Nanoliposome technology for the food and nutraceutical industries

Engineering marine phospholipid nanoliposomes via glycerol-infused proliposomes: Mechanisms, strategies, and versatile applications in scalable food-grade nanoliposome production

This study presents a novel approach using polyol-based proliposome to produce marine phospholipids nanoliposomes. Proliposomes were formulated by blending glycerol with phospholipids across varying mass ratios (2:1 to 1:10) at room temperature. Analysis employing polarized light microscopy, FTIR, and DSC revealed that glycerol disrupted the stacked acyl groups within phospholipids, lowering the phase transition temperature (Tm). Krill oil phospholipids (KOP) proliposomes exhibited superior performance in nanoliposomes formation, with a mean diameter of 125.60 ± 3.97 nm, attributed to the decreased Tm (-7.64 and 7.00 °C) compared to soybean phospholipids, along with a correspondingly higher absolute zeta potential (-39.77 ± 1.18 mV). The resulting KOP proliposomes demonstrated liposomes formation stability over six months and under various environmental stresses (dilution, thermal, ionic strength, pH), coupled with in vitro absorption exceeding 90 %. This investigation elucidates the mechanism behind glycerol-formulated proliposomes and proposes innovative strategies for scalable, solvent-free nanoliposome production with implications for functional foods and pharmaceutical applications.

Nutraceuticals for Diabetic Retinopathy: Recent Advances and Novel Delivery Systems

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is a major vision-threatening disease among the working-age population worldwide. Present therapeutic strategies such as intravitreal injection of anti-VEGF and laser photocoagulation mainly target proliferative DR. However, there is a need for early effective management in patients with early stage of DR before its progression into the more severe sight-threatening proliferative stage. Nutraceuticals, natural functional foods with few side effects, have been proposed to be beneficial in patients with DR. Over the decades, many studies, either in vitro or in vivo, have demonstrated the advantages of a number of nutraceuticals in DR with their antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, or vasoprotective effects. However, only a few clinical trials have been conducted, and their outcomes varied. The low bioavailability and instability of many nutraceuticals have indeed hindered their utilization in clinical use. In this context, nanoparticle carriers have been developed to deliver nutraceuticals and to improve their bioavailability. Despite its preclinical nature, research of interventive nutraceuticals for DR may yield promising information in their clinical applications.

Developmental Formulation Principles of Food Preservatives by Nanoencapsulation-Fundamentals, Application, and Challenges

The role of food additives is to preserve food by extending shelf life and limiting harmful microorganism proliferation. They prevent spoilage by enhancing the taste and safety of food by utilizing beneficial microorganisms and their antimicrobial metabolites. Current advances in food preservation and processing utilize green technology principles for green preservative formulation, enhancing nutrition and supplying essential micronutrients safely, while also improving quality, packaging, and food safety. Encapsulation is gaining attention for its potential to protect delicate materials from oxidative degradation and extend their shelf life, thereby ensuring optimal nutrient uptake. Nanoencapsulation of bioactive compounds has significantly improved the food, pharmaceutical, agriculture, and nutraceutical industries by protecting antioxidants, vitamins, minerals, and essential fatty acids by controlling release and ensuring delivery to specific sites in the human body. This emerging area is crucial for future industrial production, improving the sensory properties of foods like color, taste, and texture. Research on encapsulated bioactive compounds like bacteriocins, LAB, natamycin, polylysine, and bacteriophage is crucial for their potential antioxidant and antimicrobial activities in food applications and the food industry. This paper reviews nanomaterials used as food antimicrobial carriers, including nanoemulsions, nanoliposomes, nanoparticles, and nanofibers, to protect natural food antimicrobials from degradation and improve antimicrobial activity. This review discusses nanoencapsulation techniques for biopreservative agents like nisin, poly lysine, and natamycin, focusing on biologically-derived polymeric nanofibers, nanocarriers, nanoliposomes, and polymer-stabilized metallic nanoparticles. Nanomaterials, in general, improve the dispersibility, stability, and availability of bioactive substances, and this study discusses the controlled release of nanoencapsulated biopreservative agents.

Phage formulations and delivery strategies: Unleashing the potential against antibiotic-resistant bacteria

Bacterial control promoted by bacteriophages (phages) is an attractive tool in the face of the antibiotic crisis triggered by the exacerbated use of these drugs. Despite the growing interest in using these viruses, some gaps still need answers, such as the protection and delivery of phages. Some limitation points involve the degradation of phage proteins by enzymes or inactivation in low-pH environments. In this review, a literature search using keywords related to the field of virus delivery formulations was done to understand the current scenario of using delivery techniques and phage formulations. A total of 2096 raw results were obtained, which resulted in 140 publications after refinement. These studies were analyzed for main application techniques and areas, keywords, and countries. Of the total, 57% of the publications occurred in the last five years, and the encapsulation technique was the most used among the articles analyzed. As excipient agents, lactose, trehalose, mannitol, PEG, and Leucine stand out. The development of phage formulations, protection approaches, their delivery routes, and the knowledge about the best application strategy enables the use of these organisms in several sectors. It can act as a powerful tool against antibiotic-resistant bacteria.

Effects of dietary nanoliposome-coated astaxanthin on haematological parameters, immune responses and the antioxidant status of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

BACKGROUND

Astaxanthin is the most prevalent carotenoid in the marine environment and is widely used as an additive in formulated aquafeeds.

