl SPX-C, SPX-C and 20-methyl SPX-G, with low levels of other SPX and gymnodimine-like analogues detected by untargeted -high-resolution LC-MS. This work demonstrates the importance of using screening methods capable of detecting the full suite of PST and CI compounds when analyzing Alexandrium isolates for toxin production and adds further complexity to the known toxin profiles of this genus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiangbing Qiu
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Cheryl Rafuse
- National Research Council Canada, 1411 Oxford St, Halifax, NS, B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - Nancy I Lewis
- National Research Council Canada, 1411 Oxford St, Halifax, NS, B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - Aifeng Li
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China; Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ocean University of China, Ministry of Education, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Fanping Meng
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China; Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ocean University of China, Ministry of Education, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Daniel G Beach
- National Research Council Canada, 1411 Oxford St, Halifax, NS, B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - Pearse McCarron
- National Research Council Canada, 1411 Oxford St, Halifax, NS, B3H 3Z1, Canada.
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38
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Farabegoli F, Blanco L, Rodríguez LP, Vieites JM, Cabado AG. Phycotoxins in Marine Shellfish: Origin, Occurrence and Effects on Humans. Mar Drugs 2018; 16:E188. [PMID: 29844286 PMCID: PMC6025170 DOI: 10.3390/md16060188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2018] [Revised: 05/18/2018] [Accepted: 05/25/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Massive phytoplankton proliferation, and the consequent release of toxic metabolites, can be responsible for seafood poisoning outbreaks: filter-feeding mollusks, such as shellfish, mussels, oysters or clams, can accumulate these toxins throughout the food chain and present a threat for consumers' health. Particular environmental and climatic conditions favor this natural phenomenon, called harmful algal blooms (HABs); the phytoplankton species mostly involved in these toxic events are dinoflagellates or diatoms belonging to the genera Alexandrium, Gymnodinium, Dinophysis, and Pseudo-nitzschia. Substantial economic losses ensue after HABs occurrence: the sectors mainly affected include commercial fisheries, tourism, recreational activities, and public health monitoring and management. A wide range of symptoms, from digestive to nervous, are associated to human intoxication by biotoxins, characterizing different and specific syndromes, called paralytic shellfish poisoning, amnesic shellfish poisoning, diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, and neurotoxic shellfish poisoning. This review provides a complete and updated survey of phycotoxins usually found in marine invertebrate organisms and their relevant properties, gathering information about the origin, the species where they were found, as well as their mechanism of action and main effects on humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federica Farabegoli
- Food Safety and Industrial Hygiene Division, ANFACO-CECOPESCA. 16, Crta. Colexio Universitario, 36310 Vigo (Pontevedra), Spain.
| | - Lucía Blanco
- Food Safety and Industrial Hygiene Division, ANFACO-CECOPESCA. 16, Crta. Colexio Universitario, 36310 Vigo (Pontevedra), Spain.
| | - Laura P Rodríguez
- Food Safety and Industrial Hygiene Division, ANFACO-CECOPESCA. 16, Crta. Colexio Universitario, 36310 Vigo (Pontevedra), Spain.
| | - Juan Manuel Vieites
- Food Safety and Industrial Hygiene Division, ANFACO-CECOPESCA. 16, Crta. Colexio Universitario, 36310 Vigo (Pontevedra), Spain.
| | - Ana García Cabado
- Food Safety and Industrial Hygiene Division, ANFACO-CECOPESCA. 16, Crta. Colexio Universitario, 36310 Vigo (Pontevedra), Spain.
