The role of bioactive components found in peppers

Genetic tapestry of Capsicum fruit colors: a comparative analysis of four cultivated species

KEY MESSAGE

Genome-wide association study of color spaces across the four cultivated Capsicum spp. revealed a shared set of genes influencing fruit color, suggesting mechanisms and pathways across Capsicum species are conserved during the speciation. Notably, Cytochrome P450 of the carotenoid pathway, MYB transcription factor, and pentatricopeptide repeat-containing protein are the major genes responsible for fruit color variation across the Capsicum species. Peppers (Capsicum spp.) rank among the most widely consumed spices globally. Fruit color, serving as a determinant for use in food colorants and cosmeceuticals and an indicator of nutritional contents, significantly influences market quality and price. Cultivated Capsicum species display extensive phenotypic diversity, especially in fruit coloration. Our study leveraged the genetic variance within four Capsicum species (Capsicum baccatum, Capsicum chinense, Capsicum frutescens, and Capsicum annuum) to elucidate the genetic mechanisms driving color variation in peppers and related Solanaceae species. We analyzed color metrics and chromatic attributes (Red, Green, Blue, L*, a*, b*, Luminosity, Hue, and Chroma) on samples cultivated over six years (2015-2021). We resolved genomic regions associated with fruit color diversity through the sets of SNPs obtained from Genotyping by Sequencing (GBS) and genome-wide association study (GWAS) with a Multi-Locus Mixed Linear Model (MLMM). Significant SNPs with FDR correction were identified, within the Cytochrome P450, MYB-related genes, Pentatricopeptide repeat proteins, and ABC transporter family were the most common among the four species, indicating comparative evolution of fruit colors. We further validated the role of a pentatricopeptide repeat-containing protein (Chr01:31,205,460) and a cytochrome P450 enzyme (Chr08:45,351,919) via competitive allele-specific PCR (KASP) genotyping. Our findings advance the understanding of the genetic underpinnings of Capsicum fruit coloration, with developed KASP assays holding potential for applications in crop breeding and aligning with consumer preferences. This study provides a cornerstone for future research into exploiting Capsicum's diverse fruit color variation.

Industrial and culinary treatments applied to Piquillo pepper (Capsicum annuum cv. Piquillo) impact positively on (poly)phenols' bioaccessibility and gut microbiota catabolism

Thermal treatments applied to plant-based foods prior to consumption might influence (poly)phenols' bioaccessibility and the metabolization of these compounds by the gut microbiota. In the present research, the impact of industrial (grilling and canning) and culinary (microwaving and frying) treatments on the bioaccessibility and colonic biotransformations of (poly)phenols from Piquillo pepper (Capsicum annum cv. Piquillo) were evaluated by in vitro gastrointestinal digestion and colonic fermentation models and HPLC-ESI-MS/MS. The application of industrial treatments impacted positively on (poly)phenols' bioaccessibility compared to raw pepper. Microwaving also exerted a positive effect on (poly)phenols' bioaccessibility compared to canning whereas the addition of oil for frying seemed to negatively affect (poly)phenols' release from the food matrix. Throughout the 48 hours of the colonic fermentation process (poly)phenolic compounds were catabolized into different (poly)phenol derivatives whose formation was also positively affected by industrial and culinary treatments. Based on the concentration and time of appearance of these derivatives, catabolic pathways of (poly)phenols from Piquillo pepper were proposed. The major (poly)phenol derivatives identified (3-(3'-hydroxyphenyl)propanoic acid, 4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenylacetic acid and benzene-1,2-diol) are considered of great interest for the study of their bioactivity and the potential effect on human health.

Immunoreactive proteins of Capsicum-based spices as a threat to human health: mass spectrometry analysis and in silico mapping

Dietary patterns are changing severely, especially the consumption of highly processed foods with lots of spices is increasing, carrying an increased risk of immediate hypersensitivity (type I), in sensitised individuals, due to the possible presence of allergens, especially the hidden ones. Paprika is a fruit of the Capsicum genus, which belongs to the Solanaceae family and is commonly consumed fresh or as a spice. Despite recorded cases of anaphylaxis, its allergenicity has yet to be clearly investigated. In this study, we research to identify proteins that could trigger a severe allergic reaction in patients with an equivocal clinical picture. Two types of protein extracts extracted from 3 different paprika spices were immunoblotted with sera from patients with severe allergic symptoms, presumably to paprika. Proteins from the IgE reactive bands obtained were subjected to LC-MS/MS identification and then in silico analysis to assess their possible sensitising capacity and proinflammatory potential using online tools. The spices were shown to contain a number of incompletely investigated highly immunoreactive allergenic proteins, including proteins of foreign origin (contaminants), the presence of which can stimulate inflammatory mechanisms and cross-reactivity with other food allergens, which can threaten life and health and should be investigated in detail.

