Ammonia-oxidising Crenarchaeota: important players in the nitrogen cycle?

Blue-light irradiation induced partial nitrification

The role of ray radiation from the sunlight acting on organisms has long-term been investigated. However, how the light with different wavelengths affects nitrification and the involved nitrifiers are still elusive. Here, we found more than 60 % of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in nitrifiers were observed under irradiation of blue light with wavelengths of 440-480 nm, which were 13.4 % and 20.3 % under red light and white light irradiation respectively. Blue light was more helpful to achieve partial nitrification rather than white light or red light, where ammonium oxidization by ammonia-oxidizing archaea (AOA) with the increased relative abundance from 8.6 % to 14.2 % played a vital role. This was further evidenced by the enhanced TCA cycle, reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenge and DNA repair capacity in AOA under blue-light irradiation. In contrast, nitrite-oxidizing bacteria (NOB) was inhibited severely to achieve partial nitrification, and the newly discovered encoded blue light photoreceptor proteins made them more sensitive to blue light and hindered cell activity. Ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB) expressed genes for DNA repair capacity under blue-light irradiation, which ensured their tiny impact by light irradiation. This study provided valuable insights into the photosensitivity mechanism of nitrifiers and shed light on the diverse regulatory by light with different radiation wavelengths in artificial systems, broadening our comprehension of the nitrogen cycle on earth.

Characterization of the composition, structure, and functional potential of bamboo rhizosphere archaeal communities along a chromium gradient

Introduction

Bamboo can be used in the phytoremediation of heavy metal pollution. However, the characteristics of the bamboo rhizosphere archaeal community in Cr-contaminated soil under field conditions remain unclear.

Methods

In this study, high-throughput sequencing was used to examine the rhizosphere soil archaeal communities of Lei bamboo (Phyllostachys precox) plantations along a Cr pollution gradient.

Results

The results revealed U-shaped relationships between Cr [total Cr (TCr) or HCl-extractable Cr (ACr)] and two alpha indices (Chao1 and Shannon) of archaea. We also established that high Cr concentrations were associated with a significant increase in the abundance of Thaumarchaeota and significant reductions in the abundances of Crenarchaeota and Euryarchaeota. The archaeal co-occurrence networks reduced in complexity with Cr pollution, decreasing the community's resistance to environmental disturbance. Candidatus nitrosotalea and Nitrososphaeraceae_unclassified (two genera of Thaumarchaeota) were identified as keystone taxa. The community structure of soil archaeal communities was also found to be affected by TCr, ACr, pH, total organic C, and available nutrient (N, P, and K) concentrations, with pH being identified as the most reliable predictor of the archaeal community in assessed soils.

Discussion

These findings enhance our understanding of microbial responses to Cr pollution and provide a basis for developing more refined approaches for the use of bamboo in the remediation of Cr-contaminated soils.

Coupling of the Feammox - Anammox pathways by using a sequential discontinuous bioreactor

Treating nitrogenous compounds in wastewater is a contemporary challenge, prompting novel approaches for ammonium (NH4+) conversion to molecular nitrogen (N2). This study explores the classic anaerobic ammonium oxidation process (Anammox) coupled to the iron-dependent anaerobic ammonium oxidation process (Feammox) in a sequential discontinuous bioreactor (SBR) for NH4+ removal. Feammox and Anammox cultures were individually enriched and combined, optimizing the coupling, and identifying key variables influencing the enrichment process. Adding sodium acetate as a carbon source significantly reduces Fe3+ to Fe2+, indicating Feammox activity. Both Anammox and Feammox processes were successfully operated in SBRs, achieving efficient NH4+ removal (Anammox: 64.6 %; Feammox: 43.4 %). Combining these pathways in a single SBR enhances the NH4+ removal capacity of 50.8 %, improving Feammox efficiency. The Feammox process coupled with Anammox may generate the nitrite (NO2-) needed for Anammox. This research contributes to biotechnological advancements for sustainable nitrogenous compound treatment in SBRs.

Assessing the effectiveness of 3, 4-dimethylpyrazole phosphate (DMPP) inhibitor in mitigating N2O emissions from contrasting Cd-contaminated soils

Improving nitrogen use efficiency of chemical fertilizers is essential to mitigate the negative environmental impacts of nitrogen. Nitrification, the conversion of ammonium to nitrate via nitrite by soil microbes, is a prominent source of nitrogen loss in soil systems. The effectiveness of nitrification inhibitors in reducing nitrogen loss through inhibition of nitrification is well-documented, however, their efficacy in heavy metals-contaminated soils needs thorough investigations. The current study assessed the efficacy of nitrification inhibitor 3, 4-dimethylpyrazole phosphate (DMPP) in reducing nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions in cadmium (Cd) contaminated paddy and red soils under lab-controlled environment. Obtained results indicated the substantial reduction in N2O emissions with DMPP in paddy and red soil by 48 and 35 %, respectively. However, Cd contamination resulted in reduced efficacy of DMPP, thus decreased the N2O emissions by 36 and 25 % in paddy and red soil, respectively. It was found that addition of DMPP had a significant effect on the abundance of ammonia oxidizing bacteria (AOB) and archaea (AOA). Notably, the reduction in N2O emissions by DMPP varied with the abundance of AOB. Moreover, Cd pollution resulted in a significant (P < 0.05) reduction in the abundance of archaeal and bacterial amoA genes, as well as bacterial nirK, nirS, and nosZ genes. The combined treatment of Cd and DMPP had a detrimental impact on denitrifiers, thereby influencing the overall efficiency of DMPP. These findings provide novel insights into the application of DMPP to mitigate nitrification and its potential role in reducing N2O emissions in contaminated soils.

Biocrust reduces the soil erodibility of coral calcareous sand by regulating microbial community and extracellular polymeric substances on tropical coral island, South China Sea

Tropical coral islands assume a pivotal role in the conservation of oceanic ecosystem biodiversity. However, their distinctive environmental attributes and limited vegetation render them highly susceptible to soil erosion. The biological soil crust (biocrust), owing to its significant ecological role in soil stabilization and erosion prevention, is deemed an effective means of mitigating soil erosion on coral island. However, existing research on the mechanisms through which biocrusts resist soil erosion has predominantly concentrated on arid and semi-arid regions. Consequently, this study will specifically delve into elucidating the erosion-resistant mechanisms of biocrusts in tropical coral island environments, South China Sea. Specifically, we collected 16 samples of biocrusts and bare soil from Meiji Island. High-throughput amplicon sequencing was executed to analyze the microbial community, including bacteria, fungi, and archaea. Additionally, quantitative PCR was utilized to assess the abundance of the bacterial 16S rRNA, fungal ITS, archaeal 16S rRNA, and cyanobacterial 16S rRNA genes within these samples. Physicochemical measurements and assessments of extracellular polymeric substances (EPSs) were conducted to characterize the soil properties. The study reported a significantly decreased soil erodibility factor after biocrust formation. Compared to bare soil, soil erodibility factor decreased from 0.280 to 0.190 t h MJ-1 mm-1 in the biocrusts. Mechanistically, we measured the microbial EPS contents and revealed a negative correlation between EPS and soil erodibility factor. Consistent with increased EPS, the abundance of bacteria, fungi, archaea, and cyanobacteria were also detected significantly increased with biocrust formation. Correlation analysis detected Cyanobacteria, Chloroflexi, Deinococcota, and Crenarchaeota as potential microbials promoting EPSs and reducing soil erosion. Together, our study presents the evidence that biocrust from tropical coral island in the South China Sea promotes resistance to soil erosion, pinpointing key EPSs-producing microbials against soil erosion. The findings would provide insights for island soil restoration.