OBJECTIVES

A 60-day feeding trial was conducted to consider the effect of dietary nanoliposome-coated astaxanthin (NA) on haematological parameters, serum antioxidant activities and immune responses of rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss.

METHODS

A total of 450 healthy fish weighing 31.00 ± 2.09 g were randomly assigned in triplicate (30 fish per replicate) to 5 dietary treatments: 0 (control), 25.00, 50.00, 75.00, and 100.00 mg kg-1 NA.

RESULTS

Fish fed the diet supplemented with 50.00 mg kg-1 NA exhibited the highest values of red blood cells, white blood cells, haemoglobin and haematocrit of 1.64 ± 0.01 × 106 mm-3, 5.54 ± 0.21 × 103 mm-3, 8.73 ± 0.24 g dL-1 and 46.67% ± 0.88%, respectively, which were significantly higher than those fed the basal diet (p < 0.05). The lowest and highest percentages of lymphocytes (67.67% ± 0.33%) and neutrophils (27.33% ± 1.20%) were also obtained in fish fed 50.00 mg kg-1 NA compared to those fed the basal diet (p < 0.05). Fish receiving diet supplemented with 50.00 mg kg-1 NA revealed the highest serum activity in superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, lysozyme and alternative complement and the lowest level of total cholesterol, cortisol, aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase than fish receiving the basal diet (p < 0.05). Serum immunoglobulin (Ig) and ACH50 contents significantly increased with increasing dietary NA supplementation to the highest values of 43.17 ± 1.46 and 293.33 ± 2.03 U mL-1, respectively, in fish fed diet supplemented with 50 mg kg-1 NA (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Supplementation of NA in rainbow trout diet at 50 mg kg-1 exhibited a positive effect on haematological parameters, antioxidant capacity and immune responses. Administration of such dosage can enhance rainbow trout immune responses against unfavourable or stressful conditions, for example disease outbreaks, hypoxic condition, thermal stress and sudden osmotic fluctuations, which usually happen in an intensive culture system.

Storage stability and degradation mechanism of xanthohumol in Humulus lupulus L. and beer

Xanthohumol (XN), possessing potent physiological activity, is exclusively derived from hops (Humulus lupulus L.) and exhibits high instability. However, its inherent instability often results in degradation during storage, leading to a decline in its activity due to the formation of various products. This study aimed to explore the stability of XN in beer under different storage conditions, establish or clarify degradation kinetic models, and understand the degradation mechanism. Our findings revealed that XN would degrade rapidly when exposed to high temperature and light. Its degradation followed a first-order kinetic model, involving reactions such as isomerization, hydration and ortho-position cyclization, resulting in the formation of five products. These insights shed light on the factors and mechanisms underlying the instability and degradability of XN, serving as a foundation for the development of a stable beer product enriched with functional XN.

Giant multilamellar and large unilamellar lecithin vesicles for the encapsulation and oral delivery of cannabinoids

The spontaneous formation of phospholipid vesicles was explored for the production of liposomal encapsulations of bioactive compounds. Low-energy processing methods were used to produce stable large unilamellar vesicles (LUVs) and giant multilamellar vesicles (GMVs) from unrefined, deoiled soybean and sunflower lecithin dispersions. The presence of these structures was confirmed by particle size analysis, bright-field and cryogenic transmission electron microscopy. Moreover, the liposomes were determined to be in a liquid crystalline state. Through molecular modelling, these liposomes were predicted to be capable of encapsulating cannabinoids within their membrane based on their structural and chemical similarity to cholesterol. The encapsulation capacities of cannabis oil in soybean and sunflower LUVs and spontaneous GMVs were then assessed based on these models. These liposomes demonstrated high thermal and oxidative stability, making them suitable for various food applications.

Future Nanotechnology-Based Strategies for Improved Management of Helicobacter pylori Infection

Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is a recalcitrant pathogen, which can cause gastric disorders. During the past decades, polypharmacy-based regimens, such as triple and quadruple therapies have been widely used against H. pylori. However, polyantibiotic therapies can disturb the host gastric/gut microbiota and lead to antibiotic resistance. Thus, simpler but more effective approaches should be developed. Here, some recent advances in nanostructured drug delivery systems to treat H. pylori infection are summarized. Also, for the first time, a drug release paradigm is proposed to prevent H. pylori antibiotic resistance along with an IVIVC model in order to connect the drug release profile with a reduction in bacterial colony counts. Then, local delivery systems including mucoadhesive, mucopenetrating, and cytoadhesive nanobiomaterials are discussed in the battle against H. pylori infection. Afterward, engineered delivery platforms including polymer-coated nanoemulsions and polymer-coated nanoliposomes are poposed. These bioinspired platforms can contain an antimicrobial agent enclosed within smart multifunctional nanoformulations. These bioplatforms can prevent the development of antibiotic resistance, as well as specifically killing H. pylori with no or only slight negative effects on the host gastrointestinal microbiota. Finally, the essential checkpoints that should be passed to confirm the potential effectiveness of anti-H. pylori nanosystems are discussed.

