Finding flexitarians: Current studies on meat eaters and meat reducers

Transforming plant proteins into plant-based meat alternatives: challenges and future scope

The global transition towards sustainable living has led to a growing demand for innovative food products that enhance environmental sustainability. Traditional meat production is known for its high energy consumption and significant carbon emissions, necessitating alternative approaches. Plant-based meat (PBM) offers a promising solution to reduce the ecological footprint of animal agriculture. This paper examines various challenges in PBM development, including nutritional equivalence, industrial scalability, organoleptic properties, and digestibility. Addressing these challenges requires interdisciplinary collaboration to ensure consumer acceptance, regulatory compliance, and environmental stewardship. Advanced technologies like nanotechnology, fermentation, and enzymatic hydrolysis, along with automation and repurposing cattle farms, offer solutions to enhance PBM's quality and production efficiency. By integrating these innovations, PBM has the potential to revolutionize the food industry, offering sustainable and nutritious alternatives that meet global dietary needs while significantly reducing environmental impact.

Graphical abstract

Gradual behaviour change towards meat reduction revisited: Applying the decisional balance scale in a Dutch study

Meat moderation is needed to mitigate climate change and to address issues related to animal welfare and public health. Yet little is known on the process that consumers go through towards meat-reduced diets. Strässner and Hartmann (2023) recently developed the decisional balance scale (DB scale) for meat reduction, in order to get a better understanding of the trade-offs that consumers encounter in this dietary shift. The current study sets out to replicate their German study in the Dutch context. A survey has been conducted among a representative sample of Dutch adults (N = 1982). Overall, the present study corroborated Strässner and Hartmann's findings. Similar to the German situation, Legitimation is the most important barrier, and the Downsides of factory farming is the most important motivator for meat reduction in the Netherlands. The present study extends the German study by comparing the DB scale with other established scales in research on meat reduction. Although several motivational elements related to the legitimacy of eating meat, health impact and production of meat appear in different instruments, the DB scale sets itself apart in adding practical elements (feasibility). Finally, the insights in the decision balance of population subgroups at different stages of behaviour change (no intention, intention, performing) showed that the further in the meat reduction process, the more the pros outweigh the cons. With this, the current study provides valuable insights in bolstering consumers in meat moderation. Our findings support the idea of a gradual shift and reveal that there is potential for acceleration in behaviour change towards meat reduction to be found in adjusting the self-evidence of high-intensity livestock farming systems and the meat-centric food consumption culture.

Introducing menus of three weekly insect- or plant-based dinner meals slightly reduced meat consumption in Danish families: Results of a randomized intervention study

The environmental concerns associated with excess meat consumption have emphasized the need for sustainable alternatives. Edible insects offer a promising alternative due to their environmental efficiency and nutritious profile, but their widespread adoption in Western diets remains a challenge. The objective of the study was to investigate the impact of exposing families (parents and children) to insect-based or plant-based dinner menus on dietary pattern, meat intake, and protein intake over a six-week intervention period. The study was a two-arm randomized equivalence trial comparing an insect-based menu to a plant-based control. Families received either an insect or plant-based menu to replace meat in dinner meals three times a week for six weeks, aiming to replace 20% of their meat protein intake. Dietary changes were assessed through dietary registrations and daily questionnaires. Both adults and children maintained their estimated daily total protein intake, while reducing daily meat protein intake. Neither group met the 20% weekly meat replacement goal. In the insect-based menu group, adults and children reached an average 5.5% and 2.3% weekly meat replacement, respectively. In the plant-based menu group, adults and children replaced 9.0% and 4.3%, respectively. Meat attachment had an effect on meat protein intake. The menus slightly reduced meat protein intake. The weekly frequency of meat meals slightly declined, but portions remained the same. By enhancing insect and plant-based food quality and understanding consumer behavior, insect- and plant-based products have the potential to be a complementary alternative in a sustainable dietary transition without sacrificing nutrition. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRY: ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT05156853; clinicaltrials. gov/study/NCT05156853.

Changing Our Food Habits One Bite at a Time: Exploring Young Flexitarians in a Country with a High Meat Intake

Flexitarian diets have gained attention for their potential positive impact on human health and greenhouse gas emissions reduction. However, a critical question remains: Can the segment of flexitarians significantly contribute to necessary changes in our current unsustainable food systems? Our study addresses this gap by examining meat consumption habits among young adults (n = 1023) in a country with traditionally high meat intake. Furthermore, we focus on a subset of flexitarians (n = 286). Our findings reveal two distinct groups of flexitarians: ethical (n1 = 140) and utilitarian (n2 = 148). Utilitarian flexitarians exhibit a stronger preference for meat (t(284)= -15.180, p < 0.001), greater food neophobia (t(284) = -4.785, p < 0.001), and lower environmental awareness (t(284) = 7.486, p < 0.001) compared to Ethical flexitarians. The Ethical group, predominantly female (χ2(1) = 13.366, p < 0.001), demonstrates higher life satisfaction (t(284) = 5.485, p < 0.001), better health perceptions (t(284) = 5.127, p < 0.001), and stronger beliefs in reducing meat consumption (t(284) = -8.968, p < 0.001). Additionally, Ethical flexitarians hold more positive views on plant-based meat, perceiving it as healthier (t(284) = 4.326, p < 0.001) and more ethical (t(284) = 4.942, p < 0.001), and show a greater willingness to adopt it (t(284) = 7.623, p < 0.001). While both groups possess similar knowledge and willingness regarding cultured meat and insects, Ethical flexitarians view cultured meat more favourably (t(250.976) = 2.964, p = 0.003). Our study provides insights into the evolving trends of flexitarianism within Central and Eastern European countries, where research on meat consumption and flexitarianism is scarce. These insights hold value for promoting behaviour change toward reduced meat consumption for both health and environmental reasons. Additionally, they offer guidance to the food industry, including producers, sellers, and providers of meals in educational and employment facilities.

Beyond gender: Exploring sexual orientation, race and motivations among Brazilian flexitarians

In this study, we analyzed 989 Brazilian individuals identified as flexitarians to explore the relationship between gender, sexual orientation, and meat consumption reduction behavior, while evaluating the impact of motivations driving individuals towards this dietary model. To achieve this goal, we tested the following hypotheses: women consume less meat than men; LGBT women consume less meat than heterosexual women; LGBT men consume less meat than heterosexual men; and women are more motivated by the environmental impact of meat. Our findings revealed that although gender significantly influences motivations, with women showing a greater influence from animal ethics, flexitarians of both genders exhibit similar meat consumption patterns. Neither sexual orientation nor gender influence meat reduction patterns among flexitarians. However, the race/ethnicity of white individuals is a predominant factor among those who reduce meat consumption the most. Consequently, we conclude that (i) the social theories applied to explain gender differences in meat exclusion behavior may not be the most suitable for explaining meat reduction behavior, and (ii) intersectional approaches are needed to investigate flexitarianism.

Modeling the Impact of Substituting Meat and Dairy Products with Plant-Based Alternatives on Nutrient Adequacy and Diet Quality

BACKGROUND

Novel plant-based meat and dairy alternatives are designed to mimic and replace animal-sourced products, yet their nutritional composition differs from traditional alternatives such as legumes and beans. The nutritional impacts of switching from animal-sourced to traditional or novel plant-based alternatives remains unclear.

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to model the impact of partial and complete substitution of animal-sourced meat and dairy products with traditional or novel plant-based alternatives on diet quality and nutrient adequacy in a nationally representative sample of Australian adults.