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Roué M, Darius HT, Chinain M. Solid Phase Adsorption Toxin Tracking (SPATT) Technology for the Monitoring of Aquatic Toxins: A Review. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:toxins10040167. [PMID: 29677131 PMCID: PMC5923333 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10040167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2018] [Revised: 04/17/2018] [Accepted: 04/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The Solid Phase Adsorption Toxin Tracking (SPATT) technology, first introduced in 2004, uses porous synthetic resins capable of passively adsorbing toxins produced by harmful microalgae or cyanobacteria and dissolved in the water. This method allows for the detection of toxic compounds directly in the water column and offers numerous advantages over current monitoring techniques (e.g., shellfish or fish testing and microalgae/cyanobacteria cell detection), despite some limitations. Numerous laboratory and field studies, testing different adsorbent substrates of which Diaion® HP20 resin appears to be the most versatile substrate, have been carried out worldwide to assess the applicability of these passive monitoring devices to the detection of toxins produced by a variety of marine and freshwater microorganisms. SPATT technology has been shown to provide reliable, sensitive and time-integrated sampling of various aquatic toxins, and also has the potential to provide an early warning system for both the occurrence of toxic microalgae or cyanobacteria and bioaccumulation of toxins in foodstuffs. This review describes the wide range of lipophilic and hydrophilic toxins associated with toxin-producing harmful algal blooms (HABs) that are successfully detected by SPATT devices. Implications in terms of monitoring of emerging toxic risks and reinforcement of current risk assessment programs are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mélanie Roué
- Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD), UMR 241 EIO, P.O. box 53267, 98716 Pirae, Tahiti, French Polynesia.
| | - Hélène Taiana Darius
- Laboratory of Toxic Microalgae, Institut Louis Malardé (ILM), UMR 241 EIO, P.O. box 30, 98713 Papeete, Tahiti, French Polynesia.
| | - Mireille Chinain
- Laboratory of Toxic Microalgae, Institut Louis Malardé (ILM), UMR 241 EIO, P.O. box 30, 98713 Papeete, Tahiti, French Polynesia.
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40
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Assunção J, Guedes AC, Malcata FX. Biotechnological and Pharmacological Applications of Biotoxins and Other Bioactive Molecules from Dinoflagellates. Mar Drugs 2017; 15:E393. [PMID: 29261163 PMCID: PMC5742853 DOI: 10.3390/md15120393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2017] [Revised: 12/12/2017] [Accepted: 12/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The long-lasting interest in bioactive molecules (namely toxins) produced by (microalga) dinoflagellates has risen in recent years. Exhibiting wide diversity and complexity, said compounds are well-recognized for their biological features, with great potential for use as pharmaceutical therapies and biological research probes. Unfortunately, provision of those compounds is still far from sufficient, especially in view of an increasing demand for preclinical testing. Despite the difficulties to establish dinoflagellate cultures and obtain reasonable productivities of such compounds, intensive research has permitted a number of advances in the field. This paper accordingly reviews the characteristics of some of the most important biotoxins (and other bioactive substances) produced by dinoflagellates. It also presents and discusses (to some length) the main advances pertaining to dinoflagellate production, from bench to large scale-with an emphasis on material published since the latest review available on the subject. Such advances encompass improvements in nutrient formulation and light supply as major operational conditions; they have permitted adaptation of classical designs, and aided the development of novel configurations for dinoflagellate growth-even though shearing-related issues remain a major challenge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joana Assunção
- LEPABE-Laboratory of Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, s/n, P-4200-465 Porto, Portugal.
| | - A Catarina Guedes
- Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research (CIIMAR), University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Avenida General Norton de Matos, s/n, P-4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal.
| | - F Xavier Malcata
- LEPABE-Laboratory of Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, s/n, P-4200-465 Porto, Portugal.
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, s/n, P-4200-465 Porto, Portugal.