Regulation of Nanoliposome Rigidity and Bioavailability of Oligomeric Proanthocyanidin with Phytosterols Containing Different C3 Branches

The rigidity of nanoliposomes significantly influences their physical stability and in vitro and in vivo behaviors (e.g., cellular uptake, blood circulation, biodistribution, etc.). This study aimed to quantify the rigidity of the nanoliposomes composed of phytosterol with varying C3 branches and phospholipids (DPPC, DOPC) using atomic force microscopy. Young's modulus, determined by the Shell model, effectively differentiated between mechanical differences in nanoliposomes with varying components and component structure and phase states. FTIR results indicated that P-SG exhibited the highest Young's modulus (175.98 ± 10.53 MPa) due to the hydrogen bond between the glucose residue of steryl glycosides (SGs) and the phospholipid polar head. However, the rigidity of DOPC nanoliposomes was not significantly different due to the unsaturated bond. The addition of oligomeric proanthocyanidin (OPC) did not change the order of rigidity among the nanoliposomes, with P-SG-OPC having the highest Young's modulus (126.27 ± 2.06 MPa). In the simulated gastrointestinal tract experiment, P-SG-OPC exhibited the greatest stability, with minimal particle aggregation. Cellular uptake experiments revealed that DPPC nanoliposomes with high rigidity had optimal endocytosis, while DOPC nanoliposome uptake was independent of rigidity. In melanin production inhibition tests, the inhibitory effect correlated directly with Young's modulus and P-SG-OPC had the best inhibitory effect on melanin generation. Our findings in this study provide valuable insights into the design and optimization of nanoliposomes for the efficient delivery of active substances, offering potential solutions for improving the efficacy of drug delivery systems.

Polysaccharide-Based Edible Films/Coatings for the Preservation of Meat and Fish Products: Emphasis on Incorporation of Lipid-Based Nanosystems Loaded with Bioactive Compounds

The high water and nutritional contents of meat and fish products make them susceptible to spoilage. Thus, one of the most important challenges faced by the meat industry is extending the shelf life of meat and fish products. In recent years, increasing concerns associated with synthetic compounds on health have limited their application in food formulations. Thus, there is a great need for natural bioactive compounds. Direct use of these compounds in the food industry has faced different obstacles due to their hydrophobic nature, high volatility, and sensitivity to processing and environmental conditions. Nanotechnology is a promising method for overcoming these challenges. Thus, this article aims to review the recent knowledge about the effect of biopolymer-based edible films or coatings on the shelf life of meat and fish products. This study begins by discussing the effect of biopolymer (pectin, alginate, and chitosan) based edible films or coatings on the oxidation stability and microbial growth of meat products. This is followed by an overview of the nano-encapsulation systems (nano-emulsions and nanoliposomes) and the effect of edible films or coatings incorporated with nanosystems on the shelf life of meat and fish products.

Lipid-Based Delivery Systems for Flavonoids and Flavonolignans: Liposomes, Nanoemulsions, and Solid Lipid Nanoparticles

Herbal chemicals with a long history in medicine have attracted a lot of attention. Flavonolignans and flavonoids are considered as two classes of the above-mentioned compounds with different functional groups which exhibit several therapeutic capabilities such as antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antidiabetic, and anticancer activities. Based on the studies, high hydrophobic properties of the aforementioned compounds limit their bioavailability inside the human body and restrict their wide application. Nanoscale formulations such as solid lipid nanoparticles, liposomes, and other types of lipid-based delivery systems have been introduced to overcome the above-mentioned challenges. This approach allows the aforementioned hydrophobic therapeutic compounds to be encapsulated between hydrophobic structures, resulting in improving their bioavailability. The above-mentioned enhanced delivery system improves delivery to the targeted sites and reduces the daily required dosage. Lowering the required daily dose improves the performance of the drug by diminishing its side effects on non-targeted tissues. The present study aims to highlight the recent improvements in implementing lipid-based nanocarriers to deliver flavonolignans and flavonoids.

Functionalized liposomes for targeted breast cancer drug delivery

Despite the exceptional progress in breast cancer pathogenesis, prognosis, diagnosis, and treatment strategies, it remains a prominent cause of female mortality worldwide. Additionally, although chemotherapies are effective, they are associated with critical limitations, most notably their lack of specificity resulting in systemic toxicity and the eventual development of multi-drug resistance (MDR) cancer cells. Liposomes have proven to be an invaluable drug delivery system but of the multitudes of liposomal systems developed every year only a few have been approved for clinical use, none of which employ active targeting. In this review, we summarize the most recent strategies in development for actively targeted liposomal drug delivery systems for surface, transmembrane and internal cell receptors, enzymes, direct cell targeting and dual-targeting of breast cancer and breast cancer-associated cells, e.g., cancer stem cells, cells associated with the tumor microenvironment, etc.

Gelatin as a bioactive nanodelivery system for functional food applications

Gelatin has long been used as an encapsulant agent in the pharmaceutical and biomedical industries because of its low cost, wide availability, biocompatibility, and degradability. However, the exploitation of gelatin for nanodelivery application is not fully achieved in the functional food filed. In this review article, we highlight the latest work being performed for gelatin-based nanocarriers, including polyelectrolyte complexes, nanoemulsions, nanoliposomes, nanogels, and nanofibers. Specifically, we discuss the applications and challenges of these nanocarriers for stabilization and controlled release of bioactive compounds. To achieve better efficacy, gelatin is frequently used in combination with other biomaterials such as polysaccharides. The fabrication and synergistic effects of the newly developed gelatin composite nanocarriers are also present.