METHODS

Dietary data (1 24-h recall) from the Australian Health Survey 2011-2013 (n = 9115; ≥19 y) were analyzed. Four models simulated partial or complete substitution of animal-sourced meat and dairy with traditional or novel plant-based alternatives. Diet quality was assessed using the Dietary Guideline Index (DGI), and nutrient adequacy was determined using age- and sex-specific nutrient reference values. Modeled diets were compared to a baseline diet using survey-weighted paired t tests.

RESULTS

DGI scores improved by 0.3% to 6.0% for all models across all sex and age groups compared to baseline. Improvements in diet quality were greatest for the complete substitution to traditional alternatives (5.1% average increase in DGI). Overall, inclusion of plant-based alternatives (complete or partial) decreased saturated fat and increased dietary fiber. Long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids decreased to below adequate intakes for all complete substitution models. Substitution with traditional alternatives decreased sodium and increased calcium, whereas substitution with novel alternatives increased sodium and decreased calcium.

CONCLUSIONS

All models using traditional alternatives, and the partial substitution using novel alternatives, showed small but statistically significant improvements in diet quality. Nutrient adequacy varied between models, with nutrients including saturated fat, sodium, calcium, and long-chain fatty acids implicated. Findings highlight the importance of informed choices when switching to traditional or novel plant-based alternatives to prevent suboptimal dietary intake.

In Healthy Pathways of Dietary Changes, a Very Rapid Reduction of Red Meat Is Possible, but Specific Diet Changes Are Required for Full Reduction-A Graph-Based Analysis

BACKGROUND

Although reducing meat consumption is becoming increasingly popular in Western countries, such a transition to a sustainable diet may pose some nutritional risks.

OBJECTIVES

We aim to analyze the pathways for reaching a low-meat healthy diet and the changes in other food categories needed to rapidly decrease total red meat consumption.

METHODS

We used a recently developed method based on graph theory to represent all possible pathways of stepwise changes that avoid nutritional deficiencies toward a target healthy diet. Initial and target diets were defined as the daily consumption of 33 food groups. For each sex, 3 initial diets were taken from the French representative survey third individual and national study on food consumption survey as the mean observed diet and low (first quintile) and high (fifth quintile) meat consumption. Target diets were identified using multicriteria optimization to minimize the long-term health risk (HR) of chronic diseases while ensuring nutritional adequacy. The Dijkstra algorithm was used to identify the optimal pathways between the initial and target diets, with the aim of reducing meat consumption as quickly as possible and thus minimizing long-term HRs.

RESULTS

Unprocessed red meat was easily minimized in the first steps of the pathways regardless of sex and initial level of meat consumption. However, processed meat could only be decreased later and required prior changes such as increases in fruit, vegetables, and oily fish. During total red meat minimization in females, securing adequate intakes of bioavailable iron had the most substantial impact on the other dietary changes needed.

CONCLUSIONS

Immediate reduction of red meat consumption is possible on the pathway to a healthy diet that avoids any nutrient deficiency. However, early increases in fruit, vegetables, and fish are required before minimizing total red meat early in the diet.

Predictors of Meat Reduction: The Case of Slovenia

Health, environmental, and animal advocacy organisations emphasise reducing or eliminating high meat consumption due to its adverse effects on health, sustainability, climate change, and animal welfare. Increasingly, people are deciding to reduce their meat consumption frequency. Our study aimed to examine predictors of meat reduction among Slovenian consumers, focusing on gender, age, partner and children status, size of residential settlement, socioeconomic status, and political orientation. We conducted a survey using non-probability sampling. We examined demographic, socioeconomic, and political predictors of individuals' self-assessed intent to reduce meat consumption in the month following the survey. Additionally, we analysed respondents' meat reduction during the three years prior. A correlation analysis revealed that higher age and education levels were significantly positively correlated with meat reduction patterns. An ordinal logistic regression analysis indicated that age was the only significant predictor of meat reduction intentions and past behaviour. Our findings suggest that middle-aged and elderly individuals are more likely than younger adults to report meat reduction behaviours. Future public health interventions should tailor approaches to different age groups, and, in particular, target younger individuals. Educational campaigns should highlight the health and environmental benefits of reducing meat and animal product consumption, particularly in primary and secondary schools.

Vegetarian, vegan, or plant-based? Comparing how different labels influence consumer evaluations of plant-based foods

Market actors have a role to play in enabling sustainable food transitions. One challenge for these actors is how to promote plant-based foods in ways that appeal to a growing number of consumers. Here we test how different plant-based related labels affect consumer appraisals of a range of foods (cookies, sausages, cheese, chocolate, pasta). In two studies (pre-registered; NUSA = 1148, NGermany = 491), we examined the effects of a 'vegetarian', 'vegan', or 'plant-based' label (compared to no label) on five attributes (healthy, tasty, ethical, pure, environmentally friendly) related to the products. We also measured self-reported likelihood to purchase the products. Overall, the results indicated that the 'plant-based' label was slightly more appealing to participants than the 'vegetarian' and 'vegan' labels. However, contrary to our expectations, neither consumers' information-seeking tendencies nor their pre-existing attitudes toward plant-based foods influenced (i.e., moderated) the effects of the labels. Anticipated taste was a strong and consistent predictor of purchase likelihood for all labeled products, but the ethical and pure attributes also accounted for unique variance in this outcome variable. Taken together, our findings and discussion provide insights into the role of labels and label terminology on consumer appraisals of plant-based foods.

Shades and shifts in flexitarian and meat-oriented consumer profiles in a German panel study

Consumers' growing awareness of the adverse effects of high meat consumption has led to increased attention to flexitarian or meat-reduced diets. However, most flexitarians do not significantly reduce their meat consumption and still eat many meat-based meals. This study aims to classify the large and heterogeneous consumer group of flexitarians into different profiles based on attitudinal, normative, and control beliefs about meat reduction. Being aware that consumer profiles can change over time, this study explores the dynamics of the identified profiles using a two-wave panel survey of 430 German consumers. Latent profile analysis revealed distinct flexitarian and meat-oriented consumer profiles, including three stable profiles and one non-stable profile across both waves. The findings indicate that flexitarian and meat-oriented consumer profiles differ significantly in their belief structure about meat reduction and that consumers can switch back and forth to other profiles over time. Practitioners should be aware of changes in the belief structure of flexitarian and meat-oriented consumer profiles when developing meat reduction interventions. Further research is needed to understand the reasons behind these profile shifts.

Development and validation of Japanese version of alternative food neophobia scale (J-FNS-A): association with willingness to eat alternative protein foods

Introduction

Food neophobia (FN) is a psychological trait that inhibits one's willingness to eat unfamiliar foods. It is related to the acceptance of insect foods and cultured meat, which are major protein alternatives to conventional meat, and is an important personality trait for understanding the near-future food industry. However, the factor structure of Pliner and Hobden's FN scale (FNS) is unstable due to respondents' cultural backgrounds. Thus, we aimed to develop a Japanese version based on the alternative FNS (FNS-A), the most recent revised version, and to examine its validity.

Methods

Four online surveys (preliminary 1: n = 202; preliminary 2: n = 207; main: n = 1,079; follow-up: n = 500) were conducted on the FNS-A. For the main survey, Japanese respondents (aged 20-69 years) answered the Japanese version of the FNS-A (J-FNS-A), their willingness to eat (WTE), and their familiarity with hamburgers containing regular protein foods (ground beef, tofu) and alternative protein foods (soy meat, cultured meat, cricket powder, algae powder, and mealworm powder).