Microbial communities in the deep-sea sediments of the South São Paulo Plateau, Southwestern Atlantic Ocean

Microbial communities play a key role in the ocean, acting as primary producers, nutrient recyclers, and energy providers. The São Paulo Plateau is a region located on the southeastern coast of Brazil within economic importance, due to its oil and gas reservoirs. With this focus, this study examined the diversity and composition of microbial communities in marine sediments located at three oceanographic stations in the southern region of São Paulo Plateau using the HOV Shinkai 6500 in 2013. The 16S rRNA gene was sequenced using the universal primers (515F and 926R) by the Illumina Miseq platform. The taxonomic compositions of samples recovered from SP3 station were markedly distinct from those obtained from SP1 and SP2. Although all three stations exhibited a high abundance of Gammaproteobacteria (> 15%), this taxon dominated more than 90% of composition of the A and C sediment layers at SP3. The highest abundance of the archaeal class Nitrososphaeria was presented at SP1, mainly at layer C (~ 21%), being absent at SP3 station. The prediction of chemoheterotrophy and fermentation as important microbial functions was supported by the data. Additionally, other metabolic pathways related to the cycles of nitrogen, carbon and sulfur were also predicted. The core microbiome analysis comprised only two ASVs. Our study contributes to a better understanding of microbial communities in an economically important little-explored region. This is the third microbiological survey in plateau sediments and the first focused on the southern region.

Study of Archaeal Diversity in the Arctic Meltwater Lake Region

Two typical lakes formed from meltwater in the Ny-Ålesund area were taken as the study subjects in 2018. To investigate the archaeal community compositions of the two lakes, 16S rRNA genes from soil samples from the intertidal and subtidal zones of the two lakes were sequenced with high throughput. At the phylum level, the intertidal zone was dominated by Crenarchaeota and the subtidal zone was dominated by Halobacter; at the genus level, the intertidal zone was dominated by Nitrososphaeraceae_unclassified and Candidatus_Nitrocosmicus, while the subtidal zone was dominated by Methanoregula. The soil physicochemical factors pH, moisture content (MC), total organic carbon (TOC), total organic nitrogen (TON), nitrite nitrogen (NO₂^--N), and nitrate nitrogen (NO₃^--N) were significantly different in the intertidal and subtidal zones of the lake. By redundancy analysis, the results indicated that NH₄⁺-N, SiO₃^2--Si, MC, NO₃^--N, and NO₂^--N have had highly significant effects on the archaeal diversity and distribution. A weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) was used to search for hub archaea associated with physicochemical factors. The results suggested that these physicochemical factors play important roles in the diversity and structure of the archaeal community at different sites by altering the abundance of certain hub archaea. In addition, Woesearchaeales was found to be the hub archaea genus at every site.

Unexpected complexity of the ammonia monooxygenase in archaea

Ammonia oxidation, as the first step of nitrification, constitutes a critical process in the global nitrogen cycle. However, fundamental knowledge of its key enzyme, the copper-dependent ammonia monooxygenase, is lacking, in particular for the environmentally abundant ammonia-oxidizing archaea (AOA). Here the structure of the enzyme is investigated by blue-native gel electrophoresis and proteomics from native membrane complexes of two AOA. Besides the known AmoABC subunits and the earlier predicted AmoX, two new protein subunits, AmoY and AmoZ, were identified. They are unique to AOA, highly conserved and co-regulated, and their genes are linked to other AMO subunit genes in streamlined AOA genomes. Modeling and in-gel cross-link approaches support an overall protomer structure similar to the distantly related bacterial particulate methane monooxygenase but also reveals clear differences in extracellular domains of the enzyme. These data open avenues for further structure-function studies of this ecologically important nitrification complex.

Spatial distributions of microbial diversity in the contaminated deep groundwater: A case study of the Huaibei coalfield

The impact of coal mining activities on the structure of groundwater microbial communities in coal mining areas has gradually received academic attention. In this study, hydrochemical analysis and sequencing of the V4 region of the 16S rRNA gene were carried out using groundwater samples from the fourth aquifer in the loose layer of Cenozoic, the sandstone fissure aquifer in the coal measure strata of Permian, the Carboniferous Taiyuan Formation limestone aquifer, and the Ordovician limestone aquifer, at depths of 250 m, 600 m, 750 m, and 1000 m in monitoring wells. Results showed that the operational taxonomy units (OTUs) in the deep groundwater ecosystem were clustered distinguishably between the contaminated and the uncontaminated aquifers. The microbial community alpha-diversity of groundwater was significantly correlated with depth, and the richness of microbial community composition decreased with increasing depth. Proteobacteria (34.41%-97.41%), was found to be the dominant phylum, Gammaproteobacteria (10.05%-92.06%) was the dominant class and "Unassigned" (4.12%-64.72%) was dominant at the genus level. The number of endemic bacteria in the four aquifers was 1, 33, 99 and 11, respectively. It was also found that F^-, oxidation-reduction potential (ORP), and TOC were the main environmental variables affecting the groundwater all OTUs, abundant OTUs, and rare OTUs, respectively. These results indicate that the activity of rare OTU subcommunities increases gradually with increasing aquifer depth and that mining significantly enriched Thiovirga in deep groundwater. In addition, it was found that with the increase of depth, the effect of ORP on microbial community abundance decreased. This study deepens our understanding of the evolution characteristics of microbial communities in deep groundwater in coal mining areas. The unique characteristics of microbial communities characteristics of four aquifers with different depths provide a microbial perspective for understanding the characteristics of deep aquifers.