Current Applications of Liposomes for the Delivery of Vitamins: A Systematic Review

Liposomes have been used for several decades for the encapsulation of drugs and bioactives in cosmetics and cosmeceuticals. On the other hand, the use of these phospholipid vesicles in food applications is more recent and is increasing significantly in the last ten years. Although in different stages of technological maturity-in the case of cosmetics, many products are on the market-processes to obtain liposomes suitable for the encapsulation and delivery of bioactives are highly expensive, especially those aiming at scaling up. Among the bioactives proposed for cosmetics and food applications, vitamins are the most frequently used. Despite the differences between the administration routes (oral for food and mainly dermal for cosmetics), some challenges are very similar (e.g., stability, bioactive load, average size, increase in drug bioaccessibility and bioavailability). In the present work, a systematic review of the technological advancements in the nanoencapsulation of vitamins using liposomes and related processes was performed; challenges and future perspectives were also discussed in order to underline the advantages of these drug-loaded biocompatible nanocarriers for cosmetics and food applications.

Bioactive Properties of Kakadu Plum-Blended Products

Kakadu plum (Terminalia ferdinandiana), endemic to Australia, is growing in popularity due to its high levels of vitamin C and strong antioxidant properties. In this study, Kakadu plum fruit powder was used as a functional food ingredient with other plant materials to develop value-added products to enhance their nutritional and commercial value. The present study determined the bioactive properties of nine products, including three Kakadu plum fruit powder samples produced from different processing batches and five Kakadu plum-blended products. Vitamin C, the total phenolic content, and the ellagic acid content were determined. Bioactive properties such as antioxidant, antidiabetic, and antimicrobial assays were also performed. Cytotoxicity was tested to obtain more specific product information regarding food safety. Kakadu plum-blended products showed lower cytotoxicity and lower bioactive properties (antioxidant and antibacterial activities) in comparison to Kakadu plum powder. However, overall, most of the bioactive properties were shown to be higher in the blends when compared with the commercial blueberry powder as a benchmark antioxidant product. Therefore, there is great potential for Kakadu plum to contribute to the growing functional food and ingredient markets.

Anionic liposomes prepared without organic solvents for effective siRNA delivery

Currently, organic solvents are necessary for the preparation of anionic liposomes for siRNA delivery. The removal of organic solvent is time-consuming and the residual organic solvent is not only a hidden danger, but also affects the stability of anionic liposomes. Glycerol, which is physiologically compatible and does not need to be removed, is used to promote the dispersion of lipids and the formation of anionic liposomes. Additionally, the preparation process is simple and not time-consuming. The results showed that anionic liposomes, which were typically spherical with a particle size of 188.9 nm were successfully prepared with glycerol. And with the help of Ca²⁺ , siRNA was encapsulated in anionic liposomes. The highest encapsulation efficiency at 2.4 mM Ca²⁺ reached 91%. And the formation of calcium phosphate could promote the endosomal escape of siRNA effectively. The results from cell viability showed that the anionic liposomes had no obvious cytotoxicity. It was also verified that anionic liposomes could improve the resistance of siRNA against degradation. Additionally, siRNA delivered by anionic liposomes could play an effective role in knockout. Therefore, anionic liposomes prepared with glycerol will be a safe and effective delivery platform for siRNA and even other nucleic acid drugs.

Liposomes or Extracellular Vesicles: A Comprehensive Comparison of Both Lipid Bilayer Vesicles for Pulmonary Drug Delivery

The rapid and non-invasive pulmonary drug delivery (PDD) has attracted great attention compared to the other routes. However, nanoparticle platforms, like liposomes (LPs) and extracellular vesicles (EVs), require extensive reformulation to suit the requirements of PDD. LPs are artificial vesicles composed of lipid bilayers capable of encapsulating hydrophilic and hydrophobic substances, whereas EVs are natural vesicles secreted by cells. Additionally, novel LPs-EVs hybrid vesicles may confer the best of both. The preparation methods of EVs are distinguished from LPs since they rely mainly on extraction and purification, whereas the LPs are synthesized from their basic ingredients. Similarly, drug loading methods into/onto EVs are distinguished whereby they are cell- or non-cell-based, whereas LPs are loaded via passive or active approaches. This review discusses the progress in LPs and EVs as well as hybrid vesicles with a special focus on PDD. It also provides a perspective comparison between LPs and EVs from various aspects (composition, preparation/extraction, drug loading, and large-scale manufacturing) as well as the future prospects for inhaled therapeutics. In addition, it discusses the challenges that may be encountered in scaling up the production and presents our view regarding the clinical translation of the laboratory findings into commercial products.

Encapsulation of Vitamins Using Nanoliposome: Recent Advances and Perspectives

Nowadays the importance of vitamins is clear for everyone. However, many patients are suffering from insufficient intake of vitamins. Incomplete intake of different vitamins from food sources due to their destruction during food processing or decrease in their bioavailability when mixing with other food materials, are factors resulting in vitamin deficiency in the body. Therefore, various lipid based nanocarriers such as nanoliposomes were developed to increase the bioavailability of bioactive compounds. Since the function of nanoliposomes containing vitamins on the body has a direct relationship with the quality of produced nanoliposomes, this review study was planned to investigate the several aspects of liposomal characteristics such as size, polydispersity index, zeta potential, and encapsulation efficiency on the quality of synthesized vitamin-loaded nanoliposomes.