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41
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Fabro E, Almandoz GO, Ferrario M, John U, Tillmann U, Toebe K, Krock B, Cembella A. Morphological, molecular, and toxin analysis of field populations of Alexandrium genus from the Argentine Sea. JOURNAL OF PHYCOLOGY 2017; 53:1206-1222. [PMID: 28793388 DOI: 10.1111/jpy.12574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2017] [Accepted: 07/22/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
In the Argentine Sea, blooms of toxigenic dinoflagellates of the Alexandrium tamarense species complex have led to fish and bird mortalities and human deaths as a consequence of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP). Yet little is known about the occurrence of other toxigenic species of the genus Alexandrium, or of their toxin composition beyond coastal waters. The distribution of Alexandrium species and related toxins in the Argentine Sea was determined by sampling surface waters on an oceanographic expedition during austral spring from ~39°S to 48°S. Light microscope and SEM analysis for species identification and enumeration was supplemented by confirmatory PCR analysis from field samples. The most frequent Alexandrium taxon identified by microscopy corresponded to the classical description of A. tamarense. Only weak signals of Group I from the A. tamarense species complex were detected by PCR of bulk field samples, but phylogenetic reconstruction of rDNA sequences from single cells from one station assigned them to ribotype Group I (Alexandrium catenella). PCR probes for Alexandrium minutum and Alexandrium ostenfeldii yielded a positive signal, although A. minutum morphology did not completely match the classical description. Analysis of PSP toxin composition of plankton samples revealed toxin profiles dominated by gonyautoxins (GTX1/4). The main toxic cyclic imine detected was 13-desMe-spirolide C and this supported the association with A. ostenfeldii in the field. This study represents the first integrated molecular, morphological and toxinological analysis of field populations of the genus Alexandrium in the Argentine Sea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Fabro
- División Ficología, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Paseo del Bosque s/n (B1900FWA), La Plata, Argentina
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Gastón O Almandoz
- División Ficología, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Paseo del Bosque s/n (B1900FWA), La Plata, Argentina
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Martha Ferrario
- División Ficología, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Paseo del Bosque s/n (B1900FWA), La Plata, Argentina
- Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Uwe John
- Alfred Wegener Institut-Helmholtz Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Urban Tillmann
- Alfred Wegener Institut-Helmholtz Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Kerstin Toebe
- Alfred Wegener Institut-Helmholtz Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Bernd Krock
- Alfred Wegener Institut-Helmholtz Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Allan Cembella
- Alfred Wegener Institut-Helmholtz Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570, Bremerhaven, Germany
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Lugliè A, Giacobbe MG, Riccardi E, Bruno M, Pigozzi S, Mariani MA, Satta CT, Stacca D, Bazzoni AM, Caddeo T, Farina P, Padedda BM, Pulina S, Sechi N, Milandri A. Paralytic Shellfish Toxins and Cyanotoxins in the Mediterranean: New Data from Sardinia and Sicily (Italy). Microorganisms 2017; 5:microorganisms5040072. [PMID: 29144421 PMCID: PMC5748581 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms5040072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2017] [Revised: 11/12/2017] [Accepted: 11/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Harmful algal blooms represent a severe issue worldwide. They affect ecosystem functions and related services and goods, with consequences on human health and socio-economic activities. This study reports new data on paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) from Sardinia and Sicily (Italy), the largest Mediterranean islands where toxic events, mainly caused by Alexandrium species (Dinophyceae), have been ascertained in mussel farms since the 2000s. The toxicity of the A. minutum, A. tamarense and A. pacificum strains, established from the isolation of vegetative cells and resting cysts, was determined by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The analyses indicated the highest toxicity for A. pacificum strains (total PSTs up to 17.811 fmol cell-1). The PSTs were also assessed in a strain of A. tamarense. The results encourage further investigation to increase the knowledge of toxic species still debated in the Mediterranean. This study also reports new data on microcystins (MCs) and β-N-methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA) from a Sardinian artificial lake (Lake Bidighinzu). The presence of MCs and BMAA was assessed in natural samples and in cell cultures by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). BMAA positives were found in all the analysed samples with a maximum of 17.84 µg L-1. The obtained results added further information on cyanotoxins in Mediterranean reservoirs, particularly BMAA, which have not yet been thoroughly investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonella Lugliè
- Dipartimento di Architettura, Design e Urbanistica, University of Sassari, Via Piandanna 4, 07100 Sassari, Italy.
| | - Maria Grazia Giacobbe
- Istituto per l'Ambiente Marino Costiero, CNR, Spianata S. Raineri 86, 98122 Messina, Italy.
| | - Elena Riccardi
- Fondazione Centro Ricerche Marine, National Reference Laboratory for Marine Biotoxins, Viale A. Vespucci 2, 47042 Cesenatico (FC), Italy.
| | - Milena Bruno
- Environmental Quality and Fish Farming, Environment and Primary Prevention, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, V.le Regina Elena 299, 00161 Rome, Italy.