Impact of environmental factors on the ammonia-oxidizing and denitrifying microbial community and functional genes along soil profiles from different ecologically degraded areas in the Siding mine

Ammonia oxidizers (ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB amoA) and ammonia-oxidizing archaea (AOA amoA)) and denitrifiers (encoded by nirS, nirK and nosZ) in the soil nitrogen cycle exist in a variety of natural ecosystems. However, little is known about the contribution of these five N-related functional genes to nitrification and denitrification in the soil profile in severely ecologically degraded areas. Therefore, in the present study, the abundance, diversity and community composition of AOA, AOB, nirS, nirK and nosZ were investigated in the soil profiles of different ecologically degraded areas in the Siding mine. The results indicated that, at the phylum level, the dominant archaea were Crenarchaeota and Thaumarchaeota and the dominant bacteria were Proteobacteria. Heavy metal contents had a great impact on AOA amoA, nirS and nirK gene abundances. AOA amoA contributed more during the ammonia oxidation process and was better adapted for survival in heavy metal-contaminated environments. In addition to heavy metals, the soil organic matter (SOM) content and C/N ratio had strong effects on the AOA and AOB community diversity and structure. In addition, variations in the net ammonification and nitrification rates were proportional to AOA amoA abundance along the soil profile. The soil C/N ratio, soil available phosphorus content and soil moisture influenced the denitrification process. Both soil available phosphorus and moisture were more strongly related to nosZ than to nirS and nirK. In addition, nosZ presented a higher correlation with the nosZ/(nirS + nirK) ratio. Moreover, nosZ/(nirS + nirK) was the key functional gene group that drove the major processes for NH₄⁺-N and NO₃^--N transformation. This study demonstrated the role and importance of soil property impacts on N-related microbes in the soil profile and provided a better understanding of the role and importance of N-related functional genes and their contribution to soil nitrification and denitrification processes in highly degraded areas in the Siding mine.

Diversity and functional traits of indigenous soil microbial flora associated with salinity and heavy metal concentrations in agricultural fields within the Indus Basin region, Pakistan

Soil salinization and heavy metal (HM) contamination are major challenges facing agricultural systems worldwide. Determining how soil microbial communities respond to these stress factors and identifying individual phylotypes with potential to tolerate these conditions while promoting plant growth could help prevent negative impacts on crop productivity. This study used amplicon sequencing and several bioinformatic programs to characterize differences in the composition and potential functional capabilities of soil bacterial, fungal, and archaeal communities in five agricultural fields that varied in salinity and HM concentrations within the Indus basin region of Pakistan. The composition of bacteria with the potential to fix atmospheric nitrogen (N) and produce the enzyme 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) deaminase were also determined. Microbial communities were dominated by: Euryarchaeota (archaea), Actinobacteria, Proteobacteria, Planctomycetota, Firimicutes, Patescibacteria and Acidobacteria (bacteria), and Ascomycota (fungi), and all soils contained phylotypes capable of N-fixation and ACC-deaminase production. Salinity influenced bacterial, but not archaeal or fungal communities. Both salinity and HM altered the relative abundance of many phylotypes that could potentially promote or harm plant growth. These stress factors also appeared to influence the potential functional capabilities of the microbial communities, especially in their capacity to cycle phosphorous, produce siderophores, and act as symbiotrophs or pathotrophs. Results of this study confirm that farms in this region are at risk due to salinization and excessive levels of some toxic heavy metals, which could negatively impact crop and human health. Changes in soil microbial communities and their potential functional capabilities are also likely to affect several critical agroecosystem services related to nutrient cycling, pathogen suppression, and plant stress tolerance. Many potentially beneficial phylotypes were identified that appear to be salt and HM tolerant and could possibly be exploited to promote these services within this agroecosystem. Future efforts to isolate these phylotypes and determine whether they can indeed promote plant growth and/or carry out other important soil processes are recommended. At the same time, identifying ways to promote the abundance of these unique phylotypes either through modifying soil and crop management practices, or developing and applying them as inoculants, would be helpful for improving crop productivity in this region.

Arbuscular Mycorrhiza and Nitrification: Disentangling Processes and Players by Using Synthetic Nitrification Inhibitors

Both plants and their associated arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi require nitrogen (N) for their metabolism and growth. This can result in both positive and negative effects of AM symbiosis on plant N nutrition. Either way, the demand for and efficiency of uptake of mineral N from the soil by mycorrhizal plants are often higher than those of nonmycorrhizal plants. In consequence, the symbiosis of plants with AM fungi exerts important feedbacks on soil processes in general and N cycling in particular. Here, we investigated the role of the AM symbiosis in N uptake by Andropogon gerardii from an organic source (¹⁵N-labeled plant litter) that was provided beyond the direct reach of roots. In addition, we tested if pathways of ¹⁵N uptake from litter by mycorrhizal hyphae were affected by amendment with different synthetic nitrification inhibitors (dicyandiamide [DCD], nitrapyrin, or 3,4-dimethylpyrazole phosphate [DMPP]). We observed efficient acquisition of ¹⁵N by mycorrhizal plants through the mycorrhizal pathway, independent of nitrification inhibitors. These results were in stark contrast to ¹⁵N uptake by nonmycorrhizal plants, which generally took up much less ¹⁵N, and the uptake was further suppressed by nitrapyrin or DMPP amendments. Quantitative real-time PCR analyses showed that bacteria involved in the rate-limiting step of nitrification, ammonia oxidation, were suppressed similarly by the presence of AM fungi and by nitrapyrin or DMPP (but not DCD) amendments. On the other hand, abundances of ammonia-oxidizing archaea were not strongly affected by either the AM fungi or the nitrification inhibitors. IMPORTANCE Nitrogen is one of the most important elements for all life on Earth. In soil, N is present in various chemical forms and is fiercely competed for by various microorganisms as well as plants. Here, we address competition for reduced N (ammonia) between ammonia-oxidizing prokaryotes and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. These two functionally important groups of soil microorganisms, participating in nitrification and plant mineral nutrient acquisition, respectively, have often been studied in separation in the past. Here, we showed, using various biochemical and molecular approaches, that the fungi systematically suppress ammonia-oxidizing bacteria to an extent similar to that of some widely used synthetic nitrification inhibitors, whereas they have only a limited impact on abundance of ammonia-oxidizing archaea. Competition for free ammonium is a plausible explanation here, but it is also possible that the fungi produce some compounds acting as so-called biological nitrification inhibitors.

Effects of 3,6-dichlorocarbazole on microbial ecology and its degradation in soil

The emerging contaminants polyhalogenated carbazoles (PHCZs) have been verified to be present in soils and sediments globally, and they show dioxin-like toxicity. However, there is a lack of soil ecological risk assessments on PHCZs despite their high detection rate and concentration in soils. The present study investigated the degradation and soil microbial influence of 3,6-dichlorocarbazole (3,6-DCCZ, a frequently detected PHCZ) in soil. The results showed that the half-lives of 3,6-DCCZ at concentrations of 0.100 mg/kg and 1.00 mg/kg were 7.75 d and 16.73 d, respectively. We found that 3,6-DCCZ was transformed into 3-chlorocarbazole (3-CCZ) by dehalogenation in soil. Additionally, intermediate products with higher molecular weights were detected, presumably because the -H on the carbazole ring was replaced by -CH₃, -CH₂-O-CH₃, or -CH₂-O-CH₂CH₃. 3,6-DCCZ exposure slightly increased the soil bacterial abundance and diversity and clearly changed the soil bacterial community structure. Through a comprehensive analysis of FAPROTAX, functional gene qPCR and soil enzyme tests, we concluded that 3,6-DCCZ exposure inhibited nitrification and nitrogen fixation but promoted denitrification, carbon dioxide fixation and hydrocarbon degradation processes in soil. This study provides valuable data for clarifying the PHCZ ecological risk in soil.