Characterization of Spray-Dried Microcapsules of Paprika Oleoresin Induced by Ultrasound and High-Pressure Homogenization: Physicochemical Properties and Storage Stability

As an indispensable process in the microencapsulation of active substances, emulsion preparation has a significant impact on microencapsulated products. In this study, five primary emulsions of paprika oleoresin (PO, the natural colourant extracted from the fruit peel of Capsicum annuum L.) with different particle sizes (255-901.7 nm) were prepared using three industrialized pulverization-inducing techniques (stirring, ultrasound induction, and high-pressure homogenization). Subsequently, the PO emulsion was microencapsulated via spray drying. The effects of the different induction methods on the physicochemical properties, digestive behaviour, antioxidant activity, and storage stability of PO microencapsulated powder were investigated. The results showed that ultrasound and high-pressure homogenization induction could improve the encapsulation efficiency, solubility, and rehydration capacity of the microcapsules. In vitro digestion studies showed that ultrasound and high-pressure homogenization induction significantly increased the apparent solubility and dissolution of the microcapsules. High-pressure homogenization induction significantly improved the antioxidant capacity of the microcapsules, while high-intensity ultrasound (600 W) induction slowed down the degradation of the microcapsule fats and oils under short-term UV and long-term natural light exposure. Our study showed that ultrasound and high-pressure homogenization equipment could successfully be used to prepare emulsions containing nanoscale capsicum oil resin particles, improve their functional properties, and enhance the oral bioavailability of this bioactive product.

Improvement of the optical, photocatalytic and antibacterial properties of ZnO semiconductor nanoparticles using different pepper aqueous extracts

Peppers are fruits that grow on plants of the genus Capsicum and are popular for their use in gastronomy as a condiment and for their anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer properties due to their phytocompounds such as flavonoids, polyphenols, or alkaloids. Semiconductor zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles (NPs) were synthesized using a green approach employing natural aqueous extracts of several varieties of peppers (jalapeño, morita, and ghost). The obtained NPs were characterized by different techniques, and their photocatalytic and antibacterial activity was studied. The signal at 620 cm-1 in the FTIR spectra belonging to the Zn-O bond, the appearance of the main peaks of a hexagonal wurtzite structure in the XRD pattern, and the characteristic signals in the UV-Vis spectra confirm the correct formation of ZnO NPs. The photocatalytic activity was analyzed against Methylene Blue (MB), Rhodamine B (RB), and Methyl Orange (MO) under UV and sunlight. All syntheses were able to degrade more than 93% of the pollutants under UV light. Antibacterial assays were performed against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. All syntheses exhibited antibacterial activity against all bacteria and maximum growth inhibition against Bacillus subtilis. The prominent results demonstrate that natural aqueous extracts obtained from peppers can be used to synthesize ZnO NPs with photocatalytic and biomedical applications.

A Comprehensive Genome-Wide Association Study of Carotenoid and Capsaicinoid Contents in Capsicum chinense Germplasm

Pepper is a highly important vegetable globally, both economically and nutritionally. However, to efficiently select and identify genetic resources for pepper breeding programs, it is crucial to understand the association between important traits and genetic factors. In this study, we investigated the genetic basis of carotenoid and capsaicinoid content in 160 Capsicum chinense germplasms. The study observed significant variability in carotenoid and capsaicinoid content among the germplasms. Correlation analysis revealed a strong positive correlation between violaxanthin and antheraxanthin. In contrast, capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin displayed negative correlations with individual carotenoids but exhibited a strong positive correlation between the two compounds (r = 0.90 ***). Genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS) was performed on 160 genotypes of pepper germplasm, which identified 47,810 high-quality SNPs. A comprehensive genome-wide association analysis was performed using these SNPs to identify SNPs associated with carotenoids and capsaicinoids, revealing 193 SNPs that exhibited significant associations. Specifically, 4 SNPs were associated with violaxanthin, 2 with antheraxanthin, 86 with capsorubin, 5 with capsanthin, 63 with zeaxanthin, 3 with β-cryptoxanthin, and 2 with α-carotene. With further studies, the significantly associated SNPs identified in this study have the potential to be utilized for selecting pepper accessions with high carotenoid and capsaicinoid contents. Additionally, the genes associated with these significant SNPs will be used to understand their roles and involvement in the biosynthesis pathway of carotenoids and capsaicinoids. Understanding the function of these genes can provide insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying the production of these bioactive compounds in pepper. The findings of this study hold valuable implications for selecting pepper varieties with desirable traits and developing breeding programs aimed at enhancing the nutritional and medicinal properties of pepper.

Carotenoids and Fatty Acids Obtained from Paprika Capsicum annuum by Supercritical Carbon Dioxide and Ethanol as Co-Extractant

Paprika Capsicum annuum L. contains useful molecules such as carotenoids and polyunsaturated fatty acids, which are considered high-value functional and health ingredients. To obtain these compounds, paprika was extracted using different methods (Soxhlet, SC-CO_2, and SC-CO₂ with co-extractant) and at different parameters. The results showed that the carotenoid content decreased with the addition of the co-extractant while the fatty acid content and yield increased. It was found that the highest carotenoid content (capsanthin > β-carotene > capsorubin > zeaxanthin > β-cryptoxanthin > violaxanthin) was obtained at 50 °C/45 MPa for SC-CO₂ extraction. Paprika extract rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids (linoleic, oleic, and α-linolenic acid) was obtained at 40 °C/25 MPa for SC-CO₂ with co-extractant. The PUFA/SFA ratios for paprika extract were in agreement with the recommendations of nutritional guidelines. The use of SC-CO₂ for the extraction of Capsicum annuum allowed us to obtain a high-quality, rich in carotenoids and polyunsaturated fatty acids, extract that can be used as a substrate in the industry.