| | - Silvia Pigozzi
- Fondazione Centro Ricerche Marine, National Reference Laboratory for Marine Biotoxins, Viale A. Vespucci 2, 47042 Cesenatico (FC), Italy.
| | - Maria Antonietta Mariani
- Dipartimento di Architettura, Design e Urbanistica, University of Sassari, Via Piandanna 4, 07100 Sassari, Italy.
| | - Cecilia Teodora Satta
- Dipartimento di Architettura, Design e Urbanistica, University of Sassari, Via Piandanna 4, 07100 Sassari, Italy.
- Agenzia Regionale per la Ricerca in Agricoltura (AGRIS), Servizio Ittico, S.S. Sassari-Fertilia Km 18,600, Bonassai, 07040 Olmedo, Italy.
| | - Daniela Stacca
- Dipartimento di Architettura, Design e Urbanistica, University of Sassari, Via Piandanna 4, 07100 Sassari, Italy.
| | - Anna Maria Bazzoni
- Dipartimento di Ispezione degli Alimenti, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sardegna G. Pegreffi, Via Duca degli Abruzzi 8, 07100 Sassari, Italy.
| | - Tiziana Caddeo
- Dipartimento di Architettura, Design e Urbanistica, University of Sassari, Via Piandanna 4, 07100 Sassari, Italy.
| | - Pasqualina Farina
- Dipartimento di Architettura, Design e Urbanistica, University of Sassari, Via Piandanna 4, 07100 Sassari, Italy.
| | - Bachisio Mario Padedda
- Dipartimento di Architettura, Design e Urbanistica, University of Sassari, Via Piandanna 4, 07100 Sassari, Italy.
| | - Silvia Pulina
- Dipartimento di Architettura, Design e Urbanistica, University of Sassari, Via Piandanna 4, 07100 Sassari, Italy.
- Department of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Cagliari, Via Fiorelli 1, 09126 Cagliari, Italy.
| | - Nicola Sechi
- Dipartimento di Architettura, Design e Urbanistica, University of Sassari, Via Piandanna 4, 07100 Sassari, Italy.
| | - Anna Milandri
- Fondazione Centro Ricerche Marine, National Reference Laboratory for Marine Biotoxins, Viale A. Vespucci 2, 47042 Cesenatico (FC), Italy.
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Martens H, Tillmann U, Harju K, Dell'Aversano C, Tartaglione L, Krock B. Toxin Variability Estimations of 68 Alexandrium ostenfeldii (Dinophyceae) Strains from The Netherlands Reveal a Novel Abundant Gymnodimine. Microorganisms 2017; 5:microorganisms5020029. [PMID: 28587138 PMCID: PMC5488100 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms5020029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2017] [Revised: 05/17/2017] [Accepted: 05/21/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Alexandrium ostenfeldii is a toxic dinoflagellate that has recently bloomed in Ouwerkerkse Kreek, The Netherlands, and which is able to cause a serious threat to shellfish consumers and aquacultures. We used a large set of 68 strains to the aim of fully characterizing the toxin profiles of the Dutch A. ostenfeldii in consideration of recent reports of novel toxins. Alexandrium ostenfeldii is known as a causative species of paralytic shellfish poisoning, and consistently in the Dutch population we determined the presence of several paralytic shellfish toxins (PST) including saxitoxin (STX), GTX2/3 (gonyautoxins), B1 and C1/C2. We also examined the production of spiroimine toxins by the Dutch A. ostenfeldii strains. An extensive liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analysis revealed a high intraspecific variability of spirolides (SPX) and gymnodimines (GYM). Spirolides included 13-desMethyl-spirolide C generally as the major compound and several other mostly unknown SPX-like compounds that were detected and characterized. Besides spirolides, the presence of gymnodimine A and 12-Methyl-gymnodimine A was confirmed, together with two new gymnodimines. One of these was tentatively identified as an analogue of gymnodimine D and was the most abundant gymnodimine (calculated cell quota up to 274 pg cell−1, expressed as GYM A equivalents). Our multi-clonal approach adds new analogues to the increasing number of compounds in these toxin classes and revealed a high strain variability in cell quota and in toxin profile of toxic compounds within a single population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helge Martens
- Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, Bremerhaven 27570, Germany.