Comammox activity dominates nitrification process in the sediments of plateau wetland

The recent discovery of complete ammonia oxidation (comammox) has increased our understanding of nitrification. Although comammox has been shown to play an important role in plain wetland ecosystems, studies of comammox contribution are still limited in plateau wetland ecosystems. Here, we analyzed the abundance, activity, community and biogeochemical mechanisms of the comammox bacteria in Yunnan-kweichow and Qinghai-Tibet plateau wetlands from elevations of 1000-5000 m. Comammox bacteria were widely distributed in all 16 sediment samples with abundances higher than 0.96 ± 0.26 × 10⁷ copies g^-1 (n = 16). Comammox showed high activity (1.18 ± 0.17 to 1.98 ± 0.08 mg N kg^-1 d^-1) at high-elevation (3000-5000 m) and dominated the nitrification process (activity contribution: 37.20 - 60.62%). The activity contribution of ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (1.07 ± 0.08 to 2.79 ± 0.35 mg N kg^-1 d^-1) dominated the nitrification process (44.55 - 64.15%) in low-elevation (1000-3000 m) samples. All detected comammox Nitrospira belonged to clade A, while clade B was not detected. Elevation always had a strongest effect on key comammox species. Thus, we infer that elevation may drive the high relative abundance of the species Candidatus Nitrospira nitrificans (avg. 12.40%) and the low relative abundance of the species Nitrospira sp. SG-bin2 (avg. 4.75%) in high-elevation samples that showed a high comammox activity (avg. 1.62 mg N kg^-1 d^-1) and high contribution (avg. 46.08%) to the nitrification process. These results indicate that comammox may be an important and currently underestimated microbial nitrification process in plateau wetland ecosystems.

Linking 16S rRNA Gene Classification to amoA Gene Taxonomy Reveals Environmental Distribution of Ammonia-Oxidizing Archaeal Clades in Peatland Soils

A highly resolved taxonomy for ammonia-oxidizing archaea (AOA) based on the alpha subunit of ammonia monooxygenase (amoA) was recently established, which uncovered novel environmental patterns of AOA, challenging previous generalizations. However, many microbiome studies target the 16S rRNA gene as a marker; thus, the usage of this novel taxonomy is currently limited. Here, we exploited the phylogenetic congruence of archaeal amoA and 16S rRNA genes to link 16S rRNA gene classification to the novel amoA taxonomy. We screened publicly available archaeal genomes and contigs for the co-occurring amoA and 16S rRNA genes and constructed a 16S rRNA gene database with the corresponding amoA clade taxonomy. Phylogenetic trees of both marker genes confirmed congruence, enabling the identification of clades. We validated this approach with 16S rRNA gene amplicon data from peatland soils. We succeeded in linking 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequence variants belonging to the class Nitrososphaeria to seven different AOA (amoA) clades, including two of the most frequently detected clades (Nitrososphaerales γ and δ clades) for which no pure culture is currently available. Water status significantly impacted the distribution of the AOA clades as well as the whole AOA community structure, which was correlated with pH, nitrate, and ammonium, consistent with previous clade predictions. Our study emphasizes the need to distinguish among AOA clades with distinct ecophysiologies and environmental preferences, for a better understanding of the ecology of the globally abundant AOA. IMPORTANCE The recently established phylogeny of amoA provides a finer resolution than previous studies, allowing clustering of AOA beyond the order level and thus revealing novel clades. While the 16S rRNA gene is mostly appreciated in microbiome studies, this novel phylogeny is in limited use. Here, we provide an alternative path to identifying AOA with this novel and highly resolved amoA taxonomy by using 16S rRNA gene sequencing data. We constructed a 16S rRNA gene database with the associated amoA clade taxonomy based on their phylogenetic congruence. With this database, we were able to assign 16S rRNA gene amplicons from peatland soils to different AOA clades, with a level of resolution provided previously only by amoA phylogeny. As 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing is still widely employed in microbiome studies, our database may have a broad application for interpreting the ecology of globally abundant AOA.

Methane-derived carbon flows into host-virus networks at different trophic levels in soil

The concentration of atmospheric methane (CH₄) continues to increase with microbial communities controlling soil-atmosphere fluxes. While there is substantial knowledge of the diversity and function of prokaryotes regulating CH₄ production and consumption, their active interactions with viruses in soil have not been identified. Metagenomic sequencing of soil microbial communities enables identification of linkages between viruses and hosts. However, this does not determine if these represent current or historical interactions nor whether a virus or host are active. In this study, we identified active interactions between individual host and virus populations in situ by following the transfer of assimilated carbon. Using DNA stable-isotope probing combined with metagenomic analyses, we characterized CH₄-fueled microbial networks in acidic and neutral pH soils, specifically primary and secondary utilizers, together with the recent transfer of CH₄-derived carbon to viruses. A total of 63% of viral contigs from replicated soil incubations contained homologs of genes present in known methylotrophic bacteria. Genomic sequences of ¹³C-enriched viruses were represented in over one-third of spacers in CRISPR arrays of multiple closely related Methylocystis populations and revealed differences in their history of viral interaction. Viruses infecting nonmethanotrophic methylotrophs and heterotrophic predatory bacteria were also identified through the analysis of shared homologous genes, demonstrating that carbon is transferred to a diverse range of viruses associated with CH₄-fueled microbial food networks.

Soil ammonia-oxidizing archaea in a paddy field with different irrigation and fertilization managements

Because ammonia-oxidizing archaea (AOA) are ubiquitous and highly abundant in almost all terrestrial soils, they play an important role in soil nitrification. However, the changes in the structure and function of AOA communities and their edaphic drivers in paddy soils under different fertilization and irrigation regimes remain unclear. In this study, we investigated AOA abundance, diversity and activity in acid paddy soils by a field experiment. Results indicated that the highest potential ammonia oxidation (PAO) (0.011 μg NO₂^- –N g^-1 d.w.day^-1) was found in T₂ (optimal irrigation and fertilization)—treated soils, whereas the lowest PAO (0.004 μg NO₂^- –N g^-1 d.w.day^-1) in T₀ (traditional irrigation)- treated soils. Compared with the T₀—treated soil, the T₂ treatment significantly (P < 0.05) increased AOA abundances. Furthermore, the abundance of AOA was significantly (P < 0.01) positively correlated with pH, soil organic carbon (SOC), and PAO. Meanwhile, pH and SOC content were significantly (P < 0.05) higher in the T₂—treated soil than those in the T₁ (traditional irrigation and fertilization)- treated soil. In addition, these two edaphic factors further influenced the AOA community composition. The AOA phylum Crenarchaeota was mainly found in the T₂—treated soils. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that most of the identified OTUs of AOA were mainly affiliated with Crenarchaeota. Furthermore, the T₂ treatment had higher rice yield than the T₀ and T₁ treatments. Together, our findings confirm that T₂ might ameliorate soil chemical properties, regulate the AOA community structure, increase the AOA abundance, enhance PAO and consequently maintain rice yields in the present study.