Effects of Storage Temperature at the Early Postharvest Stage on the Firmness, Bioactive Substances, and Amino Acid Compositions of Chili Pepper (Capsicum annuum L.)

The commercial and nutritional quality of chili peppers deteriorates rapidly after harvest. So far, little is known about the effect of temperature on postharvest chili pepper quality. This study elucidated the effects of two temperatures (20 °C and 30 °C) on chili peppers' postharvest firmness, flavor, and nutritional attributes. We found that compared to 20 °C, 30 °C escalated the decline in fruit firmness, capsaicin content, and dihydrocapsaicin content, while enhancing the increment in water loss and electrical conductivity, as well as total carotenoids and ascorbic acid content. The contents of most amino acids (AAs) decreased significantly during postharvest storage compared to their initial values, whether stored at 20 °C or 30 °C; however, 30 °C had a more substantial impact than 20 °C. Meanwhile, as for soluble protein and amino acid compositions, the effect of storage temperature was genotype-dependent, as reflected by differential changes in total AA contents, single AA contents, essential AA ratio, delicious AA ratio, etc., under the 20 °C or 30 °C treatments. In conclusion, our findings reveal the influence of temperature on pepper quality, showing that the storage temperature of 20 °C was better for maintaining chili quality than 30 °C from the perspective of overall commercial attributes.

Capsicum chinense var. BRS Moema: chemical characterization by HPLC-ESI-MS/MS and antiproliferative screening

Capsiate and phenolics present in the free, esterified, glycosylated, and insoluble-bound forms of BRS Moema peppers were characterized and quantified using UHPLC-ESI-MS/MS. Additionally, the in vitro antiproliferative activity of BRS Moema extract was evaluated. The peppers showed considerable quantities of capsiate and phenolic compounds. Esterified phenolics were the main fraction, followed by the insoluble-bound fraction, indicating that relying solely on the extraction of soluble phenolics may underestimate the total phenolic content. Among the fourteen phenolics identified in extract fractions, gallic acid was the major constituent. Phenolic fractions displayed high antioxidant capacity by TEAC and ORAC assays. Nevertheless, the correlation between phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity suggested that other bioactive or phenolic compounds may contribute to the overall phenolic compounds and antioxidant capacity of the obtained fractions. Concerning the antiproliferative activity, the extract did not exhibit any effect on cell proliferation within the evaluated concentration range. These findings indicated that BRS Moema peppers can serve as a rich source of phenolic compounds. Therefore, fully utilizing them could bring advantages to the food and pharmaceutical industries, as well as to consumers and producers.

Bacterial diversity and its correlation with sensory quality of two types of zha-chili from Shennongjia region, China

In the Shennongjia region of China, two types of zha-chili with distinct flavors exist: the first type (P zha-chili) uses a significant amount of chili pepper but no potato, while the other (PP zha-chili) contains a smaller amount of chili pepper but a proportion of potato. In order to investigate the bacterial diversity and sensory properties of these two types of zha-chili, this study employed a combination of amplicon sequencing, culture-based methods, and sensory technology. The results of the study showed statistically significant differences (P < 0.05) in bacterial diversity and communities between the two types of zha-chili. In particular, four dominant lactic acid bacteria (LAB) genera - Lactiplantibacillus, Lactococcus, Leuconostoc, and Weissella - were significantly enriched in PP zha-chili. The findings suggest that the proportions of chili pepper and potato can influence the bacterial diversity and content of LAB, with a higher proportion of chili pepper potentially inhibiting the growth of harmful species within the Enterobacteriaceae family. The study also used culture-based methods to identify the most dominant bacteria in the zha-chili samples as Lactiplantibacillus plantarum group, Companilactobacillus alimentarius, and Lacticaseibacillus paracasei. Correlation analysis indicated that LAB likely plays a significant role in shaping the aroma profile of zha-chili, with Levilactobacillus, Leuconostoc, Lactiplantibacillus, and Lactococcus showing correlation with E-nose sensory indices. However, these LAB were not significantly correlated with the taste properties of zha-chili. The study provides new insights into the influence of chili pepper and potato on the microbial diversity and flavor properties of zha-chili, and also presents potential LAB isolates for future research on zha-chili.

The Genus Capsicum: A Review of Bioactive Properties of Its Polyphenolic and Capsaicinoid Composition

Chili is one of the world's most widely used horticultural products. Many dishes around the world are prepared using this fruit. The chili belongs to the genus Capsicum and is part of the Solanaceae family. This fruit has essential biomolecules such as carbohydrates, dietary fiber, proteins, and lipids. In addition, chili has other compounds that may exert some biological activity (bioactivities). Recently, many studies have demonstrated the biological activity of phenolic compounds, carotenoids, and capsaicinoids in different varieties of chili. Among all these bioactive compounds, polyphenols are one of the most studied. The main bioactivities attributed to polyphenols are antioxidant, antimicrobial, antihyperglycemic, anti-inflammatory, and antihypertensive. This review describes the data from in vivo and in vitro bioactivities attributed to polyphenols and capsaicinoids of the different chili products. Such data help formulate functional foods or food ingredients.