Current Insight into Novel Delivery Approaches of Resveratrol for Improving Therapeutic Efficacy and Bioavailability with its Clinical Updates

Resveratrol (RSV) is a polyphenolic phytoalexin, and belongs to the stilbene family. RSV has several therapeutic activities such as cardioprotective, anticancer, and antioxidant. Apart from its therapeutic benefits, its pharmacological uses are limited due to low solubility, poor bioavailability, and short biological halflife. A researcher continuously focuses on overcoming the limitations of RSV through nanotechnology platforms to get the optimum health benefits. In this context, nanocarriers are pioneering to overcome these drawbacks. Nanocarriers possess high drug loading capacity, thermal stability, low production cost, longer shelflife, etc. Fortunately, scientists were proficient in delivering resveratrol-based nanocarriers in the present scenario. Nanocarriers can deliver drugs to the target sites without compromising the bioavailability. Thus, this review highlights how the latest nanocarrier systems overcome the shortcomings of RSV, which will be good for improving therapeutic efficacy and bioavailability. Moreover, recent updates on resveratrol-based novel formulations and their clinical trials have been addressed to manage several health-related problems.

Cationic biopolymer decorated Asiatic Acid and Centella asiatica extract incorporated liposomes for treating early-stage Alzheimer's disease: An In-vitro and In-vivo investigation

Background: Asiatic acid (AA) is a naturally occurring triterpenoid derivative of Centella asiatica (CA) with neuroprotective effect. The study aimed to design an ideal oral drug delivery system to treat Alzheimer's disease (AD) and develop chitosan-embedded liposomes comprising an extract of CA (CLCAE) and compare them with the chitosan-coated liposomes of asiatic acid (CLAA) for oral delivery to treat the initial phases of AD.  Methods: The solvent evaporation technique was used to develop CLCAE and CLAA, optimised with the experiment's design, and was further evaluated. Results: Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) studies confirmed coating with chitosan. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) indicated the successful formation of CLCAE and CLAA. Differential scanning colorimetry (DSC) confirmed the drug-phospholipid complex. Furthermore, the rate of  in vitro release of CLCAE and CLAA was found to be 69.43±0.3 % and 85.3±0.3 %, respectively, in 24 h.  Ex vivo permeation of CLCAE and CLAA was found to be 48±0.3 % and 78±0.3 %, respectively. In the Alcl3-induced AD model in rats, disease progression was confirmed by Y-maze, the preliminary histopathology evaluation showed significantly higher efficacy of the prepared liposomes (CLCAE and CLAA) compared to the Centella asiatica extract (CAE) and they were found to have equivalent efficacy to the standard drug (rivastigmine tartrate). The considerable increase in pharmacodynamic parameters in terms of neuronal count in the CLAA group indicated the protective role against Alcl3 toxicity and was also confirmed by assessing acetylcholine (Ach) levels. The pharmacokinetic study, such as C _max, T _max, and area under curve (AUC) parameters, proved an increase in AA bioavailability in the form of CLAA compared to the pure AA and CLCAE forms. Conclusion: The preclinical study suggested that CLAA was found to have better stability and an ideal oral drug delivery system to treat AD.

Enzyme-triggered smart antimicrobial drug release systems against bacterial infections

The rapid emergence and spread of drug-resistant bacteria, as one of the most pressing public health threats, are declining our arsenal of available antimicrobial drugs. Advanced antimicrobial drug delivery systems that can achieve precise and controlled release of antimicrobial agents in the microenvironment of bacterial infections will retard the development of antimicrobial resistance. A variety of extracellular enzymes are secreted by bacteria to destroy physical integrity of tissue during their invasion of host body, which can be utilized as stimuli to trigger "on-demand" release of antimicrobials. In the past decade, such bacterial enzyme responsive drug release systems have been intensively studied but few review has been released. Herein, we systematically summarize the recent progress of smart antimicrobial drug delivery systems triggered by bacteria secreted enzymes such as lipase, hyaluronidase, protease and antibiotic degrading enzymes. The perspectives and existing key issues of this field will also be discussed to fuel the innovative research and translational application in the future.

Alzheimer's Disease: Treatment Strategies and Their Limitations

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most frequent case of neurodegenerative disease and is becoming a major public health problem all over the world. Many therapeutic strategies have been explored for several decades; however, there is still no curative treatment, and the priority remains prevention. In this review, we present an update on the clinical and physiological phase of the AD spectrum, modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors for AD treatment with a focus on prevention strategies, then research models used in AD, followed by a discussion of treatment limitations. The prevention methods can significantly slow AD evolution and are currently the best strategy possible before the advanced stages of the disease. Indeed, current drug treatments have only symptomatic effects, and disease-modifying treatments are not yet available. Drug delivery to the central nervous system remains a complex process and represents a challenge for developing therapeutic and preventive strategies. Studies are underway to test new techniques to facilitate the bioavailability of molecules to the brain. After a deep study of the literature, we find the use of soft nanoparticles, in particular nanoliposomes and exosomes, as an innovative approach for preventive and therapeutic strategies in reducing the risk of AD and solving problems of brain bioavailability. Studies show the promising role of nanoliposomes and exosomes as smart drug delivery systems able to penetrate the blood-brain barrier and target brain tissues. Finally, the different drug administration techniques for neurological disorders are discussed. One of the promising therapeutic methods is the intranasal administration strategy which should be used for preclinical and clinical studies of neurodegenerative diseases.