Shifts in the relative abundance and potential rates of sediment ammonia-oxidizing archaea and bacteria along environmental gradients of an urban river-estuary-adjacent sea continuum

Ammonia-oxidizing archaea (AOA) and bacteria (AOB) play important roles in N cycling in sediments globally. However, little is known about their ammonia oxidation rates along a river-estuary-sea continuum. In this study, we investigated how the potential ammonia oxidation rates (PARs) of AOA and AOB changed spatially along a continuum comprising three habitats: the Shanghai urban river network, the Yangtze Estuary, and the adjacent East China Sea, in summer and winter. The AOA and AOB PARs (0.53 ± 0.49 and 0.72 ± 0.69 μg N g^-1 d^-1, mean ± SD, respectively) and their amoA gene abundance (0.47 ± 0.85 × 10⁶ and 2.4 ± 3.54 × 10⁶ copies g^-1, respectively) decreased along the continuum, particularly from the urban river to the estuary, driven by decreasing sediment total organic C and N and other correlated inorganic nutrients (e.g., NH₄⁺) along the gradient of anthropogenic influences. These spatial patterns were consistent between the seasons. The urban river network, where the anthropogenic influences were strongest, saw the largest seasonal differences, as both AOA and AOB had higher PARs and abundance in summer than in winter. The ratios between AOA and AOB PARs (~0.87 ± 0.51) and gene abundances (~0.25 ± 0.24), however, were predominantly <1, indicating an AOB-dominated community. Comparing the different NH₄⁺ consumption pathways, total aerobic oxidation accounted for 12-26% of the total consumption, with the largest proportion in the estuary, where the system was well oxygenated, and the lowest in the adjacent sea, where inorganic N was highly depleted. This study revealed the spatiotemporal patterns of AOA and AOB potential rates and gene abundance along gradients of human influences and identified organic matter and nutrients as key environmental factors that shaped the variation of AOA and AOB along the continuum.

Assessment of 16S rRNA Gene-Based Phylogenetic Diversity of Archaeal Communities in Halite-Crystal Salts Processed from Natural Saharan Saline Systems of Southern Tunisia

A thorough assessment of the phylogenetic diversity and community structure of halophilic archaea from three halite-crystal salts, processed from two separated saline systems of Southern Tunisia has been performed using culture dependent and independent methods targeting different regions of 16S rRNA gene sequences including DGGE, 16S rRNA clone libraries and Illumina Miseq sequencing. Two samples, CDR (red halite-crystal salts) and CDW (white halite-crystal salts), were collected from Chott-Eljerid and one sample CDZ (white halite-crystal salts) from Chott Douz. Fourteen isolates were identified as Halorubrum, Haloferax, Haloarcula, and Halogeometricum genera members. Culture-independent approach revealed a high diversity of archaeal members present in all samples, represented by the Euryarchaeal phylum and the dominance of the Halobacteria class. Nanohaloarchaea were also identified only in white halite samples based on metagenomic analysis. In fact, a total of 61 genera were identified with members of the Halorhabdus, Halonotius, Halorubrum, Haloarcula, and unclassified. Halobacteriaceae were shared among all samples. Unexpected diversity profiles between samples was observed where the red halite crust sample was considered as the most diverse one. The highest diversity was observed with Miseq approach, nevertheless, some genera were detected only with 16S rRNA clone libraries and cultured approaches.

Nanoparticle treatment of maize analyzed through the metatranscriptome: compromised nitrogen cycling, possible phytopathogen selection, and plant hormesis

BACKGROUND

The beneficial use of nanoparticle silver or nanosilver may be confounded when its potent antimicrobial properties impact non-target members of natural microbiomes such as those present in soil or the plant rhizosphere. Agricultural soils are a likely sink for nanosilver due to its presence in agrochemicals and land-applied biosolids, but a complete assessment of nanosilver's effects on this environment is lacking because the impact on the natural soil microbiome is not known. In a study assessing the use of nanosilver for phytopathogen control with maize, we analyzed the metatranscriptome of the maize rhizosphere and observed multiple unintended effects of exposure to 100 mg kg-1 nanosilver in soil during a growth period of 117 days.

RESULTS

We found several unintended effects of nanosilver which could interfere with agricultural systems in the long term. Firstly, the archaea community was negatively impacted with a more than 30% decrease in relative abundance, and as such, their involvement in nitrogen cycling and specifically, nitrification, was compromised. Secondly, certain potentially phytopathogenic fungal groups showed significantly increased abundances, possibly due to the negative effects of nanosilver on bacteria exerting natural biocontrol against these fungi as indicated by negative interactions in a network analysis. Up to 5-fold increases in relative abundance have been observed for certain possibly phytopathogenic fungal genera. Lastly, nanosilver exposure also caused a direct physiological impact on maize as illustrated by increased transcript abundance of aquaporin and phytohormone genes, overall resulting in a stress level with the potential to yield hormetically stimulated plant root growth.

CONCLUSIONS

This study indicates the occurrence of significant unintended effects of nanosilver use on corn, which could turn out to be negative to crop productivity and ecosystem health in the long term. We therefore highlight the need to include the microbiome when assessing the risk associated with nano-enabled agriculture. Video Abstract.

Degenerate PCR primers for assays to track steps of nitrogen metabolism by taxonomically diverse microorganisms in a variety of environments