LC-MS/MS Analysis Elucidates the Different Effects of Industrial and Culinary Processing on Total and Individual (Poly)phenolic Compounds of Piquillo Pepper (Capsicum annuum cv. Piquillo)

Pepper constitutes an important source of (poly)phenols, mainly flavonoids. Nevertheless, heat treatments applied prior to consumption may have an impact on these antioxidants, and thus may also affect their potential bioactivity. In this study, the effect of industrial and culinary treatments on the total and individual (poly)phenolic content of Piquillo pepper (Capsicum annuum cv. Piquillo) was thoroughly evaluated by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. A total of 40 (poly)phenols were identified and quantified in raw pepper. Flavonoids (10 flavonols, 15 flavones, and 2 flavanones) were the major compounds identified (62.6%). Among the 13 phenolic acids identified in raw samples, cinnamic acids were the most representative. High temperatures applied and subsequent peeling during industrial grilling drastically decreased the total (poly)phenolic content from 2736.34 to 1099.38 μg/g dm (59.8% reduction). In particular, flavonoids showed a higher reduction of 87.2% after grilling compared to nonflavonoids which only decreased by 14%. Moreover, 9 nonflavonoids were generated during grilling, modifying the (poly)phenolic profile. After culinary treatments, specifically frying, (poly)phenols appear to be better released from the food matrix, enhancing their extractability. Overall, industrial and culinary treatments differently affect both the total and individual (poly)phenolic compounds of pepper and, despite the reduction, they might also positively influence their bioaccessibility.

Spodoptera litura larvae are attracted by HvAV-3h-infected S. litura larvae-damaged pepper leaves

BACKGROUND

Herbivore-induced plant volatiles (HIPVs) are important self-defense outputs of pepper plants to resist insect pests. Ascoviruses are pathogenic to the larvae of most lepidopteran vegetable pests. However, whether Heliothis virescens ascovirus 3h (HvAV-3h)-infected Spodoptera litura larvae can change pepper leaf HIPVs is not well understood.

RESULTS

Spodoptera litura larvae preferred S. litura-infested leaves, and this preference was stronger with longer duration of S. litura infestation. In addition, S. litura larvae significantly chose pepper leaves damaged by HvAV-3h-infected S. litura over the healthy pepper leaves. Results also showed that S. litura larvae preferred leaves mechanically damaged and treated with oral secretions from HvAV-3h infected-S. litura larvae in a simulation test. We captured the volatiles emitted by leaves under six treatments. Results showed that the volatile profile changed with the different treatments. Testing of volatile blends, prepared to the proportion released showed that the blend from simulated HvAV-3h-infected S. litura larvae-damaged plants was the most attractive to S. litura larvae. Further, we also found that some of the compounds significantly attracted S. litura larvae at specific concentrations.

CONCLUSION

HvAV-3h-infected S. litura can alter the release of HIPVs in pepper plants and thus become more attractive to S. litura larvae. We speculate that this may be due to alterations in the concentration of some compounds (such as geranylacetone and prohydrojasmon) affecting the behavior of S. litura larvae. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Capsicum annuum L. and its bioactive constituents: A critical review of a traditional culinary spice in terms of its modern pharmacological potentials with toxicological issues

Capsicum annuum L., commonly known as chili pepper, is used as an important spice globally and as a crude drug in many traditional medicine systems. The fruits of C. annuum have been used as a tonic, antiseptic, and stimulating agent, to treat dyspepsia, appetites, and flatulence, and to improve digestion and circulation. The article aims to critically review the phytochemical and pharmacological properties of C. annuum and its major compounds. Capsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin, and some carotenoids are reported as the major active compounds with several pharmacological potentials especially as anticancer and cardioprotectant. The anticancer effect of capsaicinoids is mainly mediated through mechanisms involving the interaction of Ca²⁺ -dependent activation of the MAPK pathway, suppression of NOX-dependent reactive oxygen species generation, and p53-mediated activation of mitochondrial apoptosis in cancer cells. Similarly, the cardioprotective effects of capsaicinoids are mediated through their interaction with cellular transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 channel, and restoration of calcitonin gene-related peptide via Ca²⁺ -dependent release of neuropeptides and suppression of bradykinin. In conclusion, this comprehensive review presents detailed information about the traditional uses, phytochemistry, and pharmacology of major bioactive principles of C. annuum with special emphasis on anticancer, cardioprotective effects, and plausible toxic adversities along with food safety.

The Vacuum and Light-Avoided Packaging Ameliorate the Decline in Quality of Whole Chili during Storage

Vacuum packaging is a superior procedure that could maintain the quality of dried red peppers for a relatively longer period, while the effect of light avoidance was inconsistent. Therefore, this study was to evaluate the effect of vacuum in combination with light avoidance on the storage quality of peppers and to investigate vacuum packaging and vacuum and light-avoided packaging influence the quality characteristics of dried chili peppers during storage. The results indicated that the quality characteristics of peppers gradually deteriorated: redness, extractable color, capsanthin, capsaicinoids, pungency, total phenolic content, and antioxidant capacity decreased, whereas moisture, water activity, and browning index increased as storage progressed. Vacuum packaging inhibited these changes compared with the control. Vacuum and light-avoided packaging further decelerated the quality loss of dried peppers, with the minimum changes in color, pungency, and antioxidant capacity of dried peppers during storage, and these could be due to lower water activity by light avoidance. Therefore, light avoidance may be necessary to further delay the deterioration of dried peppers under vacuum, and vacuum and light-avoided packaging could better retain the quality of dried chili peppers.