Formulation and Evaluation of Azithromycin-Loaded Niosomal Gel: Optimization, In Vitro Studies, Rheological Characterization, and Cytotoxicity Study

Several novel, innovative approaches for improving transdermal delivery of BCS class III drugs have been proposed. Despite their great aqueous solubility, BCS class III drugs have the drawback of limited permeability. The objective of the current work was to screen the suitability of niosomes as a nanocarrier in permeation enhancement of azithromycin (AZM) transdermal delivery. Niosomes were prepared by an ether injection method using a nonionic surfactant (Span 60) and cholesterol at different concentrations. The ζ potential (ZP), polydispersity index (PDI), and particle size (PS) of AZM-loaded niosomes were evaluated. The size of the niosomes was found to vary between 288 and 394 nm. The results revealed that the niosomes prepared in a ratio of 2:1 (Span 60: cholesterol) had larger vesicle sizes, but all of them were characterized by narrow size distributions (PDI <0.95). Niosomal gel was successfully prepared using different polymers. The appearance, pH, viscosity, and ex vivo drug release of niosomal gel formulations were all examined. The flow curves showed that the niosomal gel displayed lower viscosity values than its corresponding conventional gels. Niosomal and conventional gels exhibited a domination of the elastic modulus (G') over the viscous modulus (G″) (G'>G″) in the investigated frequency range (0.1-100 rad/s), indicating stable gels with more solid-like properties. Ex vivo skin permeation studies for the niosomal gel show 90.83 ± 3.19% of drug release in 24 h as compared with the conventional gel showing significantly lower (P < 0.001) drug release in the same duration (1.25 ± 0.12%). Overall, these results indicate that niosomal gel could be an effective transdermal nanocarrier for enhancing the permeability of AZM, a BCS class III drug. In conclusion, this study suggests that transdermal formulations of AZM in the niosomal gel were successfully developed and could be used as an alternative route of administration.

A Comprehensive Review on Nutraceuticals: Therapy Support and Formulation Challenges

Nutraceuticals are the nourishing components (hybrid of nutrition and pharmaceuticals) that are biologically active and possess capability for maintaining optimal health and benefits. These products play a significant role in human health care and its endurance, most importantly for the future therapeutic development. Nutraceuticals have received recognition due to their nutritional benefits along with therapeutic effects and safety profile. Nutraceuticals are globally growing in the field of services such as health care promotion, disease reduction, etc. Various drug nutraceutical interactions have also been elaborated with various examples in this review. Several patents on nutraceuticals in agricultural applications and in various diseases have been stated in the last section of review, which confirms the exponential growth of nutraceuticals' market value. Nutraceuticals have been used not only for nutrition but also as a support therapy for the prevention and treatment of various diseases, such as to reduce side effects of cancer chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Diverse novel nanoformulation approaches tend to overcome challenges involved in formulation development of nutraceuticals. Prior information on various interactions with drugs may help in preventing any deleterious effects of nutraceuticals products. Nanotechnology also leads to the generation of micronized dietary products and other nutraceutical supplements with improved health benefits. In this review article, the latest key findings (clinical studies) on nutraceuticals that show the therapeutic action of nutraceutical's bioactive molecules on various diseases have also been discussed.

Improving the Bioaccessibility and Bioavailability of Carotenoids by Means of Nanostructured Delivery Systems: A Comprehensive Review

Carotenoids are bioactive compounds provided by the diet playing a key role in maintaining human health. Therefore, they should be ingested daily in an adequate amount. However, even a varied and well-balanced diet does not guarantee an adequate intake, as both the bioaccessibility and bioavailability of the compounds significantly affect their absorption. This review summarizes the main results achieved in improving the bioaccessibility and bioavailability of carotenoids by means of nanostructured delivery systems, discussing in detail the available lipid-based and biopolymeric nanocarriers at present, with a focus on their formulation and functional efficiency. Although the toxicity profile of these innovative delivery systems is not fully understood, especially for long-term intake, these systems are an effective and valuable approach to increase the availability of compounds of nutritional interest.

Effect of the molecular structure and mechanical properties of plant-based hydrogels in food systems to deliver probiotics: an updated review

Probiotic products' economic value and market popularity have grown over time as more people discover their health advantages and adopt healthier lifestyles. There is a significant societal and cultural interest in these products known as foods or medicines. Products containing probiotics that claim to provide health advantages must maintain a "minimum therapeutic" level (107-106 CFU/g) of bacteria during their entire shelf lives. Since probiotic bacteria are susceptible to degradation and reduction by physical and chemical conditions (including acidity, natural antimicrobial agents, nutrient contents, redox potential, temperature, water activity, the existence of other bacteria, and sensitivity to metabolites), the most challenging problem for a food manufacturer is ensuring probiotic cells' survival and stability enhancement throughout the manufacturing stage. Currently, the use of plant-based hydrogels for improved and targeted probiotic delivery has gained substantial attention as a potential approach to overcoming the mentioned restrictions. To achieve the best possible results from hydrogels, whether used as a coating for encapsulated probiotics (with the goal of stomach protection) or as carriers for direct encapsulation of live microorganisms should be applied kind of procedures that ensure high bacterial survival during hydrogels application. This paper summarizes polysaccharides, proteins, and lipid-based hydrogels as carriers of encapsulated probiotics in delivery systems, reviews their structures, analyzes their advantages and disadvantages, studies their mechanical characteristics, and draws comparisons between them. The discussion then turns to how the criterion affects encapsulation, applications, and future possibilities.