Results

Consistent with the FNS-A, confirmatory factor analysis assuming a two-dimensional structure (approach and avoidance) showed satisfactory model fit indices. The mean J-FNS-A score (Cronbach's α for 8 items = 0.83) was 4.15 [standard deviation (SD) = 0.93]. J-FNS-A scores were not associated with age and gender, whereas a greater than moderate association was found with WTE hamburgers containing alternative protein foods (rs = -0.42 to -0.33). The strength of these negative associations increased as food familiarity decreased (r = 0.94). The test-retest reliability at 1 month was also satisfactory (r = 0.79).

Discussion

The validity of the J-FNS-A was confirmed. Higher J-FNS-A scores (mean = 41.51, SD = 9.25, converted to Pliner and Hobden's FNS score) of the respondents suggest that Japanese people prefer conservative foods. This scale could predict the negative attitudes toward foods with low familiarity, such as alternative proteins. The J-FNS-A appears to be a useful psychological tool for assessing Japanese food neophobia tendencies and predicting novel food choices of Japanese individuals.

Assessing Performance of Contemporary Plant-Based Diets against the UK Dietary Guidelines: Findings from the Feeding the Future (FEED) Study

Uncertainty remains about the composition of contemporary plant-based diets and whether they provide recommended nutrient intakes. We established Feeding the Future (FEED), an up-to-date online cohort of UK adults following different plant-based diets and diets containing meat and fish. We recruited 6342 participants aged 18-99 [omnivores (1562), flexitarians (1349), pescatarians (568), vegetarians (1292), and vegans (1571)] between February 2022 and December 2023, and measured diet using a food frequency questionnaire and free text. We compared personal characteristics and dietary intakes between diet groups and assessed compliance with dietary guidelines. Most participants met UK dietary recommendations for fruit and vegetables, sodium, and protein, although protein intakes were lowest among vegetarians and vegans. Omnivores did not meet the fibre recommendation and only vegans met the saturated fat recommendation. All diet groups exceeded the free sugars recommendation. Higher proportions of vegetarians and vegans were below the estimated average requirements (EARs) for zinc, iodine, selenium, and, in vegans, vitamins A and B12, whereas calcium intakes were similar across the diet groups. People following plant-based diets showed good compliance with most dietary targets, and their risk for inadequate intakes of certain nutrients might be mitigated by improved dietary choices and/or food fortification.

How perceptions of meat consumption norms differ across contexts and meat consumer groups

Social norm perceptions are implicit standards describing what is typically done or seen as acceptable and have shown to be important both in sustaining meat consumption as well as facilitating meat reduction. Norm perceptions depend on individual differences and the contexts (e.g., supermarket, restaurant). Yet, evidence how norm perceptions differ within and across individuals is scarce. The primary aim of this study was to investigate how descriptive, injunctive, and personal norms perceptions favouring meat consumption differ across contexts and meat consumer groups. The second aim was to investigate how generic dynamic norm perceptions vary across meat consumer groups. British meat eaters (n = 1205, 25-65 years) participated in an online cross-sectional survey. Weekly meat, fish and meat substitute consumption was measured with the adapted Oxford Meat Frequency Questionnaire. All but dynamic norm perceptions were measured for the supermarket, restaurant and worksite cafeteria context. Dynamic norms were measured without a specified context. A two-step cluster analysis was conducted to identify meat consumer groups. Descriptive norm perceptions favouring meat consumption were strongest in supermarket and restaurant contexts, compared to the worksite cafeteria. Injunctive and personal norms favouring meat consumption were both perceived strongest in the supermarket, followed by the restaurant, and least in the worksite cafeteria context. Four meat consumer groups were identified and those with higher meat intake (i.e., Meat lovers and Exceeders) perceived norms favouring meat consumption stronger and norms favouring meat avoidance weaker than the groups with lower meat intake (i.e., Flexitarians and Moderates). While norm perceptions differed between meat consumer groups, the pattern of contextual differences is similar for these meat consumer groups. Our findings underscore the importance of considering contexts and meat consumer groups in efforts to reduce meat consumption.

The impact of consumers' preferences for domestic food on dietary sustainability

A sustainable dietary transition requires knowledge of the drivers and barriers of dietary choices. We investigate the role of preferences for domestic food, as well as environmental and health concerns, as drivers for the consumption of red and white meat, fish, ready-made plant-based food products and self-identification as some type of meat reducer (flexitarian, vegetarian, or vegan). A survey of 1102 consumers was conducted in Norway with questions about food attitudes, beliefs and preferences regarding health, the environment and domestic food as well as dietary habits and demographics. The results from interval and logistic regression analyses show that stronger preferences for domestic food are associated with higher consumption of red meat and a lower likelihood of eating plant-based food and identifying as a meat reducer. Health concerns are associated with higher consumption of white meat and fish, and environmental concern is associated with lower consumption of white meat and a higher likelihood of eating plant-based food. The results also confirm previous research results that disbelief regarding the negative health and environmental impacts of meat correlate with higher meat consumption and a lower likelihood of eating plant-based food. In addition, we find that people who believe that Norway is a country primarily suited for livestock production have higher consumption of meat and a lower likelihood of eating plant-based food. We conclude that to make certain consumers transition away from meat, it is important to provide domestically produced, plant-based alternatives and to implement policy measures that will generate positive storylines of improved farmer livelihoods.

Reducing the carbon footprint of diets across socio-demographic groups in Finland: a mathematical optimisation study

OBJECTIVES

To characterise nutritionally adequate, climate-friendly diets that are culturally acceptable across socio-demographic groups. To identify potential equity issues linked to more climate-friendly and nutritionally adequate dietary changes.

DESIGN

An optimisation model minimises distance from observed diets subject to nutritional, greenhouse gas emissions (GHGE) and food-habit constraints. It is calibrated to socio-demographic groups differentiated by sex, education and income levels using dietary intake data. The environmental coefficients are derived from life cycle analysis and an environmentally extended input-output model.

SETTING

Finland.

PARTICIPANTS

Adult population.

RESULTS

Across all population groups, we find large synergies between improvements in nutritional adequacy and reductions in GHGE, set at one-third or half of the current level. Those reductions result mainly from the substitution of meat with cereals, potatoes and roots and the intra-category substitution of foods, such as beef with poultry in the meat category. The simulated more climate-friendly diets are thus flexitarian. Moving towards reduced-impact diets would not create major inadequacies related to protein and fatty acid intakes, but Fe could be an issue for pre-menopausal females. The initial socio-economic gradient in the GHGE of diets is small, and the patterns of adjustments to more climate-friendly diets are similar across socio-demographic groups.

CONCLUSIONS

A one-third reduction in GHGE of diets is achievable through moderate behavioural adjustments, but achieving larger reductions may be difficult. The required changes are similar across socio-demographic groups and do not raise equity issues. A population-wide policy to promote behavioural change for diet sustainability would be appropriate.