Post-Harvest LED Light Irradiation Affects Firmness, Bioactive Substances, and Amino Acid Compositions in Chili Pepper (Capsicum annum L.)

Chili pepper is an important vegetable and spice crop with high post-harvest deteriorations in terms of commercial and nutritional quality. Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are eco-friendly light sources with various light spectra that have been demonstrated to improve the shelf-life of various vegetables by manipulating light quality; however, little is known about their effects on the post-harvest nutritional quality of chili peppers. This study investigated the effects of different LED lightings on the post-harvest firmness and nutritional quality of chili peppers. We found that red and blue light could increase the content of capsaicinoids, whereas white and red light could increase the essential and aromatic amino acid (AA) content in pepper. Nonetheless, the influence of light treatments on AA contents and compositions depends strongly on the pepper genotype, which was reflected by total AA content, single AA content, essential AA ratio, delicious AA ratio, etc., that change under different light treatments. Additionally, light affected fruit firmness and the content of nutrients such as chlorophyll, vitamin C, and total carotenoids, to varying degrees, depending on pepper genotypes. Thus, our findings indicate that LED-light irradiation is an efficient and promising strategy for preserving or improving the post-harvest commercial and nutritional quality of pepper fruit.

C apsicum fruits as functional ingredients with antimicrobial activity: an emphasis on mechanisms of action

Capsicum spp. fruits (CFs) are a basic ingredient in the diet and have been used as active ingredients in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and food products, due to their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, and antimicrobial properties. The antimicrobial activity is the most studied property due to its effectiveness against pathogenic species, however, few studies have focused on the mechanisms of action involved. Therefore, this review discusses the effects generated by the CFs compounds on the viability and metabolism of microorganisms, highlighting the mechanisms by which these compounds exert their antimicrobial effects. The information provided shows that CFs are mainly source of capsaicinoids and phenolic compounds responsible for the inhibition of bacteria, yeasts, and fungi, through an increase in the permeabilization of the membrane and cell wall. Also, these compounds show an antiviral effect associated with the inactivation of virus binding proteins, preventing their replication and infection. Despite this, there is still a lack of information about the mechanisms that regulate the interactions between CFs compounds and food-important-microorganisms. Therefore, future research should focus on new antimicrobial compounds from CFs for their subsequent use against novel infectious agents, mainly virus of importance in health such as SARS-CoV-2.

Peppers in Diet: Genome-Wide Transcriptome and Metabolome Changes in Drosophila melanogaster

The habanero pepper (Capsicum chinense) is an increasingly important spice and vegetable crop worldwide because of its high capsaicin content and pungent flavor. Diets supplemented with the phytochemicals found in habanero peppers might cause shifts in an organism’s metabolism and gene expression. Thus, understanding how these interactions occur can reveal the potential health effects associated with such changes. We performed transcriptomic and metabolomic analyses of Drosophila melanogaster adult flies reared on a habanero pepper diet. We found 539 genes/59 metabolites that were differentially expressed/accumulated in flies fed a pepper versus control diet. Transcriptome results indicated that olfactory sensitivity and behavioral responses to the pepper diet were mediated by olfactory and nutrient-related genes including gustatory receptors (Gr63a, Gr66a, and Gr89a), odorant receptors (Or23a, Or59a, Or82a, and Orco), and odorant-binding proteins (Obp28a, Obp83a, Obp83b, Obp93a, and Obp99a). Metabolome analysis revealed that campesterol, sitosterol, and sucrose were highly upregulated and azelaic acid, ethyl phosphoric acid, and citric acid were the major metabolites downregulated in response to the habanero pepper diet. Further investigation by integration analysis between transcriptome and metabolome data at gene pathway levels revealed six unique enriched pathways, including phenylalanine metabolism; insect hormone biosynthesis; pyrimidine metabolism; glyoxylate, and dicarboxylate metabolism; glycine, serine, threonine metabolism; and glycerolipid metabolism. In view of the transcriptome and metabolome findings, our comprehensive analysis of the response to a pepper diet in Drosophila have implications for exploring the molecular mechanism of pepper consumption.

Detection and Quantitation of Adulterated Paprika Samples Using Second-Order HPLC-FLD Fingerprints and Chemometrics

Paprika is a widely consumed spice in the world and its authentication has gained interest considering the increase in adulteration cases in recent years. In this study, second-order fingerprints acquired by liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection (HPLC-FLD) were first used to detect and quantify adulteration levels of Chinese paprika samples. Six different adulteration cases, involving paprika production region, cultivar, or both, were investigated by pairs. Two strategies were employed to reduce the data matrices: (1) chromatographic fingerprints collected at specific wavelengths and (2) fusion of the mean data profiles in both spectral and time dimensions. Afterward, the fingerprint data with different data orders were analyzed using partial least squares (PLS) and n-way partial least squares (N-PLS) regression models, respectively. For most adulteration cases, N-PLS based on second-order fingerprints provided the overall best quantitation results with cross-validation and prediction errors lower than 2.27% and 20.28%, respectively, for external validation sets with 15-85% adulteration levels. To conclude, second-order HPLC-FLD fingerprints coupled with chemometrics can be a promising screening technique to assess paprika quality and authenticity in the control and prevention of food frauds.