Advances in Nanofabrication Technology for Nutraceuticals: New Insights and Future Trends

Bioactive components such as polyphenolics, flavonoids, bioactive peptides, pigments, and essential fatty acids were known to ward off some deadliest diseases. Nutraceuticals are those beneficial compounds that may be food or part of food that has come up with medical or health benefits. Nanoencapsulation and nanofabricated delivery systems are an imminent approach in the field of food sciences. The sustainable fabrication of nutraceuticals and biocompatible active components indisputably enhances the food grade and promotes good health. Nanofabricated delivery systems include carbohydrates-based, lipids (solid and liquid), and proteins-based delivery systems. Solid nano-delivery systems include lipid nanoparticles. Liquid nano-delivery systems include nanoliposomes and nanoemulsions. Physicochemical properties of nanoparticles such as size, charge, hydrophobicity, and targeting molecules affect the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of nano delivery systems. Advance research in toxicity studies is necessary to ensure the safety of the nanofabricated delivery systems, as the safety of nano delivery systems for use in food applications is unknown. Therefore, improved nanotechnology could play a pivotal role in developing functional foods, a contemporary concept assuring the consumers to provide programmed, high-priced, and high-quality research toward nanofabricated delivery systems.

Docosahexaenoic Acid Delivery Systems, Bioavailability, Functionality, and Applications: A Review

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), mainly found in microalgae and fish oil, is crucial for the growth and development of visual, neurological, and brain. In addition, DHA has been found to improve metabolic disorders associated with obesity and has anti-inflammatory, anti-obesity, and anti-adipogenesis effects. However, DHA applications in food are often limited due to its low water solubility, instability, and poor bioavailability. Therefore, delivery systems have been developed to enhance the remainder of DHA activity and increase DHA homeostasis and bioavailability. This review focused on the different DHA delivery systems and the in vitro and in vivo digestive characteristics. The research progress on cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, visual, neurological/brain, anti-obesity, anti-inflammatory, food applications, future trends, and the development potential of DHA delivery systems were also reviewed. DHA delivery systems could overcome the instability of DHA in gastrointestinal digestion, improve the bioavailability of DHA, and better play the role of its functionality.

Recent progresses in the delivery of β-carotene: From nano/microencapsulation to bioaccessibility

Beta-carotene (BC) as an efficient pro-vitamin is effective in improving vision, immune system and cognitive function as well as preventing coronary diseases and cancer. However, besides its poor chemical stability, the high lipophilic nature of BC reduces its dispersibility and consequently bioavailability which limits its application into food, pharmaceutical and nutraceuticals. Different carriers with vesicular or particulate structures have been studied and utilized for promoting BC solubility, dispersibility, and protection against diverse operational or environmental stresses and also controlling BC release and subsequent bioaccessibility. The current study, therefore reviews different micro/nanocarriers reported on BC encapsulation with special focusing on its bioavailability. Liposomal structures have been successfully used for enhancing BC stability and bioavailability. Besides, emulsion-based carriers including Pickering emulsions, nanoemulsions and microemulsions have been widely evaluated for BC encapsulation and protection. In addition, lipid-based nanoparticles and nanostructural carriers have also been applied successfully for this context. Moreover, gel structures including emulgels, hydrogels and oleogels are studied in some researches. Most of these delivery systems led to higher hydro-solubility and dispersibility of BC which consequently increased its bioavailability; thereupon could promote its application into food, cosmetic and nutraceutical products. However, for remarkable incorporation of BC and other bioactive compounds into edible products, the safety and toxicological aspects of these delivery system especially those designed in nano scale should be addressed in the further researches.

Nano-enabled plant-based colloidal delivery systems for bioactive agents in foods: Design, formulation, and application

Consumers are becoming increasingly aware of the impact of their dietary choices on the environment, animal welfare, and health, which is causing many of them to adopt more plant-based diets. For this reason, many sectors of the food industry are reformulating their products to contain more plant-based ingredients. This article describes recent research on the formation and application of nano-enabled colloidal delivery systems formulated from plant-based ingredients, such as polysaccharides, proteins, lipids, and phospholipids. These delivery systems include nanoemulsions, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanoliposomes, nanophytosomes, and biopolymer nanoparticles. The composition, size, structure, and charge of the particles in these delivery systems can be manipulated to create novel or improved functionalities, such as improved robustness, higher optical clarity, controlled release, and increased bioavailability. There have been major advances in the design, assembly, and application of plant-based edible nanoparticles within the food industry over the past decade or so. As a result, there are now a wide range of different options available for creating delivery systems for specific applications. In the future, it will be important to establish whether these formulations can be produced using economically viable methods and provide the desired functionality in real-life applications.