Select dietary changes towards sustainability: Impacts on dietary profiles, environmental footprint, and cost

Healthy sustainable diets have the power to improve dietary intakes and environmental resource use. However, recommendations for improving food choices need to consider the effects of any changes across multiple dimensions of health, environmental sustainability, and dietary cost to promote long-lasting behaviour change. The aim of this study was to identify differences between original diets, and the diets that can be achieved through the implementation of select small dietary changes towards sustainability. Twelve hypothetical sustainable actions were investigated for the potential effects of these actions on dietary markers (protein, saturated fat, sugars, salt, iron, and calcium), environmental footprints (greenhouse gas emissions, freshwater withdrawals, and land use), and dietary cost. Dietary data from 1235 individuals, aged 19-94 years, participating in the UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey (2017/19) provided the original diet. Dietary changes were implemented as required by each sustainable action, and differences between the original diet and each new diet were investigated. Results revealed benefits to dietary markers and environmental characteristics from eleven sustainable actions (range: F(1,728) = 5.80, p < .001 to F(1,506) = 435.04, p < .001), but effects were stronger for some actions than for others. Greatest benefits for all three outcomes were found for actions which reduced meat consumption and/or replaced meat with pulses or eggs. The remaining sustainable actions tended to be beneficial for improving outcomes individually or to some degree. Our results demonstrate the possible impacts of a number of small sustainable dietary actions for dietary, environmental, and cost outcomes, and provide a hierarchy of actions based on benefit. Findings may facilitate dietary behaviours towards improved health, whilst also offering fruitful contributions towards environmental footprint targets in the UK.

Bodybuilders and high-level meat consumers' behavior towards rabbit, beef, chicken, turkey, and lamb meat: A comparative review

In bodybuilders' diets, protein plays a crucial role in supporting muscle growth and repairing damaged muscle tissue. These individuals meet their protein needs by combining dietary sources with supplements. Animal-based proteins are often preferred over plant-based proteins because they are believed to better support muscle protein synthesis. This review explores the meat consumption patterns of bodybuilders and high-level meat consumers, focusing on rabbit, beef, chicken, turkey, and lamb. We describe and compare the types of meat bodybuilders commonly consume and provide an overview of protein supplements, including meat-based options, plant-based alternatives, and whey-based products. Our aim is to gain insight into the dietary preferences of bodybuilders and high-level meat consumers, considering their nutritional requirements and the potential effect on the meat industry. We conducted an extensive search across various databases, including Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, and Google Scholar. We found that individual choices vary based on factors such as attitudes, trust, taste, texture, nutritional content, ethical considerations, and cultural influences. Nutritional factors, including protein content, amino acid profiles, and fat levels, significantly influence the preferences of bodybuilders and high-level meat consumers. However, it is crucial to maintain a balance by incorporating other essential nutrients such as carbohydrates, healthy fats, vitamins, and minerals to ensure a complete and balanced diet. The findings from this review can inform strategies and product development initiatives tailored to the needs of bodybuilders and discerning meat enthusiasts.

Plant-based diets and cardiovascular risk factors: a comparison of flexitarians, vegans and omnivores in a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

The growing trend towards conscious and sustainable dietary choices has led to increased adoption of flexitarian diets, characterised by plant-based eating habits with occasional consumption of meat and processed meat products. However, the cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors associated with flexitarian diets compared to both vegans and omnivores remain underexplored.

METHODS

In this cross-sectional study, 94 healthy participants aged 25-45 years, categorized into long-term flexitarians (FXs ≤ 50 g/day of meat and meat products, n = 32), vegans (Vs, no animal products, n = 33), and omnivores (OMNs ≥ 170 g/day of meat and meat products, n = 29) were included. Various CVD risk factors were measured, including fasting blood samples for metabolic biomarkers, body composition analysis via bioimpedance, blood pressure measurements, arterial stiffness evaluated through pulse wave velocity (PWV) and metabolic syndrome (MetS) severity was determined using browser-based calculations (MetS-scores). Dietary intake was assessed using a Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ), diet quality was calculated with the Healthy Eating Index-flexible (HEI-Flex), while physical activity levels were recorded using the validated Freiburger questionnaire.

RESULTS

The data showed that FXs and Vs had more beneficial levels of insulin, triglycerides, total cholesterol, and LDL cholesterol compared to OMNs. Notably, FXs revealed the most favorable MetS-score results based on both BMI and waistline, and better PWV values than Vs and OMNs. In addition, FXs and Vs reported higher intake rates of vegetables, fruit, nuts/seeds and plant-based milk alternatives.

CONCLUSION

The flexitarian diet appears to confer cardiovascular benefits. While Vs had the most favorable results overall, this study supports that reducing meat and processed meat products intake, as in flexitarianism, may contribute to CVD risk factor advantages.

Willingness for more vegetarian meals in school canteens: Associations with family characteristics and parents' food choice motives in a French community

The school meal system could contribute to the transition towards more sustainable food system by promoting plant-based meals. Knowing whether parents want more vegetarian school meals for their children is a prerequisite for a successful implementation. The present study aimed to estimate the proportion of parents who would opt for more vegetarian school meals for their children and to study associations of willingness with family characteristics and food choice motives. An online survey was sent to parents whose children are registered for school canteen in Dijon (France). We collected child-level information, data on family sociodemographic characteristics, and data on dietary habits and food choice motives of the family. We examined family characteristics associated with the willingness to increase the frequency of vegetarian school meals from one meal per week to two or daily. Generalized linear models were performed. In total, 49% of parents were willing to opt for a second weekly vegetarian meal and 26% for a daily vegetarian meal for their children (n = 1261). Parents willing to opt for more vegetarian meal were more likely to have higher education, be flexitarian or vegetarian and to currently opt for pork-free meals for their children, and their children attended the school canteen less frequently. Environmental motives were positively associated with the willing to opt for a second weekly vegetarian meal; familiarity and sensory appeal motives were negatively associated. Health and animal welfare motives were positively associated with the willing to opt for a daily vegetarian meal and sensory appeal was negatively associated. Increasing the frequency of vegetarian school meals would satisfy a demand expressed by parents but must be accompanied by interventions enhancing pleasure of eating vegetarian meals.

A systematic review of the definitions, narratives and paths forwards for a protein transition in high-income countries

The protein transition, aiming to rebalance protein intake between animal and alternative proteins, is gaining momentum in scientific and policy discussions on food system transformation. Here, using a systematic review approach, we identified 33 articles that address challenges in reducing the environmental impacts of protein production and consumption, providing healthy diets for a growing population and preventing adverse effects of industrial livestock production systems. We found unclear definitions of the protein transition, conflicting views on reduction or replacement of dietary protein and a lack of attention to systemic change by reducing protein to its macronutrient function. Three narratives were identified, namely, the consumer narrative focusing on consumption-based solutions targeting dietary changes; the techno-centred narrative developing new, more resource-efficient protein production systems; and the socio-technological narrative that intends to transition the agri-food system from an animal-dominated regime to an alternative protein regime. We conclude that solutions should consider factors such as scale, initiating actors and expected impact to support complementary protein transition approaches.

Flexitarians in Brazil: Who are they, what do they eat, and why?

In this study, we conducted the first scientific investigation focusing on Brazilian flexitarians, aiming to characterize their socio-economic and demographic profiles, motivations for adopting flexitarianism, the frequency of animal-based meat consumption, and the primary meat substitutes they consume. To accomplish this, we distributed an online questionnaire with the assistance of university students and researchers from various regions of the country. Data were collected from 1029 individuals in Brazil who self-identified as flexitarians. Our findings reveal that the flexitarian dietary model is primarily adopted by women, constituting 76% of the sample (n = 786). Their motivations include concerns about the environmental impact of meat consumption (n = 361, 35%), personal health (n = 344, 33%), and animal welfare (n = 219, 21%). Flexitarians exhibit varying consumption patterns, which can be categorized into three groups: light flexitarians (consuming meat 36 times a week), medium flexitarians (consuming meat 7 times a week), and heavy flexitarians (consuming meat 4 times a week). The flexitarian dietary pattern is characterized by reduced beef consumption (less than 2 times per week) and higher consumption of chicken (3 times per week). It is complemented by plant-based protein sources and eggs as the primary meat substitutes. The recognition of legumes as the principal meat substitutes opens avenues for an expanded discussion on sustainable food systems and alternative meat products in Brazil. This provides opportunities to enhance the availability and accessibility of these foods and to develop nutritional interventions that prioritize plant-based proteins.