Steps in the global nitrogen cycle are mainly catalyzed by microorganisms. Accordingly, the activities of these microorganisms affect the health and productivity of ecosystems. Their activities are also used in wastewater treatment systems to remove reactive nitrogen compounds and prevent eutrophication events triggered by nutrient discharges. Therefore, tracking the activities of these microorganisms can provide insights into the functioning of these systems. The presence and abundance of genes encoding nitrogen-metabolizing enzymes can be traced via polymerase chain reaction (PCR); however, this requires primers that are sensitive to a heterogenous gene pool yet specific enough to the target biomarker. The ever-expanding diversity of sequences available from databases includes many sequences relevant to nitrogen metabolism that match poorly with primers previously designed to track their presence and/or abundance. This includes genes encoding ammonia monooxygenase (AMO) of ammonia oxidizing microorganisms, nitrite oxidoreductase (NXR) of nitrite oxidizing bacteria, and nitrous oxide reductase (NOS) of denitrifying bacteria. Some primers are also not designed to generate the short (~200 nucleotides) amplicons required for real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR) and reverse-transcriptase qPCR (qRT-PCR). In this study, genes collected from the Integrated Microbial Genomes database (IMG) were aligned to design PCR primers that could capture more sequence diversity than is possible using existing primers. Primers were designed to target three clades of AMO (Betaproteobacteria, Chrenarchaeota, and complete ammonia oxidizing Nitrospira), periplasmic NXR and two clades of NOS (Proteobacteria and Bacteroidetes/Firmicutes). These primers successfully amplified target sequences from two wastewater treatment plants with biological nitrogen removal (one with simultaneous nitrification/denitrification and one with distinct anoxic/oxic zones) and estuary sediment. Nucleotide sequences of the amplicons retrieved homologs when used to query GenBank by BLAST. While convincingly identified as target sequences for these primer pairs, these amplicons were divergent from each other, and quite divergent (as low as 73%) from those present in GenBank, suggesting these primers are capable of capturing a diverse range of sequences. A direct comparison showed that primers designed here are better suited to environmental samples, such as wastewater treatment facilities, by producing a greater number of amplicons from the same sample than primers currently established in literature.

Microbial Nitrogen Metabolism in Chloraminated Drinking Water Reservoirs

Ammonia availability due to chloramination can promote the growth of nitrifying organisms, which can deplete chloramine residuals and result in operational problems for drinking water utilities. In this study, we used a metagenomic approach to determine the identity and functional potential of microorganisms involved in nitrogen biotransformation within chloraminated drinking water reservoirs. Spatial changes in the nitrogen species included an increase in nitrate concentrations accompanied by a decrease in ammonium concentrations with increasing distance from the site of chloramination. This nitrifying activity was likely driven by canonical ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (i.e., Nitrosomonas) and nitrite-oxidizing bacteria (i.e., Nitrospira) as well as by complete-ammonia-oxidizing (i.e., comammox) Nitrospira-like bacteria. Functional annotation was used to evaluate genes associated with nitrogen metabolism, and the community gene catalogue contained mostly genes involved in nitrification, nitrate and nitrite reduction, and nitric oxide reduction. Furthermore, we assembled 47 high-quality metagenome-assembled genomes (MAGs) representing a highly diverse assemblage of bacteria. Of these, five MAGs showed high coverage across all samples, which included two Nitrosomonas, Nitrospira, Sphingomonas, and Rhizobiales-like MAGs. Systematic genome-level analyses of these MAGs in relation to nitrogen metabolism suggest that under ammonia-limited conditions, nitrate may be also reduced back to ammonia for assimilation. Alternatively, nitrate may be reduced to nitric oxide and may potentially play a role in regulating biofilm formation. Overall, this study provides insight into the microbial communities and their nitrogen metabolism and, together with the water chemistry data, improves our understanding of nitrogen biotransformation in chloraminated drinking water distribution systems.IMPORTANCE Chloramines are often used as a secondary disinfectant when free chlorine residuals are difficult to maintain. However, chloramination is often associated with the undesirable effect of nitrification, which results in operational problems for many drinking water utilities. The introduction of ammonia during chloramination provides a potential source of nitrogen either through the addition of excess ammonia or through chloramine decay. This promotes the growth of nitrifying microorganisms and provides a nitrogen source (i.e., nitrate) for the growth for other organisms. While the roles of canonical ammonia-oxidizing and nitrite-oxidizing bacteria in chloraminated drinking water systems have been extensively investigated, those studies have largely adopted a targeted gene-centered approach. Further, little is known about the potential long-term cooccurrence of complete-ammonia-oxidizing (i.e., comammox) bacteria and the potential metabolic synergies of nitrifying organisms with their heterotrophic counterparts that are capable of denitrification and nitrogen assimilation. This study leveraged data obtained for genome-resolved metagenomics over a time series to show that while nitrifying bacteria are dominant and likely to play a major role in nitrification, their cooccurrence with heterotrophic organisms suggests that nitric oxide production and nitrate reduction to ammonia may also occur in chloraminated drinking water systems.

Separating and Characterizing Functional Nitrogen Degraders via Magnetic Nanoparticle-Mediated Isolation

Magnetic nanoparticle-mediated isolation (MMI) is a new method for isolating active functional microbes from complex microorganisms without substrate labeling. In this study, the composition and properties of magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) were characterized by a number of techniques, indicating that MNPs have characteristics such as microinterfaces and can be efficiently fixed on the surface of microbial cells. It also introduced the MMI technology in activated sludge after stable long-term treatment. With further addition of promotor carbon sources, the enrichment of the functional nitrogen degraders in MMI was significantly higher than in samples without MNPs, showing the advantages of MMI in identifying the active degraders. Redundancy analysis (RDA) also showed that the functional nitrogen degraders such as Comamonadaceae_unclassified and Thiobacillus absolutely dominated in situ ammonia degradation, and the change in dominant genera had the same trend as the degradation rate of ammonia nitrogen. In the magnetically functionalized system, the separated functional nitrogen degraders significantly improved ammonia nitrogen degradation efficiency, making it basically stable at more than 80%, up to 91.6%. These results prove that the complex flora created after the addition of MNPs is more adaptable to newly introduced pollutants, and MMI is a powerful tool for studying pollutant-degrading microorganisms under in situ conditions.

Genome Sequence of "Candidatus Nitrosocosmicus franklandus" C13, a Terrestrial Ammonia-Oxidizing Archaeon

“Candidatus Nitrosocosmicus franklandus” C13 is an ammonia-oxidizing archaeon (AOA) isolated from soil. Its complete genome is 2.84 Mb and possesses predicted AOA metabolic pathways for energy generation and carbon dioxide fixation but no typical surface layer (S-layer) proteins, only one ammonium transporter, and divergent A-type ATP synthase genes.

“Candidatus Nitrosocosmicus franklandus” C13 is an ammonia-oxidizing archaeon (AOA) isolated from soil. Its complete genome is 2.84 Mb and possesses predicted AOA metabolic pathways for energy generation and carbon dioxide fixation but no typical surface layer (S-layer) proteins, only one ammonium transporter, and divergent A-type ATP synthase genes.