Application of Xanthan-Gum-Based Edible Coating Incorporated with Litsea cubeba Essential Oil Nanoliposomes in Salmon Preservation

Salmon is prone to be contaminated by Vibrio parahaemolyticus (V. parahaemolyticus), leading to the deterioration of salmon quality and the occurrence of food-borne diseases. In this study, we aimed to develop a novel xanthan-gum-based edible coating embedded with nano-encapsulated Litsea cubeba essential oil (LC-EO) for salmon preservation at 4 °C. First, the results of the growth curves and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) showed that LC-EO displayed potent antibacterial activity against V. parahaemolyticus; the optimal concentration of LC-EO in the liposomes was 5 mg/mL, and the maximal encapsulation efficiency (EE) was 37.8%. The particle size, polydispersity coefficient (PDI), and zeta potential of the liposomes were 168.10 nm, 0.250, and −32.14 mV, respectively. The rheological test results of xanthan-gum-based edible coatings incorporating liposomes showed that the prepared coating was suitable for applying on food surfaces. The results in the challenge test at 4 °C demonstrated that the treatment of 1:3 (liposome: xanthan gum, v/v) coating performed the best preservative properties, the coating treatment delayed the oxidation of salmon, and controlled the growth of V. parahaemolyticus. These findings suggest that the coatings formulated in this study could be used as a promising approach to control V. parahaemolyticus contamination and maintain salmon quality.

Edible coating as postharvest management strategy for shelf-life extension of fresh tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.): An overview

Tomato is considered as one of the most grown horticultural crops having a short shelf-life due to its climacteric nature of ripening, susceptibility to postharvest microbial decay, and mechanical damage, resulting in huge postharvest losses. Recently, the use of edible coatings has been seen as a promising environment friendly and sustainable technology for preserving the quality attributes and prolonging the shelf-life of tomato during storage. Although a lot of literature is available on the aspects of edible coating for fresh produce, especially stone and tropical fruits, but there is no dedicated comprehensive review that specifically addresses the requirements of edible coatings for whole fresh tomato. This review aims to provide the information about the desirable coating property requirements specific to tomato and summarizes or analyzes the recent studies conducted on the application of edible coating on tomato. The article also deals with recent trends on utilization of bioactive compounds as well as nanotechnological approaches for improving the performance and functionality of coating materials used for tomato. However, the edible coating technology for tomato is still at infancy state, and adoption of technology on a commercial scale requires economic viability and large-scale consumer acceptability.

Cationic inulin as a new surface decoration hydrocolloid for improving the stability of liposomal nanocarriers

The aim of the present study was to investigate the cationization of inulin with Williamson's etherification method, and compare cationic inulin with unmodified inulin coatings for stabilizing nanoliposomes (NLPs). The synthetized cationic inulin was characterized by Fourier transforms infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, carbon hydrogen nitrogen (CHN) elemental analysis, and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. Three concentrations of inulin and cationic inulin (1, 2, and 4 mg/mL) were used for the coating of NLPs. The concentration of 4 mg/mL was found to be optimal for inulin and cationic inulin as surface coating, on the basis of particle size, zeta potential, and microstructural morphology. The lowest values of particle size (93.41 nm), polydispersity index (0.25), and negative zeta potential (-24.41 mV) were related to the coated NLPs with cationic inulin at a concentration of 4 mg/mL. The transmission electron microscopy image of the coated NLPs with cationic inulin exhibited a spherical and core-shell structure. The coated NLPs with cationic inulin showed the highest thermal stability, physical stability, and oxidative stability. In conclusion, cationic inulin coating conferred a stronger protection than the unmodified inulin coating of NLPs. The technique developed here can be applied for surface decoration of NLPs to improve their stability.

Targeting foodborne pathogens via surface-functionalized nano-antimicrobials

The incorporation of antibiotics and bioactive compounds into non-toxic nanoparticles has been popularly used to produce effective antimicrobial nanocarriers against foodborne pathogens. These systems can protect antimicrobials against harsh environments, control their release, and increase their antimicrobial activities; however, their functions can be decreased by some major barriers. Intracellular localization of bacteria protects them from the host immune system and antimicrobial agents. Also, bacteria can cause constant infection by nestling in professional phagocytic cells. In the last years, surface functionalization of nanocarriers by passive and active modification methods has been applied for their protection against clearance from the blood, increasing both circulation time and uptake by target cells. For achieving this objective, different functional agents such as specifically targeted peptides internalize ligands, saccharide ligands, or even therapeutic molecules (e.g., antibodies or enzymes) are used. In this review, techniques for functionalizing the surface of antimicrobial-loaded nanocarriers have been described. This article offers a comprehensive review of the potential of functional nanoparticles to increase the performance of antimicrobials against foodborne pathogens through targeting delivery.

Nanomedicine of Plant Origin for the Treatment of Metabolic Disorders

Metabolic disorders are major clinical challenges of health that are progressing globally. A concurrence of metabolic disorders such as obesity, insulin resistance, atherogenic dyslipidemia, and systematic hypertension leads to metabolic syndrome. Over the past years, the metabolic syndrome leads to a five- and two-fold rise in diabetes mellitus type II and cardiovascular diseases. Natural products specifically plant extracts have insulin-sensitizing, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties and are also considered as an alternative option due to few adverse effects. Nanotechnology is one of the promising strategies, which improves the effectiveness of treatment and limits side effects. This review mainly focuses on plant extract-based nanosystems in the management of the metabolic syndrome. Numerous nano-drug delivery systems, i.e., liposomes, hydrogel nanocomposites, nanoemulsions, micelles, solid lipid, and core–shell nanoparticles, have been designed using plant extracts. It has been found that most of the nano-formulations successfully reduced oxidative stress, insulin resistance, chronic inflammation, and lipid profile in in vitro and in vivo studies as plant extracts interfere with the pathways of metabolic syndrome. Thus, these novel plant-based nanosystems could act as a promising candidate for clinical applications.