| | - Urban Tillmann
- Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, Bremerhaven 27570, Germany.
| | - Kirsi Harju
- Finnish Institute for Verification of the Chemical Weapons Convention (VERIFIN), Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P. O. Box 55, Helsinki FI-00014, Finland.
| | - Carmela Dell'Aversano
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Napoli Federico II, Via D. Montesano 49, Napoli 80131, Italy.
| | - Luciana Tartaglione
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Napoli Federico II, Via D. Montesano 49, Napoli 80131, Italy.
| | - Bernd Krock
- Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, Bremerhaven 27570, Germany.
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44
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Blossom HE, Bædkel TD, Tillmann U, Hansen PJ. A search for mixotrophy and mucus trap production in Alexandrium spp. and the dynamics of mucus trap formation in Alexandrium pseudogonyaulax. HARMFUL ALGAE 2017; 64:51-62. [PMID: 28427572 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2017.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2017] [Revised: 03/15/2017] [Accepted: 03/17/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Recently, a hitherto unknown feeding strategy, the toxic mucus trap, was discovered in the dinoflagellate Alexandrium pseudogonyaulax. In this study, over 40 strains of 8 different Alexandrium species (A. ostenfeldii, A. tamarense, A. catenella, A. taylorii, A. margalefii, A. hiranoi, A. insuetum and A. pseudogonyaulax) were screened for their ability to ingest prey and/or to form mucus traps. The mucus trap feeding strategy, where a mucus trap is towed by the longitudinal flagellum remains unique to A. pseudogonyaulax. In additional experiments, details of the trap were examined and quantified, such as speed and frequency of trap formation as well as what happens to the trap after the A. pseudogonyaulax cell detaches from it. The percentage of A. pseudogonyaulax cells producing a mucus trap and the number of prey cells caught increased with increasing prey concentration, whereas the physical size of the traps was independent of prey concentration. In one strain given an excess of prey, within 1h over 90% of individual A. pseudogonyaulax cells had formed a trap, each containing an average of 45 prey cells. Individual A. pseudogonyaulax cells steadily produced traps and up to 5 traps were produced by a single A. pseudogonyaulax cell after only 24h. The attachment of an A. pseudogonyaulax cell to the trap only ceased during, and just following, cell division. Prey cells were, to some extent, capable of escaping from the mucus trap, but the trap remained sticky and continued catching prey for up to 48h after the trap had been abandoned by the A. pseudogonyaulax cell. These results reveal that the effects of the mucus trap extend far beyond the removal of prey through ingestion, and the potential impact of this strategy on surrounding cells is high.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah E Blossom
- Marine Biological Section, University of Copenhagen, Strandpromenaden 5, 3000, Helsingør, Denmark.