Nutritional status of flexitarians compared to vegans and omnivores - a cross-sectional pilot study

BACKGROUND

In the Western world, there has been a notable rise in the popularity of plant-based, meat-reduced flexitarian diets. Nevertheless, there is insufficient data on the nutritional status of individuals following this dietary pattern. The aim of this study was to investigate the intake and endogenous status of various nutrients in a healthy German adult study population consisting of flexitarians (FXs), vegans (Vs) and omnivores (OMNs).

METHODS

In this cross-sectional study, dietary intake of 94 non-smoking adults (32 FXs, 33 Vs, 29 OMNs) between 25 and 45 years of age was assessed using 3-day dietary records. In addition, blood samples were collected to determine different endogenous nutrient status markers.

RESULTS

32%, 82% and 24% of the FXs, Vs, and OMNs respectively reported using dietary supplements. In the FXs, intake of total energy as well as macronutrients and most micronutrients were within the reference range. FXs had higher intakes of fiber, retinol-equ., ascorbic acid, folate-equ., tocopherol-equ., calcium, and magnesium compared to OMNs. However, cobalamin intake in FXs (2.12 µg/d) was below the reference (4 µg/d). Based on 4cB12, 13% of FXs showed a cobalamin undersupply [< -0.5 to -2.5] compared to 10% of OMNs, and 9% of Vs. The median 25(OH)D serum concentrations in FXs, Vs and OMNs were 46.6, 55.6, and 59.6 nmol/L. The prevalence of an insufficient/deficient vitamin-D status [< 49.9 nmol 25(OH)D/L] was highest in FXs (53%), followed by Vs (34%) and OMNs (27%). In FXs and Vs, the supplement takers had better cobalamin and vitamin-D status than non-supplement takers. Anemia and depleted iron stores were found only occasionally in all groups. In women, the prevalence of pre-latent iron deficiency and iron deficiency was highest in FXs (67%) compared to Vs (61%) and OMNs (54%).

CONCLUSION

Our findings indicated that all three diets delivered sufficient amounts of most macro- and micronutrients. However, deficiencies in cobalamin, vitamin-D, and iron status were common across all diets. Further studies are needed to investigate the nutrient supply status and health consequences of meat-reduced plant-based diets. The study was registered in the German Clinical Trial Register (number: DRKS 00019887, data: 08.01.2020).

"I guess it's quite trendy": A qualitative insight into young meat-eaters' sustainable food consumption habits and perceptions towards current and future protein alternatives

As the market for sustainable food continues to expand, there is a need to understand how consumers' consumption habits and perceptions are changing. Targeting the younger populations is of interest as they arguably will shape the future of food. Therefore, the present study aimed to provide in-depth consumer insights on a range of topics from current consumption habits (i.e., meat reduction, plant-based meat/seafood (PBM/S)), towards future protein alternatives (i.e., cell-based meat/seafood (CBM/S), precision fermented dairy (PFD)). Online focus groups were conducted in the UK with meat-eaters (n = 38) aged 18-34. Codebook thematic analysis was applied using the Framework Matrix as a tool for data analysis. Key themes were presented using the COM-B model (Capability, Opportunity, Motivation), which identified areas of behavioural change. Results found a trend towards meat reduction, partially initiated by moving away from home and limited food budgets. Overall, participants acknowledged the environmental impact of food, but a notable knowledge gap was apparent when quantifying the effect, especially for dairy and seafood. Compared to PBM, few participants had tried PBS products, partially due to lower availability and familiarity. Enablers for PBM/S included convenience, positive sensory experiences and the influence of others, whilst barriers related to negative health connotations and over-processing. For CBM/S and PFD, animal welfare, curiosity and optimised nutrition acted as enablers, whilst barriers related to wider consumer acceptance, affordability and unnaturalness. In general, participants felt changing food consumption habits can have an impact on climate change and were optimistic about novel technologies supporting future protein transitions. Increasing public understanding around the environmental impact of food, especially seafood and dairy, and prioritising the affordability of sustainable food are suggested as intervention strategies to encourage sustainable food consumption.

Polarizing Plates: Both Omnivores and Vegans Represent In-Group Foods With Eating Simulations

In two pre-registered experiments, we assessed how people cognitively represent meat and plant-based foods, to examine processes underlying dietary polarization in society. Food descriptions from U.K.-based omnivores (NExp. 1 = 109; NExp. 2 = 436) and vegans (NExp. 1 = 111; NExp. 2 = 407) were coded for features about consumption and reward (e.g., "rich," "indulgent," and "treat") or features independent of the consumption situation (e.g., "healthy," "protein," and "eco-friendly"). Participants used more consumption and reward features for diet-congruent dishes (meat dishes for omnivores and plant-based dishes for vegans) than for diet-incongruent dishes (vice versa). Omnivores focused on abstract, long-term consequences of plant-based foods, whereas vegans focused on the socio-political associations with meat foods. Consumption and reward features also positively predicted attractiveness ratings, the likelihood of ordering a dish, and eating intentions. These findings indicate the cognitive processes of polarized dietary groups that may hinder the mainstream transition to more sustainable food choices.

Feeding climate and biodiversity goals with novel plant-based meat and milk alternatives

Plant-based animal product alternatives are increasingly promoted to achieve more sustainable diets. Here, we use a global economic land use model to assess the food system-wide impacts of a global dietary shift towards these alternatives. We find a substantial reduction in the global environmental impacts by 2050 if globally 50% of the main animal products (pork, chicken, beef and milk) are substituted-net reduction of forest and natural land is almost fully halted and agriculture and land use GHG emissions decline by 31% in 2050 compared to 2020. If spared agricultural land within forest ecosystems is restored to forest, climate benefits could double, reaching 92% of the previously estimated land sector mitigation potential. Furthermore, the restored area could contribute to 13-25% of the estimated global land restoration needs under target 2 from the Kunming Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework by 2030, and future declines in ecosystem integrity by 2050 would be more than halved. The distribution of these impacts varies across regions-the main impacts on agricultural input use are in China and on environmental outcomes in Sub-Saharan Africa and South America. While beef replacement provides the largest impacts, substituting multiple products is synergistic.

Meat reduction among post-secondary students: Exploration of motives, barriers, diets and preferences for meals with partial and full meat substitution

Before developing new meat reduction interventions to support increased sustainability, it is important to understand the motives, diets and preferences of consumers who have already made efforts to reduce meat consumption. While self-declaration has been typically used to identify meat reducers, food frequency data suggests some reducers still identify as omnivores, here termed transitional meat reducers. We compared these "transitional" meat reducers to self-declared meat reducers, unrestricted omnivores and vegetarians/vegans for differences in diet, motives for reducing meat, and perceived barriers to consuming more legumes (dried beans, peas or lentils) and plant-based meat alternative products (PBMAs). We also compared their intention to choose four specific entrees where legumes or PBMAs had partially or fully replaced meat. A convenience sample of Canadian university students completed an online survey (N = 438). 34% of participants were self-declared meat reducers, 16% transitional meat reducers, 33% unrestricted omnivores and 16% vegetarians/vegans. Frequency of eating red meat differed, with self-declared meat reducers eating red meat less often than either transitional meat reducers or unrestricted omnivores. Motives for meat reduction were similar in the two reducer groups. Transitional meat reducers reported significantly more frequent consumption of other protein foods and more barriers to legumes but not PBMA, than either unrestricted omnivores or self-declared meat reducers. Lastly, intention to consume all versions of entrees was very similar in both reducer groups, but with increased preference for full vs partial substitution among self-declared reducers. Transitional meat reducers may be a distinct group for meat reduction interventions compared to omnivores or self-declared reducers.