Convection Drying Influence on Thermo-Physical Properties, Bioactive Substances, Color and Texture Profile of Red Pepper (Capsicum Spp)

This work aimed to study the effect of convection drying on bioactive substances and on the texture profile of red pepper. Four mathematical models were used to model the drying kinetics, as a function of the temperature and the thickness of slices. These models are largely in agreement with experimental data. Effective diffusivity, Arrhenius constant, activation energy and thermal properties changed with temperature of dry process. The two varieties of pepper used in this work demonstrated a very high degree of spiciness (144799.37-160899.37 SU). This property is related to the high contents of capsaicin (39.60-44.01 mg/g) and dihydrocapsaicin (32.33-35.95 mg/g). Our results revealed that brittleness, hardness 1 and 2, firmness, chewiness, gumminess appearance and Young’s modulus are very important attributes in determining the textural profile of dried red pepper. Also, drying causes a strong degradation of natural pigments of red pepper and consequently decreases attractiveness of the texture profile. To avoid that, red pepper should be pretreated before the application of hot air drying.

Dynamics of Bioactive Compounds during Spontaneous Fermentation of Paste Obtained from Capsicum ssp.-Stage towards a Product with Technological Application

Six cultivars of chili (Cherry, Bulgarian Chilli, Cayenne, Fatalii, Habanero, and Carolina Reaper) from two species (Capsicum annuum and Capsicum chinense) have been studied. Anaerobic, spontaneous fermentation of pure chili paste was conducted for 21 days at 20 °C. The unfermented (UCP) and fermented chili pastes (FCP) were both subjected to physicochemical and microbiological characterization consisting of capsaicinoid, ascorbic acid, short-chain organic acids, phenolic compounds, and simple sugars analysis. Cell viability for Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) and Leuconostoc was determined before and after fermentation. Results indicate that capsaicinoids are very stable compounds, as notable differences between unfermented and fermented samples could not be seen. Carolina Reaper and Fatalii cultivars were amongst the most pungent, whereas Cherry, Cayenne, and Bulgarian types were low to moderate in pungency. Average loss of total ascorbic acid was 19.01%. Total phenolic compounds ranged between 36.89−195.43 mg/100 g for the fresh fruits and 35.60−180.40 mg/100 g for the fermented product. Losses through fermentation were not significant (p < 0.05). Plate counts indicated low initial numbers for LAB in the fresh samples, values ranging between 50−3700 CFU/g (colony-forming units). After fermentation, day 21, concentration of LAB (3.8 × 106−6.2 × 108 CFU/g) was high in all samples. Fermented chilies paste with enhanced biochemical and bacterial properties might further be used in the technology of vegetable (brining) or meat (curing) products, processes that generally involve the fermenting activity of different microorganisms, especially (LAB). Thus, the purpose of this research was the investigation of biochemical and microbial transformations that naturally occur in fermented chilies with a future perspective towards technological applications in cured meat products.

Supercritical fluids and fluid mixtures to obtain high-value compounds from Capsicum peppers

Peppers of the Capsicum genus have a rich nutritional composition and are widely consumed worldwide. Thus, they find numerous applications in the food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. One commercial application is oleoresin production, a nonpolar fraction rich in bioactive compounds, including capsaicinoids and carotenoids. Among the technologies for pepper processing, special attention is given to supercritical fluid technologies, such as supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) with pure solvents and CO2 plus modifiers, and SFE assisted by ultrasound. Supercritical fluid-based processes present advantages over the classical extraction techniques like using less solvents, short extraction times, specificity and scalability. In this review, we present a brief overview of the nutritional aspects of peppers, followed by studies that apply supercritical fluid technologies to produce extracts and concentrate bioactives, besides oleoresin encapsulation. Furthermore, we present related phase equilibrium, cost estimation, and the gaps and needs for the full use of peppers from a sustainable perspective.

Determination of Peak Purity in HPLC by Coupling Coulometric Array Detection and Two-Dimensional Correlation Analysis

This work aims to evaluate the purity of chromatographic peaks by a two-dimensional correlation (2D-corr) analysis. Such an analysis leads to two contour plots: synchronous and asynchronous. The synchronous contour plot provides information on the number of peaks present in the chromatogram. The asynchronous contour plot reveals the presence of overlapping species on each peak. The utility of 2D-corr analysis was demonstrated by the chromatographic analysis of Capsicum chili extracts obtained by HPLC coupled with a coulometric array of sixteen detectors. Thanks to 16 electrochemical sensors, each poised at increasing potentials, the resulting 2D-corr analysis revealed the presence of at least three species on the peak located at a retention time of 0.93 min. Mass spectrometry (MS) analysis was used to analyze the coeluting species, which were identified as: quinic acid (3.593 min), ascorbic acid (3.943 min), and phenylalanine (4.229 min). Overall, this work supports the use of 2D-corr analysis to reveal the presence of overlapping compounds and, thus, verify the signal purity of chromatographic peaks.

Transcriptional Regulation of Ripening in Chili Pepper Fruits (Capsicum spp.)

Chili peppers represent a very important horticultural crop that is cultivated and commercialized worldwide. The ripening process makes the fruit palatable, desirable, and attractive, thus increasing its quality and nutritional value. This process includes visual changes, such as fruit coloration, flavor, aroma, and texture. Fruit ripening involves a sequence of physiological, biochemical, and molecular changes that must be finely regulated at the transcriptional level. In this review, we integrate current knowledge about the transcription factors involved in the regulation of different stages of the chili pepper ripening process.