Effect of Long-Term Farming Practices on Agricultural Soil Microbiome Members Represented by Metagenomically Assembled Genomes (MAGs) and Their Predicted Plant-Beneficial Genes

To follow the hypothesis that agricultural management practices affect structure and function of the soil microbiome regarding soil health and plant-beneficial traits, high-throughput (HT) metagenome analyses were performed on Chernozem soil samples from a long-term field experiment designated LTE-1 carried out at Bernburg-Strenzfeld (Saxony-Anhalt, Germany). Metagenomic DNA was extracted from soil samples representing the following treatments: (i) plough tillage with standard nitrogen fertilization and use of fungicides and growth regulators, (ii) plough tillage with reduced nitrogen fertilization (50%), (iii) cultivator tillage with standard nitrogen fertilization and use of fungicides and growth regulators, and (iv) cultivator tillage with reduced nitrogen fertilization (50%). Bulk soil (BS), as well as root-affected soil (RS), were considered for all treatments in replicates. HT-sequencing of metagenomic DNA yielded approx. 100 Giga bases (Gb) of sequence information. Taxonomic profiling of soil communities revealed the presence of 70 phyla, whereby Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Planctomycetes, Acidobacteria, Thaumarchaeota, Firmicutes, Verrucomicrobia and Chloroflexi feature abundances of more than 1%. Functional microbiome profiling uncovered, i.a., numerous potential plant-beneficial, plant-growth-promoting and biocontrol traits predicted to be involved in nutrient provision, phytohormone synthesis, antagonism against pathogens and signal molecule synthesis relevant in microbe–plant interaction. Neither taxonomic nor functional microbiome profiling based on single-read analyses revealed pronounced differences regarding the farming practices applied. Soil metagenome sequences were assembled and taxonomically binned. The ten most reliable and abundant Metagenomically Assembled Genomes (MAGs) were taxonomically classified and metabolically reconstructed. Importance of the phylum Thaumarchaeota for the analyzed microbiome is corroborated by the fact that the four corresponding MAGs were predicted to oxidize ammonia (nitrification), thus contributing to the cycling of nitrogen, and in addition are most probably able to fix carbon dioxide. Moreover, Thaumarchaeota and several bacterial MAGs also possess genes with predicted functions in plant–growth–promotion. Abundances of certain MAGs (species resolution level) responded to the tillage practice, whereas the factors compartment (BS vs. RS) and nitrogen fertilization only marginally shaped MAG abundance profiles. Hence, soil management regimes promoting plant-beneficial microbiome members are very likely advantageous for the respective agrosystem, its health and carbon sequestration and accordingly may enhance plant productivity. Since Chernozem soils are highly fertile, corresponding microbiome data represent a valuable reference resource for agronomy in general.

Biogeographic Distribution Patterns of the Archaeal Communities Across the Black Soil Zone of Northeast China

Although archaea are ubiquitous in various environments, the knowledge gaps still exist regarding the biogeographical distribution of archaeal communities at regional scales in agricultural soils compared with bacteria and fungi. To provide a broader biogeographical context of archaeal diversity, this study quantified the abundance and community composition of archaea across the black soil zone in northeast China using real-time PCR and high-throughput sequencing (HTS) methods. Archaeal abundances across all soil samples ranged from 4.04 × 10⁷ to 26.18 × 10⁷ 16S rRNA gene copies per gram of dry soil. Several soil factors were positively correlated with the abundances including soil pH, concentrations of total C, N, and P, and available K in soil, and soil water content. Approximately 94.2, 5.7, and 0.3% of archaeal sequences, and 31, 151, and 3 OTUs aligned within the phyla Thaumarchaeota, Euryarchaeota, and Crenarchaeota, respectively. Within the phylum of Thaumarchaeota, group 1.1b was a dominating genus accounting for an average of 87% archaeal sequences and phylogenetically classified as Nitrososphaera, a genus of ammonia oxidizing archaea. The response of dominating OTUs to environmental factors differed greatly, suggesting the physiological characteristics of different archaeal members is diversified in the black soils. Although the number of OTUs was not related with any particular soil parameters, the number of OTUs within Thaumarchaeota and Euryarchaeota was marginally related with soil pH. Archaeal community compositions differed between samples, and a Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) analysis indicated that soil pH and the latitude of sampling locations were two dominating factors in shifting community structures. A variance partitioning analysis (VPA) analysis showed that the selected soil parameters (32%) were the largest drivers of community variation, in particular soil pH (21%), followed by geographic distances (19%). These findings suggest that archaeal communities have distinct biogeographic distribution pattern in the black soil zone and soil pH was the key edaphic factor in structuring the community compositions.

Anaerobic ammonium oxidation coupled to iron reduction in constructed wetland mesocosms

Acidimicrobiaceae sp. A6 (referred to as A6) was recently identified as playing a key role in the Feammox process (ammonium oxidation coupled to iron reduction). Two constructed wetlands (CW) were built and bioaugmented with A6 to determine if, under the right conditions, Feammox can be enhanced in CWs by having strata with higher iron content. Hence, the solid stratum in the CWs was sand, and one CW was augmented with ferrihydrite. Vertical ammonium (NH₄⁺) concentration profiles in the CW mesocosms were monitored regularly. After four months of operation, when reducing conditions were established in the CWs, they were inoculated with an enrichment culture containing A6 and monitored for an additional four months, after which they were dismantled and analyzed. During the four-month period after the A6 enrichment culture injection, 25.0 ± 7.3% of NH₄⁺ was removed from the CW with the high iron substrate whereas 11.0 ± 9.7% was removed from the CW with the low iron substrate on average. Since the CW with high NH₄⁺ removal had the same plant density, same bacterial biomass, same fraction of ammonium oxidizing bacteria (AOB), a higher biomass of A6, and a higher pH (NH₄⁺ oxidation by Feammox raises pH, whereas NH₄⁺ oxidation by aerobic AOB decreases pH), this difference in NH₄⁺ removal is attributed to the Feammox process, indicating that wetlands can be constructed to take advantage of the Feammox process for increased NH₄⁺ removal.

Mangrove Facies Drives Resistance and Resilience of Sediment Microbes Exposed to Anthropic Disturbance

Mangrove forests are coastal ecosystems continuously affected by various environmental stresses and organized along constraint gradients perpendicular to the coastline. The aim of this study was to evaluate the resistance and resilience of sediment microbial communities in contrasted vegetation facies, during and after exposure to an anthropic disturbance. Our hypothesis was that microbial communities should be the most stable in the facies where the consequences of the anthropic disturbance are the most similar to those of natural disturbances. To test this, we focused on communities involved in N-cycle. We used an in situ experimental system set up in Mayotte Island where 2 zones dominated by different mangrove trees are daily exposed since 2008 to pretreated domestic wastewater (PW) discharges. These freshwater and nutrients inputs should increase microbial activities and hence the anoxia of sediments. We monitored during 1 year the long-term impact of this disturbance, its short-term impact and the resilience of microbial communities on plots where PW discharges were interrupted. Microorganism densities were estimated by qPCR, the nitrification (NEA) and denitrification (DEA) enzyme activities were evaluated by potential activity measurements and pigment analyses were performed to assess the composition of microbial photosynthetic communities. At long-term PW discharges significantly modified the structure of phototrophic communities and increased the total density of bacteria, the density of denitrifying bacteria and DEA. Similar effects were observed at short-term, notably in the facies dominated by Ceriops tagal. The results showed a partial resilience of microbial communities. This resilience was faster in the facies dominated by Rhizophora mucronata, which is more subjected to tides and sediment anoxia. The higher stability of microbial communities in this facies confirms our hypothesis. Such information should be taken into account in mangrove utilization and conservation policies.