Sustainable choices of plant-based ('super') foods: examining the consumption patterns of German consumers on avocados

This paper aims to better understand consumer awareness of the environmental impact of plant-based ('super'-) foods, using avocados as an example. Since all food production impacts the environment, both meat-based and plant-based, there is scope for more sustainable food choices. Avocados have positive health properties while being considered critically for the potential negative environmental impact of their production. This study examines the avocado consumption behaviour of German consumers and the extent to which knowledge and dietary patterns are related to this. Data from 373 respondents from Germany were collected through an online consumer survey. Bivariate comparisons for avocado consumption and logistic regression analyses were performed to explore avocado consumption behaviour. The frequency of avocado consumption among respondents was moderate, averaging once per month. Avocado consumption was related to a flexitarian diet, older age and higher income, and urban dwellers. Knowledge of the environmental impacts of avocado cultivation had no influence. Respondents' self-assessed knowledge about avocados was low. To help consumers in making conscious, sustainable choices for plant-based foods, it is necessary to provide accessible and comparable information on the environmental impact of food products. However, further life cycle assessments on avocado production are clearly needed in order to produce valid information material. A flexitarian diet with reduced consumption of animal foods is an important prerequisite for environmental sustainability. Drawing attention to environmentally friendly plant-based food choices for flexitarian consumers could further encourage them to become food innovators for a healthy planet by reducing climate impact, land use, and energy and water consumption.

Gradual behaviour change towards meat reduction: Development and validation of a novel decisional balance scale

Meat reduction is gaining attention among consumers, marketers, policymakers and scientists. Yet little is known about decision-making processes and behaviour change towards meat reduction. This paper explores the applicability of the decisional balance (DB) framework to the field of meat reduction. A novel DB scale to measure the perceived importance of beliefs about meat reduction at different stages of behaviour change was developed and validated in two studies with German meat eaters. In Study 1 (N = 309), the item inventory was tested using an exploratory factor analysis and then validated in Study 2 (N = 809). The results yielded two higher-order DB factors (pros and cons), which were subdivided into five lower-order factors (perceived benefits of a plant-based diet, downsides of factory farming, health barriers, legitimation barriers and feasibility barriers). The pros and cons were summarised in a DB index. All DB factors and the DB index were tested for internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha ≥.70) and aspects of validity. The typical DB pattern of the pros and cons of behaviour change was confirmed: the cons outweighed the pros for consumers who did not intend to reduce meat consumption, while the pros outweighed the cons for consumers who intended to reduce meat consumption. The new DB scale for meat reduction has proven to be a suitable measure to gain insights into consumers' decision making and could be used to develop targeted meat reduction interventions.

A global perspective on a new paradigm shift in bio-based meat alternatives for healthy diet

A meat analogue is a casserole in which the primary ingredient is something other than meat. It goes by various other names, such as meat substitute, fake meat, alternative meat, and imitation meat. Consumers growing interest in improving their diets and the future of the planet have contributed to the move towards meat substitutes. This change is due to the growing popularity of low-fat and low-calorie diets, the rise of flexitarians, the spread of animal diseases, the loss of natural resources, and the need to cut down on carbon emissions, which lead to greenhouse effects. Plant-based meat, cultured meat, algal protein-based meat, and insect-based meat substitutes are available on the market with qualities like appearance and flavor similar to those of traditional meat. Novel ingredients like mycoprotein and soybean leg haemoglobin are mixed in with the more traditional soy proteins, cereals, green peas, etc. Plant-based meat is currently more popular in the West, but the growing interest in this product in Asian markets indicates the industry in this region will expand rapidly in the near future. Future growth in the food sector can be anticipated from technologies like lab-grown meat and its equivalents that do not require livestock breeding. Insect-based products also hold great potential as a new source of protein for human consumption. However, product safety and quality should be considered along with other factors such as marketability and affordability.

A sensory study on consumer valuation for plant-based meat alternatives: What is liked and disliked the most?

The food sector has witnessed a surge in the production of plant-based meat alternatives that aim to mimic various attributes of traditional animal products. However, overall sensory appreciation remains low. This study employed open-ended questions, preference ranking, and an identification question to analyze sensory drivers and barriers to liking four burger patties, i.e., two plant-based (one referred to as pea protein burger and one referred to as animal-like protein burger), one hybrid meat-mushroom, and one 100 % beef burger. Untrained participants (n = 175) were randomly assigned to blind or informed conditions in a between-subject study. The main objective was to evaluate the impact of providing information about the animal/plant-based protein source/type, and to obtain product descriptors and liking/disliking levels from consumers. Results from the ranking tests for blind and informed treatments showed that the animal-like protein was the most preferred product, followed by the 100 % beef burger. Moreover, in the blind condition, there was no significant difference in preferences between the beef burger and the hybrid and pea protein burgers. In the blind tasting, people preferred the pea protein burger over the hybrid one, contrary to the results of the informed tasting, which implies the existence of affecting factors other than pure hedonistic enjoyment. In the identification question, although consumers correctly identified the beef burger under the blind condition, they still preferred the plant-based 'animal-like' burger.

Various ways towards animal product limiting - Practical and social engagements in initial phase of dietary change

Reducing one's consumption of foods containing animal products, or avoiding such foods altogether, has become part of everyday life for many people in the Western world. People's motivations for such "animal product limiting" are well-established, but the ways in which individuals enact and experience dietary change in the initial phase are not well understood. Nor is it clear whether, and how, these people present their dietary changes to others. Through the analysis of interviews with 28 people residing in Denmark who had recently (<9 months) embarked on flexitarian, vegetarian or vegan diets, this paper explores how people, in the initial phase of trying to consume fewer, or no, foods with animal products, (i) engage in the practicalities of daily food activities and (ii) communicate their experiences with, and opinions about, the dietary changes they are making in interpersonal interactions. The findings reveal two very different ways of organising the daily food activities: Foodism and Convenience. They also disclose three different ways of communicating in interpersonal interactions: Ethical advocacy, Plant food demonstration and Anonymisation of diet. The paper offers insights into the variation in practices underlying animal product limiting. It suggests that the plant food sector should cater for people relying on convenient food practices as well as those engaged in more advanced ("foodie") practices. Further, in discussing interpersonal communication in the light of community-based social marketing, we argue that the findings highlight how animal product limiters, in everyday social life, may be able to encourage more people to embark on animal product limiting.