Effect of the Soil and Ripening Stage in Capsicum chinense var. Jaguar on the Content of Carotenoids and Vitamins

The purpose of this work was to investigate the effect of the ripening stage and type of soil on the concentration of carotenoids and vitamins in Habanero pepper (Capsicum chinense Jacq.). Pepper plants were grown in two soils named according to the Mayan classification as: K’ankab lu’um (red soil) and Box lu’um (black soil). The results of two harvests at 320 and 334 PTD (post-transplant day) showed that the ripening stage exhibited a significant effect (p < 0.05) on the concentration of carotenoids and vitamins, while the effect of the soil type was negligible. The concentration of carotenoids decreases as the ripening process of the fruit takes place, with the highest concentration of lutein (49.47 ± 0.34 mg/100 g of dry mass), β-carotene (99.92 ± 0.69 mg/100 g of dry mass) and β-cryptoxanthin (20.93 ± 0.04 mg/100 g of dry mass) in the unripe peppers. The concentration of vitamins increases as the ripening process develops, with the highest concentration of Vitamin E (9.69 ± 0.02 mg/100 g of dry mass) and Vitamin C (119.44 ± 4.72 mg/100 g of dry mass) in the ripe peppers. This knowledge could be used to select the best ripening stage to harvest Habanero peppers according to the use of the pepper and to the needs of producers/company.

Chile (Capsicum spp.) as Food-Medicine Continuum in Multiethnic Mexico

Mexico is the center of origin and diversification of domesticated chile (Capsicum annuum L.). Chile is conceived and employed as both food and medicine in Mexico. In this context, the objective of this paper is to describe and analyze the cultural role of chile as food and as medicine for the body and soul in different cultures of Mexico. To write it, we relied on our own fieldwork and literature review. Our findings include a) the first matrix of uses of chile across 67 indigenous and Afrodescendants cultures within Mexican territory and b) the proposal of a new model of diversified uses of chile. Traditional knowledge, uses and management of chile as food and medicine form a continuum (i.e., are not separated into distinct categories). The intermingled uses of Capsicum are diversified, deeply rooted and far-reaching into the past. Most of the knowledge, uses and practices are shared throughout Mexico. On the other hand, there is knowledge and practices that only occur in local or regional cultural contexts. In order to fulfill food, medicinal or spiritual functions, native communities use wild/cultivated chile.

Geographical Discrimination of Bell Pepper (Capsicum annuum) Spices by (HS)-SPME/GC-MS Aroma Profiling and Chemometrics

Dried and ground red pepper is a spice used as seasoning in various traditional dishes all over the world; nevertheless, the pedoclimatic conditions of the diverse cultivation areas provide different chemical characteristics, and, consequently, diverse organoleptic properties to this product. In the present study, the volatile profiles of 96 samples of two different ground bell peppers harvested in diverse Italian geographical areas, Altino (Abruzzo) and Senise (Lucania), and a commercial sweet paprika, have been studied by means of headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) coupled with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The investigation of their volatile profile has led to the identification of 59 analytes. Eventually, a discriminant classifier, Partial Least Squares Discriminant Analysis (PLS-DA), was exploited to discriminate samples according to their geographical origin. The model provided very accurate results in external validation; in fact, it correctly classified all the 30 test samples, achieving 100% correct classification (on the validation set). Furthermore, in order to understand which volatiles contribute the most at differentiating the bell peppers from the different origins, a variable selection approach, Variable Importance in Projection (VIP), was used. This strategy led to the selection of sixteen diverse compounds which characterize the different bell pepper spices.

Agronomic Performance, Capsaicinoids, Polyphenols and Antioxidant Capacity in Genotypes of Habanero Pepper Grown in the Southeast of Coahuila, Mexico

The genetic improvement program of the Seed Technology Training and Development Center works on the agronomic characterization and the content of bioactive compounds in eight genotypes of habanero pepper. The objective is to select genotypes with good agronomic performance that allow the generation of inbred lines to obtain hybrids. In this study, the agronomic performance and the content of bioactive compounds (capsaicinoids, polyphenols, and antioxidant capacity) were evaluated in eight genotypes of habanero pepper grown in the southeast of Coahuila, Mexico, identified as HNC-1, HNC-2, HNC-3, HNC-4, HNC-5, HNC-6, HNC-7, and HCC-8. The plants were grown in a greenhouse for 127 days, under a completely randomized design with four replications each. The results revealed that the yield (g·plant−1) and number of fruits per plant did not show significant differences between genotypes. However, for the fruit length, the genotypes HCC-8, HNC-7, HNC-6, and HNC-5 stood out with over 40 mm, while in equatorial diameter of the fruit, HCC-8, HNC-4, and HNC-2 stood out with 26.45, 26.46, and 25.12 mm, respectively. The results of the chemical analyses allowed us to identify that HNC-5 and HNC-6 had the highest capsaicin concentration (931.38 and 959.77 mg·kg−1), dihydrocapsaicin (434.95 and 445.89 mg·kg−1), Scoville Heat Units greater than 210,000, total phenols (67.54 and 71.15 mg/100 g) and total flavonoids (34.21 and 38.29 mg/100 g), respectively. The HNC-1 and HNC-6 genotypes had the highest carotenoids concentration with 103.96 and 105.07 mg/100 g, and HCC-8 registered the highest anthocyanin content with 22.08 mg C3GE/100 g. The antioxidant capacities showed significant differences (p ≤ 0.05) between genotypes, with a range of 43.22 to 110.39 µmol TE/100 g, 72.37 to 186.56 µmol TE/100 g, and 191.41 to 244.98 µmol TE/100 g for the tests of DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl), ABTS (2,2′azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)), and FRAP (ferric reducing antioxidant power). The results of this research will be used to select habanero pepper genotypes that can be used in genetic improvement programs to increase the productive potential and the content of bioactive compounds in the fruits to expand their applications in the food industry.