| | - Tine Dencker Bædkel
- Marine Biological Section, University of Copenhagen, Strandpromenaden 5, 3000, Helsingør, Denmark
| | - Urban Tillmann
- Alfred-Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Chemical Ecology, Am Handelshafen 12, Bremerhaven, 27570, Germany
| | - Per Juel Hansen
- Marine Biological Section, University of Copenhagen, Strandpromenaden 5, 3000, Helsingør, Denmark
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45
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Molgó J, Marchot P, Aráoz R, Benoit E, Iorga BI, Zakarian A, Taylor P, Bourne Y, Servent D. Cyclic imine toxins from dinoflagellates: a growing family of potent antagonists of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. J Neurochem 2017; 142 Suppl 2:41-51. [PMID: 28326551 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.13995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2016] [Revised: 02/13/2017] [Accepted: 02/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
We present an overview of the toxicological profile of the fast-acting, lipophilic macrocyclic imine toxins, an emerging family of organic compounds associated with algal blooms, shellfish contamination and neurotoxicity. Worldwide, shellfish contamination incidents are expanding; therefore, the significance of these toxins for the shellfish food industry deserves further study. Emphasis is directed to the dinoflagellate species involved in their production, their chemical structures, and their specific mode of interaction with their principal natural molecular targets, the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, or with the soluble acetylcholine-binding protein, used as a surrogate receptor model. The dinoflagellates Karenia selliformis and Alexandrium ostenfeldii / A. peruvianum have been implicated in the biosynthesis of gymnodimines and spirolides, while Vulcanodinium rugosum is the producer of pinnatoxins and portimine. The cyclic imine toxins are characterized by a macrocyclic skeleton comprising 14-27 carbon atoms, flanked by two conserved moieties, the cyclic imine and the spiroketal ring system. These phycotoxins generally display high affinity and broad specificity for the muscle type and neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, a feature consistent with their binding site at the receptor subunit interfaces, composed of residues highly conserved among all nAChRs, and explaining the diverse toxicity among animal species. This is an article for the special issue XVth International Symposium on Cholinergic Mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordi Molgó
- Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux énergies alternatives (CEA), Institut de Biologie et Technologies de Saclay (IBITECS), Université Paris-Saclay, Service d'Ingénierie Moléculaire des Protéines, Gif-sur-Yvette, France.,Institut des Neurosciences Paris-Saclay, UMR 9197, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS)/Université Paris-Sud, Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France
| | - Pascale Marchot
- Aix-Marseille Université / Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Architecture et Fonction des Macromolécules Biologiques laboratory, Marseille, France
| | - Rómulo Aráoz
- Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux énergies alternatives (CEA), Institut de Biologie et Technologies de Saclay (IBITECS), Université Paris-Saclay, Service d'Ingénierie Moléculaire des Protéines, Gif-sur-Yvette, France.,Institut des Neurosciences Paris-Saclay, UMR 9197, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS)/Université Paris-Sud, Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France
| | - Evelyne Benoit
- Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux énergies alternatives (CEA), Institut de Biologie et Technologies de Saclay (IBITECS), Université Paris-Saclay, Service d'Ingénierie Moléculaire des Protéines, Gif-sur-Yvette, France.,Institut des Neurosciences Paris-Saclay, UMR 9197, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS)/Université Paris-Sud, Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France
| | - Bogdan I Iorga
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Institut de Chimie des Substances Naturelles, UPR 2301, Labex LERMIT, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Armen Zakarian
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California, USA
| | - Palmer Taylor
- Department of Pharmacology, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Yves Bourne
- Aix-Marseille Université / Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Architecture et Fonction des Macromolécules Biologiques laboratory, Marseille, France
| | - Denis Servent
- Commissariat à l'Energie Atomique et aux énergies alternatives (CEA), Institut de Biologie et Technologies de Saclay (IBITECS), Université Paris-Saclay, Service d'Ingénierie Moléculaire des Protéines, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
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46
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Busch JA, Andree KB, Diogène J, Fernández-Tejedor M, Toebe K, John U, Krock B, Tillmann U, Cembella AD. Toxigenic algae and associated phycotoxins in two coastal embayments in the Ebro Delta (NW Mediterranean). HARMFUL ALGAE 2016; 55:191-201. [PMID: 28073532 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2016.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2015] [Revised: 02/24/2016] [Accepted: 02/29/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Harmful Algal Bloom (HAB) surveillance is complicated by high diversity of species and associated phycotoxins. Such species-level information on taxonomic affiliations and on cell abundance and toxin content is, however, crucial for effective monitoring, especially of aquaculture and fisheries areas. The aim addressed in this study was to determine putative HAB taxa and related phycotoxins in plankton from aquaculture sites in the Ebro Delta, NW Mediterranean. The comparative geographical distribution of potentially harmful plankton taxa was established by weekly field sampling throughout the water column during late spring-early summer over two years at key stations in Alfacs and Fangar embayments within the Ebro Delta. Core results included not only confirmed identification of HAB taxa that are common for the time period and geographical area, but also provided evidence of potentially new taxa. At least 25 HAB taxa were identified to species level, and an additional six genera were confirmed, by morphological criteria under light microscopy and/or by molecular genetics approaches involving qPCR and next generation DNA pyrosequencing. In particular, new insights were gained by the inclusion of molecular techniques, which focused attention on the HAB genera Alexandrium, Karlodinium, and Pseudo-nitzschia. Noteworthy is the discovery of Azadinium sp., a potentially new HAB species for this area, and Gymnodinium catenatum or Gymnodinium impudicum by means of light microscopy. In addition, significant amounts of the neurotoxin domoic acid (DA) were found for the first time in phytoplankton samples in the Ebro Delta. While the presence of the known DA-producing diatom genus Pseudo-nitzschia was confirmed in corresponding samples, the maximal toxin concentration did not coincide with highest cell abundances of the genus and the responsible species could not be identified. Combined findings of microscopic and molecular detection approaches underline the need for a synoptic strategy for HAB monitoring, which integrates the respective advantages and compensates for limitations of individual methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia A Busch
- University of Oldenburg, Institute for Chemistry and Biology of the Marine Environment, 26111 Oldenburg, Germany; Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany.