Exploring everyday life dynamics in meat reduction - A cluster analysis of flexitarians in Denmark

Exploring everyday life dynamics in meat reduction - a cluster analysis of flexitarians in Denmark. Flexitarians are attracting increasing attention in the research on meat reduction. But there has been limited focus on comprehensive understandings of a broader range of dynamics that can work as barriers and facilitators for meat reduction. In this article, we use social practice theory (SPT) as a comprehensive approach to barriers and facilitators in meat reduction in everyday life. We present an analysis of data from a representative Danish cross-sectional survey. We show, first, that Danish flexitarians can be divided into four distinct clusters (what we will refer to as classes) in accordance with combinations of everyday facilitators and barriers. Second, we show that the prevalence of these classes varies considerably depending on how long people have been flexitarians. We argue that the patterns in this variation indicate that over time people transition to other classes where barriers to plant-rich eating become less significant, and routinization emerges in different ways. Finally, third, we show that flexitarians do report eating less meat than consumers who label themselves as eating meat with no restrictions. But we also highlight that the difference is relatively modest. Indeed, meat intake is still quite common even in classes where routinization is highest. Throughout the paper, we discuss similarities and differences between the SPT framework and another recent framework, the COM-B model, that also provides a comprehensive approach to the understanding of behavioural change.

Food-Evoked Emotions and Optimal Portion Sizes of Meat and Vegetables for Men and Women across Five Familiar Dutch Meals: An Online Study

Portion size manipulation is well known to be effective in increasing vegetable intake in adults, whereas less is known about the effects of portion size manipulation on reducing meat intake. This online study investigated the effects of recommended and regularly consumed portion sizes of vegetables and meat in five familiar Dutch meals. Participants evaluated 60 food pictures of five meals and used a 100 mm VAS to measure expected liking, satiety, food-evoked emotions, and the perceived normal portion size. The results show that both regular and recommended portions scored above 55 on the 100 mm VAS on expected liking and satiety. Similarly, both portion sizes scored high (55–70 on the 100 mm VAS) in positive emotions (i.e., happy, relaxed, and satisfied). Regarding the perceived amount of meat, men consistently preferred larger portions of meat than women. However, the optimal portion sizes of vegetables were similar for men and women. Furthermore, the recommended portion sizes led to positive food-evoked emotions, implying that the effective implementation of portion size strategies for increasing vegetable and limiting meat intake requires a careful, holistic approach focusing on the sensory characteristics of food products as well as the emotions evoked by the total food experience.

Consumer perception of the challenges facing livestock production and meat consumption

With the global meat market growing and intensive livestock farming systems increasing, the impacts of livestock are a growing concern among consumers, further influencing their meat consumption. Understanding consumer perceptions of livestock production is therefore a key issue. This study surveyed 16,803 respondents in France, Brazil, China, Cameroon and South Africa to investigate the different perceptions of the ethical and environmental impacts of livestock production among consumer segments in different countries based on their sociodemographic characteristics. On average, the current respondents in Brazil and China and/or who consume little meat, are female, not in the meat sector and/or more educated, are more likely to think that livestock meat production causes serious ethical and environmental problems; while those in China, France and Cameroon and/or who consume little meat and/or are women, younger, not in the meat sector, and/or more educated, are more likely to agree that reducing meat consumption could be a good solution to these problems. Additionally, an affordable price and sensory quality are the main drivers of food purchases for the current respondents. In conclusion, sociodemographic factors have significant effects on consumer perception of livestock meat production and meat consumption habits. Perceptions of the challenges facing livestock meat production differ between countries in different geographic regions based on social, economic, cultural contexts and dietary habits.

Dietary protein consumption profiles show contrasting impacts on environmental and health indicators

Patterns of protein intake are strong characteristics of diets, and protein sources have been linked to the environmental and nutrition/health impacts of diets. However, few studies have worked on protein profiles, and most of them have focused on specific diets like vegetarian or vegan diets. Furthermore, the description of the environmental impact of diets has often been limited to greenhouse gas emissions (GHGe) and land use. This paper analyzes the alignment of environmental pressures and nutritional impacts in a diversity of representative protein profiles of a western population. Using data from a representative survey in France (INCA3, n = 1125), we identified protein profiles using hierarchical ascendant classification on protein intake (g) from main protein sources (refined grains, whole grains, dairy, eggs, ruminant meat, poultry, pork, processed meat, fish, fruits & vegetables, pulses). We assessed their diet quality using 6 dietary scores, including assessment of long-term risk for health, and associated 14 environmental pressure indicators using the Agribalyse database completed by the SHARP database for GHGe. Five protein profiles were identified according to the high contributions of ruminant meat, pork, poultry, fish, or, conversely, as low contribution from meat. The profile including the lowest protein from meat had the lowest impact on almost all environmental indicators and had the lowest long-term risk. Conversely, the profile with high protein from ruminant-based foods had the highest pressures on most environmental indicators, including GHGe. We found that the protein profile with low contribution from meat has great potential for human health and environment preservation. Shifting a large part of the population toward this profile could be an easy first step toward building a more sustainable diet.

Plant-Based Meat Alternatives: Technological, Nutritional, Environmental, Market, and Social Challenges and Opportunities

There is a growing awareness that fostering the transition toward plant-based diets with reduced meat consumption levels is essential to alleviating the detrimental impacts of the food system on the planet and to improving human health and animal welfare. The reduction in average meat intake may be reached via many possible ways, one possibility being the increased consumption of plant-based meat alternatives (PBMAs). For this reason, in recent years, hundreds of products have been launched on the market with sensory attributes (i.e., taste, texture, appearance, and smell) similar to their animal counterparts; however, these products have often a long list of ingredients and their nutritional values are very different from animal meat. The present review aims to highlight the main opportunities and challenges related to the production and consumption of PBMAs through an interdisciplinary approach. Aspects related to the production technology, nutritional profiles, potential impacts on health and the environment, and the current market and consumer acceptance of PBMAs are discussed. Focusing on the growing literature on this topic, this review will also highlight research gaps related to PBMAs that should be considered in the future, possibly through the collaboration of different stakeholders that can support the transition toward sustainable plant-based diets.

Effects of single plant-based vs. animal-based meals on satiety and mood in real-world smartphone-embedded studies

Adopting plant-based diets high in fiber may reduce global warming and obesity prevalence. Physiological and psychological determinants of plant-based food intake remain unclear. As fiber has been linked with improved gut-brain signaling, we hypothesized that a single plant-based (vegetarian and vegan) compared to an animal-based (animal flesh) meal, would induce higher satiety, higher mood and less stress. In three large-scale smartphone-based studies, adults (nall = 16,379) ranked satiety and mood before and after meal intake. Meal intake induced satiety and higher mood. Plant-based meal choices did not explain differences in post-meal hunger. Individuals choosing a plant-based meal reported slightly higher mood before and smaller mood increases after the meal compared to those choosing animal-based meals. Protein content marginally mediated post-meal satiety, while gender and taste ratings had a strong effect on satiety and mood in general. We could not detect the profound effects of plant-based vs. animal-based meals on satiety and mood.