Identification of α-Glucosidase Inhibitors from Leaf Extract of Pepper (Capsicum spp.) through Metabolomic Analysis

Metabolomics and in vitro α-glucosidase inhibitory (AGI) activities of pepper leaves were used to identify bioactive compounds and select genotypes for the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Targeted metabolite analysis using UPLC-DAD-QToF-MS was employed and identified compounds that belong to flavone and hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives from extracts of pepper leaves. A total of 21 metabolites were detected from 155 samples and identified based on MS fragmentations, retention time, UV absorbance, and previous reports. Apigenin-O-(malonyl) hexoside, luteolin-O-(malonyl) hexoside, and chrysoeriol-O-(malonyl) hexoside were identified for the first time from pepper leaves. Pepper genotypes showed a huge variation in their inhibitory activity against α-glucosidase enzyme(AGE) ranging from 17% to 79%. Genotype GP38 with inhibitory activity of 79% was found to be more potent than the positive control acarbose (70.8%.). Orthogonal partial least square (OPLS) analyses were conducted for the prediction of the AGI activities of pepper leaves based on their metabolite composition. Compounds that contributed the most to the bioactivity prediction model (VIP >1.5), showed a strong inhibitory potency. Caffeoyl-putrescine was found to show a stronger inhibitory potency (IC₅₀ = 145 µM) compared to acarbose (IC₅₀ = 197 µM). The chemometric procedure combined with high-throughput AGI screening was effective in selecting polyphenols of pepper leaf for T2DM management.

Vegetable Soups and Creams: Raw Materials, Processing, Health Benefits, and Innovation Trends

Vegetable soups and creams have gained popularity among consumers worldwide due to the wide variety of raw materials (vegetable fruits, tubers, bulbs, leafy vegetables, and legumes) that can be used in their formulation which has been recognized as a healthy source of nutrients (mainly proteins, dietary fiber, other carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals) and bioactive compounds that could help maintain the body’s health and wellbeing. In addition, they are cheap and easy to preserve and prepare at home, ready to eat, so in consequence they are very useful in the modern life rhythms that modify the habits of current consumption and that reclaim foods elaborated with natural ingredients, ecologic, vegans, less invasive production processes, agroindustry coproducts valorization, and exploring new flavors and textures. This review focuses on the nutritional and healthy properties of vegetable soups and creams (depending on the raw materials used in their production) highlighting their content in bioactive compounds and their antioxidant properties. Apart from the effect that some processing steps could have on these compounds, innovation trends for the development of healthier soups and creams adapted to specific consumer requirements have also been explored.

Phytochemical Assessment of Native Ecuadorian Peppers (Capsicum spp.) and Correlation Analysis to Fruit Phenomics

In this work, the impact of pepper (Capsicum spp.) fruits morphology on their composition for health-promoting compounds was investigated. For that purpose, pepper accessions from Ecuador, one of the hotspots in Capsicum's origin, were analyzed for ascorbic acid, polyphenols, capsaicinoids, and prevention of cholesterol oxidation. Plant and fruit phenomics were assessed with conventional descriptors and Tomato Analyzer digital traits. Significant differences among accessions and species revealed a large diversity within the collection. The Capsicum frutescens group displayed the highest levels of capsaicinoids, whereas the polyphenols shortly varied among the five domesticated species. Capsicum pubescens exhibited the lowest content of ascorbic acid. The conventional descriptors describing the magnitude of plants and fruits, as well as digital attributes under the categories of size, shape index, and latitudinal section, mostly explained the variance among Capsicum groups. Correlation test revealed that phytochemical components were negatively correlated with the morphometric fruit attributes, suggesting that huge fruits contained lower amounts of nutraceutical compounds. Multivariate analysis showed that parameters related to fruit size, shape, and nutraceutical composition primarily contribute to the arrangement of pepper accessions. Such results suggested that those traits have been subjected to higher selection pressures imposed by humans.

Open-tubular capillary electrochromatographic application of a sol-gel matrix with chilli peppers, garlic, or synthetic additives

This article describes a possible combination of two promising fields of analytical chemistry-the preparation of sol-gel matrices with varying additives and their application in capillary electrochromatography. The inner surfaces of capillaries were coated with the sol-gel solution containing either pure synthetic chemical additive-alliin or capsaicin-or an extract of their natural sources-garlic and chilli pepper, respectively. The modified capillaries were tested for interaction with two neurotransmitters, oligopeptides and nucleotides under conditions of open-tubular capillary electrochromatography. Because both of the natural extracts also contain vitamin C and saccharose, the capillaries with sol-gel modifiers containing each of these substances were also tested. The obtained results from the perspective of changes in the electrochromatograms and the effective mobilities of analytes are discussed with respect to mild conditions both in the preparation process of the sol-gel matrix and during the separations.