| | - Karl B Andree
- IRTA, Ctra Poble Nou km 5,5, 43540 Sant Carles de la Rapita, Tarragona, Spain.
| | - Jorge Diogène
- IRTA, Ctra Poble Nou km 5,5, 43540 Sant Carles de la Rapita, Tarragona, Spain.
| | | | - Kerstin Toebe
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany.
| | - Uwe John
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany.
| | - Bernd Krock
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany.
| | - Urban Tillmann
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany.
| | - Allan D Cembella
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany.
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47
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(5S)-5-[(4aR,8aS,9E,11S,13R,14S,16R,17R,19S)-11,19-Dihydroxy-8,10,13,16-tetramethyl-18-methylidene-3,4,5,6,8a,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21-hexadecahydro-2H-14,17-epoxybenzo[2,3]cyclohexadeca[1,2-b]pyridine-7-yl]-3-methylfuran-2(5H)-one (12-Methylgymnodimine B). MOLBANK 2016. [DOI: 10.3390/m896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
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48
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Anttila M, Strangman W, York R, Tomas C, Wright JLC. Biosynthetic Studies of 13-Desmethylspirolide C Produced by Alexandrium ostenfeldii (= A. peruvianum): Rationalization of the Biosynthetic Pathway Following Incorporation of (13)C-Labeled Methionine and Application of the Odd-Even Rule of Methylation. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2016; 79:484-489. [PMID: 26641306 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.5b00869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the biosynthesis of dinoflagellate polyketides presents many unique challenges. Because of the remaining hurdles to dinoflagellate genome sequencing, precursor labeling studies remain the only viable way to investigate dinoflagellate biosynthesis. However, prior studies have shown that polyketide chain assembly does not follow any of the established processes. Additionally, acetate, the common precursor for polyketides, is frequently scrambled, thus compromising interpretation. These factors are further compounded by low production yields of the compounds of interest. A recent report on the biosynthesis of spirolides, a group belonging to the growing class of toxic spiroimines, provided some insight into the polyketide assembly process based on acetate labeling studies, but many details were left uncertain. By feeding (13)C methyl-labeled methionine to cultures of Alexandrium ostenfeldii, the producing organism of 13-desmethylspirolide C, and application of the odd-even methylation rule, the complete biosynthetic pathway has been established.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Anttila
- UNCW Center for Marine Science , 5600 Marvin K. Moss Lane, Wilmington, North Carolina 28409, United States
| | - Wendy Strangman
- UNCW Center for Marine Science , 5600 Marvin K. Moss Lane, Wilmington, North Carolina 28409, United States
| | - Robert York
- UNCW Center for Marine Science , 5600 Marvin K. Moss Lane, Wilmington, North Carolina 28409, United States
| | - Carmelo Tomas
- UNCW Center for Marine Science , 5600 Marvin K. Moss Lane, Wilmington, North Carolina 28409, United States
| | - Jeffrey L C Wright
- UNCW Center for Marine Science , 5600 Marvin K. Moss Lane, Wilmington, North Carolina 28409, United States
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49