Same strategies - different categories: An explorative card-sort study of plant-based proteins comparing omnivores, flexitarians, vegetarians and vegans

Replacing animal-derived proteins with plant-based proteins has environmental and health benefits. Despite increasing consumer acceptance of plant-based proteins, most individuals do not frequently consume them. Understanding how different consumer groups perceive and categorise plant-based proteins in comparison to animal-derived proteins can support the protein transition, as it might provide insights into both consumer acceptance and how to position plant-based proteins. Based on categorisation theory, we investigated how different consumers - omnivores, flexitarians, vegetarians and vegans - categorise various sources of proteins and to what extent they use taxonomic, goal-derived or cross-categorisation approaches. 121 Dutch participants free-sorted 80 product cards (30 plant-based proteins, 20 animal-derived proteins, 5 hybrids (animal-plant) and 25 non-protein products). Forty participants elaborated on their categorisations in follow-up interviews. Our findings show that similar strategies can result in different categories depending on consumer group. Taxonomic categorisation strategies are dominantly applied by all consumer groups, but specific categories differ. With decreasing animal protein consumption, omnivores, flexitarians, vegetarians and vegans become increasingly strict in their categorisations. Omnivores do not separate proteins as strictly as flexitarians, vegetarians and vegans. All groups separate animal-derived meat from plant-based meat alternatives, but hybrid meat is ambiguous for omnivores and flexitarians. Variations in categorisations of plant-based proteins between groups give directions to marketers on how to tailor positioning of these products in a way that consumers identify and adopt plant-based proteins, to guide and accelerate the protein transition.

Consumer Behavior Concerning Meat Consumption: Evidence from Brazil

Recent research has consistently related the production and consumption of meat with environmental degradation, health problems, and damage to animal welfare. However, meat consumption represents a well-established eating behavior among many consumers. After all, meat is a central food in many cultures, and changing eating habits can be very challenging. Nevertheless, there is a group of consumers who have reduced the consumption of meat in their diet. Understanding the facilitators and barriers that influence these behavioral changes in different cultures and contexts can help to promote future collective reductions in meat consumption. This article investigates the main facilitators of and barriers to the reduction of consumption in the largest meat-consuming market in the world to contribute to the advancement of knowledge on meat-reduced diets. In order to achieve this objective, semi-structured interviews were conducted with consumers who reduced their meat consumption. In this context, a content analysis was conducted to identify 22 facilitators and 15 barriers classified according to the COM-B system. This system conceptualizes Behavior, which can be influenced by Capability, Opportunity, and Motivation. The results of this research corroborate previous discoveries or confirm the presence of a set of facilitators of and barriers to the reduction of meat consumption previously suggested in the literature.

Consumers' Attitudes towards Animal Suffering: A Systematic Review on Awareness, Willingness and Dietary Change

Planetary and human health depend on Westerners' ability to reduce meat consumption. Meat production degrades the environment while excessive meat intake is associated with cancer and cardiovascular disease, among others. Effective reasons and motivations are needed for consumers to change their diet. The fact that modern animal agriculture inflicts a great deal of pain on animals from their birth to their slaughter, animal welfare/suffering may drive consumers to curtail their meat consumption. This systematic review examined a total of 90 papers to ascertain consumers' awareness of the pain animals experience in animal agriculture, as well as consumer attitudes towards meat reduction due to animal welfare. Results show that consumers have low awareness of animal agriculture. Awareness of animal agricultural practices and animal sentience is associated with increased negative attitudes towards animal suffering. Animal suffering due to farming practices, transportation, slaughter, and animal sentience are factors that may encourage a reduction in meat consumption, and even dietary change in the short term. There is also evidence that animal suffering may be a more compelling motivation for consumers' willingness to change their diet than for health or environmental reasons. Therefore, increasing consumers' awareness of animal suffering in meat production is paramount to contributing to reduced pressure on the environment and improved human health.

Ideological resistance to veg*n advocacy: An identity-based motivational account

Animal-based diets in Western countries are increasingly regarded as unsustainable because of their impact on human health, environmental and animal welfare. Promoting shifts toward more plant-based diets seems an effective way to avoid these harms in practice. Nevertheless, claims against the consumption of animal products contradict the ideology of the omnivorous majority known as carnism. Carnism supports animal-product consumption as a cherished social habit that is harmless and unavoidable and invalidates minorities with plant-based diets: vegetarians and vegans (veg*ns). In this theoretical review, we integrate socio-psychological and empirical literature to provide an identity-based motivational account of ideological resistance to veg*n advocacy. Advocates who argue against the consumption of animal products often make claims that it is harmful, and avoidable by making dietary changes toward veg*n diets. In response, omnivores are likely to experience a simultaneous threat to their moral identity and their identity as consumer of animal products, which may arouse motivations to rationalize animal-product consumption and to obscure harms. If omnivores engage in such motivated reasoning and motivated ignorance, this may also inform negative stereotyping and stigmatization of veg*n advocates. These "pro-carnist" and "counter-veg*n" defenses can be linked with various personal and social motivations to eat animal products (e.g., meat attachment, gender, speciesism) and reinforce commitment to and ambivalence about eating animal products. This does not mean, however, that veg*n advocates cannot exert any influence. An apparent resistance may mask indirect and private acceptance of advocates' claims, priming commitment to change behavior toward veg*n diets often at a later point in time. Based on our theoretical account, we provide directions for future research.

Comparing meat abstainers with avid meat eaters and committed meat reducers

Shifting our eating patterns toward less animal-based and more plant-based diets is urgently needed to counter climate change, address public health issues, and protect animal welfare. Although most consumers agree that these are important topics, many consumers are not particularly willing to decrease the meat intensity of their diets. In supporting consumers to shift their diets, it is important to understand consumers' attitudes, motivations, and preferences related to meat consumption and to take differences across consumers on these aspects into account. This study aims to in-depth research meat abstainers (vegetarians and vegans), and to explore how and to what extent they differ from avid meat eaters and committed meat reducers in terms of their (1) socio-demographic characteristics, (2) attitudes and norms, (3) food choice motives, and (4) food preferences and behavior. A survey has been conducted among a representative sample of Dutch adults. Comparisons show that meat abstainers (N = 198) differ from committed meat reducers (N = 171) and avid meat eaters (N = 344) on the four included categories of variables. In terms of demographics, we largely confirm the stereotype of vegans and vegetarians being highly educated females. In attitudes and norms, large differences exist with meat abstainers being least pro-meat and avid meat eaters being most pro-meat. Food choice motives confirm this, with meat abstainers valuing animal welfare and a good feeling higher than committed meat reducers and avid meat eaters. Finally, differences across the groups are most pronounced in terms of their food preferences and consumption, with a much higher appreciation of plant-based protein sources among meat abstainers, a high appreciation of non-meat animal-based proteins across committed meat reducers and a high appreciation of meat products among avid meat eaters. This shows that although differences across the groups are gradual and expected, in terms of reduction motivations and preferences of protein sources the three groups (frequent meat consumption-meat reduction-meat avoidance) are very distinct, which makes it unlikely to expect big shifts from one group to another in the short term.

Social Norms Support the Protein Transition: The Relevance of Social Norms to Explain Increased Acceptance of Alternative Protein Burgers over 5 Years

Developing alternative protein products-based on protein sources other than regular meat-is a possible pathway to counter environmental and health burdens. However, alternative proteins are not always accepted by consumers, and more research is needed to support a shift to more alternative proteins. Prior studies have mainly focused on individual drivers and perceptions; although we expect that social norms-the perceptions of the opinions of relevant others-are highly relevant in accepting alternative proteins. Online surveys were conducted among 2461 respondents in 2015 and 2000 respondents in 2019 (cross-sectional datasets); a subsample (n = 500) responded to both surveys (longitudinal dataset). We add to the literature by (1) demonstrating the added explanatory value of social norms beyond a range of individual drivers; (2) showing that this finding holds over time, and (3) comparing the impact of social norms across different dietary consumer groups. Meat lovers and flexitarians are more prone to follow social norms whereas meat abstainers are more prone to follow their individual attitudes and values. This study highlights the relevance of investigations beyond personal variables such as personal norms and attitudes and underscores the relevance of considering the social aspects of accepting alternative proteins.