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Savela H, Harju K, Spoof L, Lindehoff E, Meriluoto J, Vehniäinen M, Kremp A. Quantity of the dinoflagellate sxtA4 gene and cell density correlates with paralytic shellfish toxin production in Alexandrium ostenfeldii blooms. HARMFUL ALGAE 2016; 52:1-10. [PMID: 28073466 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2015.10.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2015] [Revised: 10/29/2015] [Accepted: 10/29/2015] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Many marine dinoflagellates, including several species of the genus Alexandrium, Gymnodinium catenatum, and Pyrodinium bahamense are known for their capability to produce paralytic shellfish toxins (PST), which can cause severe, most often food-related poisoning. The recent discovery of the first PST biosynthesis genes has laid the foundation for the development of molecular detection methods for monitoring and study of PST-producing dinoflagellates. In this study, a probe-based qPCR method for the detection and quantification of the sxtA4 gene present in Alexandrium spp. and Gymnodinium catenatum was designed. The focus was on Alexandrium ostenfeldii, a species which recurrently forms dense toxic blooms in areas within the Baltic Sea. A consistent, positive correlation between the presence of sxtA4 and PST biosynthesis was observed, and the species was found to maintain PST production with an average of 6 genomic copies of sxtA4. In August 2014, A. ostenfeldii populations were studied for cell densities, PST production, as well as sxtA4 and species-specific LSU copy numbers in Föglö, Åland, Finland, where an exceptionally dense bloom, consisting of 6.3×106cellsL-1, was observed. Cell concentrations, and copy numbers of both of the target genes were positively correlated with total STX, GTX2, and GTX3 concentrations in the environment, the cell density predicting toxin concentrations with the best accuracy (Spearman's ρ=0.93, p<0.01). The results indicated that all A. ostenfeldii cells in the blooms harbored the genetic capability of PST production, making the detection of sxtA4 a good indicator of toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henna Savela
- Biotechnology, Department of Biochemistry, University of Turku, Tykistökatu 6 A 6th Floor, FI-20520 Turku, Finland.
| | - Kirsi Harju
- VERIFIN - Finnish Institute for Verification of the Chemical Weapons Convention, Department of Chemistry, P.O. Box 55, FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland
| | - Lisa Spoof
- Biochemistry, Faculty of Natural Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University, Tykistökatu 6A 3rd Floor, FI-20520 Turku, Finland
| | - Elin Lindehoff
- Ecology and Evolution in Microbial model System (EEMiS), Department of Biology and Environmental Science (BoM), Linnæus University, Kalmar 39182, Sweden
| | - Jussi Meriluoto
- Biochemistry, Faculty of Natural Science and Engineering, Åbo Akademi University, Tykistökatu 6A 3rd Floor, FI-20520 Turku, Finland
| | - Markus Vehniäinen
- Biotechnology, Department of Biochemistry, University of Turku, Tykistökatu 6 A 6th Floor, FI-20520 Turku, Finland
| | - Anke Kremp
- Marine Research Centre, Finnish Environment Institute, Erik Palménin aukio 1, FI-00560 Helsinki, Finland
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50
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Identification of gymnodimine D and presence of gymnodimine variants in the dinoflagellate Alexandrium ostenfeldii from the Baltic Sea. Toxicon 2016; 112:68-76. [PMID: 26829651 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2016.01.064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2015] [Revised: 01/19/2016] [Accepted: 01/26/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Gymnodimines are lipophilic toxins produced by the marine dinoflagellates Karenia selliformis and Alexandrium ostenfeldii. Currently four gymnodimine analogues are known and characterized. Here we describe a novel gymnodimine and a range of gymnodimine related compounds found in an A. ostenfeldii isolate from the northern Baltic Sea. Gymnodimine D (1) was extracted and purified from clonal cultures, and characterized by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, and liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS) experiments. The structure of 1 is related to known gymnodimines (2-5) with a six-membered cyclic imine ring and several other fragments typical of gymnodimines. However, the carbon chain in the gymnodimine macrocyclic ring differs from the known gymnodimines in having two tetrahydrofuran rings in the macrocyclic ring.
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