Nitrogen removal in the sediments of the Pearl River Estuary, China: Evidence from the distribution and forms of nitrogen in the sediment cores

In this study, the spatial distribution and forms of nitrogen in sediment cores collected from the Pearl River Estuary were analyzed. Exchangeable nitrogen (N_ex) comprised only a small proportion of total nitrogen (N_tot), with a mean of 3.54% in the sediment cores. NH₄⁺ was the main form of N_ex. No obvious change was observed in the vertical content of fixed ammonia (N_fix) in the sediments, and the mean N_fix in all five sediment cores was 141.23 mg·kg^-1. The organic nitrogen (N_org), strongly related to organic carbon (C_org), was the main form in N_tot. The dissolved inorganic nitrogen in sediment pore water was much lower than that in estuarine water and no significant variation was observed from upstream to downstream. Our results indicated that most nitrogen deposited on surface sediments from overlying water was rapidly removed by a series of microbial processes, reducing the extent of nitrogen returning to overlying waters.

Heavy metals in slag affect inorganic N dynamics and soil bacterial community structure and function

Heavy metal contamination of soil in the vicinity of mining sites is a serious environmental problem around the world when mining residue (slag) is dispersed as dust. We conducted an incubation experiment to investigate the effect of a slag containing high levels of Pb and Zn (62.2 and 33.6 g kg^-1 slag as PbO and ZnO, respectively, sampled from a site formerly used as a lead and zinc mine) on the nitrogen cycle when mixed with soil (0-0.048 g slag g^-1 soil). The nitrogen cycle provides many life supporting-functions. To assess the quality of the soil in terms of the nitrogen cycle we focused on the dynamics of nitrate and ammonium, and bacterial community structure and functions within the soil. After two weeks of pre-incubation, ¹⁵N-labeled urea (500 mg N kg^-1) was added to the soil. Changes in soil pH, the concentration and ¹⁵N ratio of nitrate (NO₃^--N) and ammonium, and bacterial relative abundance and community structure were measured. Results indicated that increasing the ratio of slag to soil had a stronger negative effect on nitrification than ammonification, as suggested by slower nitrate accumulation rates as the slag:soil ratio increased. In the treatment with the highest amount of slag, the concentration of NO₃^--N was 50% of that in the controls at the end of the incubation. Regarding the bacterial community, Firmicutes had a positive and Planctomycetes a negative correlation with increasing slag concentration. Bacterial community functional analysis showed the proportion of bacterial DNA sequences related to nitrogen metabolism was depressed with increasing slag, from 0.68 to 0.65. We concluded that the slag impacted the soil bacterial community structure, and consequently influenced nitrogen dynamics. This study could form the basis of further investigation into the resistance of the nitrogen cycle to contamination in relation to soil bacterial community.

Ectomycorrhizal fungi inoculation alleviates simulated acid rain effects on soil ammonia oxidizers and denitrifiers in Masson pine forest

Acid rain can cause severe effects on soil biota and nutrient biogeochemical cycles in the forest ecosystem, but how plant-symbiotic ectomycorrhizal fungi will modulate the effects remains unknown. Here, we conducted a full factorial field experiment in a Masson pine forest by simultaneously controlling the acidity of the simulated rain (pH 5.6 vs. pH 3.5) and the ectomycorrhizal fungi Pisolithus tinctorius inoculation (non-inoculation vs. inoculation), to investigate the effects on ammonia oxidizers and denitrifiers. After 10 months, compared with the control (rain pH 5.6, and non-inoculation), simulated acid rain (pH 3.5) reduced soil nutrient content, decreased archaeal amoA gene abundance and inhibited denitrification enzyme activity. Also, simulated acid rain altered the community compositions of all the examined functional genes (archaeal amoA, bacterial amoA, nirK, nirS and nosZ). However, inoculation with ectomycorrhizal fungi under acid rain stress recovered soil nutrient content, archaeal amoA gene abundance and denitrification enzyme activity to levels comparable to the control, suggesting that ectomycorrhizal fungi inoculation ameliorates simulated acid rain effects. Taken together, ectomycorrhizal fungi inoculation - potentially through improving soil substrate availability - could alleviate the deleterious effects of acid rain on nitrogen cycling microbes in forest soils.

Variation and diversification of the microbiome of Schlechtendalia chinensis on two alternate host plants

Schlechtendalia chinensis, a gall-inducing aphid, has two host plants in its life cycle. Its wintering host is a moss (typically Plagiomnium maximoviczii) and its main host is Rhus chinensis (Sumac), on which it forms galls during the summer. This study investigated bacteria associated with S. chinensis living on the two different host plants by sequencing 16S rRNAs. A total of 183 Operational Taxonomic Units (OTUs) from 50 genera were identified from aphids living on moss, whereas 182 OTUs from 49 genera were found from aphids living in Sumac galls. The most abundant bacterial genus among identified OTUs from aphids feeding on both hosts was Buchnera. Despite similar numbers of OTUs, the composition of bacterial taxa showed significant differences between aphids living on moss and those living on R. chinensis. Specifically, there were 12 OTUs from 5 genera (family) unique to aphids living on moss, and 11 OTUs from 4 genera (family) unique to aphids feeding in galls on R. chinensis. Principal Coordinate Analysis (PCoA) also revealed that bacteria from moss-residing aphids clustered differently from aphids collected from galls. Our results provide a foundation for future analyses on the roles of symbiotic bacteria in plant-aphid interactions in general, and how gall-specific symbionts differ in this respect.

Short-term biochar manipulation of microbial nitrogen transformation in wheat rhizosphere of a metal contaminated Inceptisol from North China plain

While metal immobilization had been increasingly reported with biochar soil amendment (BSA), changes in microbial activity and nitrogen (N) transformation in metal contaminated croplands following biochar addition had been insufficiently addressed. In a field experiment, a Pb/Cd contaminated Inceptisol from North China was amended to topsoil with wheat straw biochar at 0 (CK), 20 (C1) and 40 t ha^-1 (C2). The changes within two years following BSA were tested in microbial biomass and respiration, and in abundance of N transforming microbial communities and their activities. Corresponding to the results of decreased soil extractable Cd and Pb, significant reductions in qCO₂ were found in rhizosphere and bulk soil only under C2 in the first year. The potential nitrification activity was significantly increased by 20-71%, along with an increase in ammonium (by 7-21%) and nitrate (by 21%-70%) concentration, with BSA compared to CK. Meanwhile, N₂O production activity was slightly increased (by up to 20%) but N₂O reduction activity greatly enhanced (by up to 84%), with a higher ratio of nosZ/(nirS + nirK), under C2 in rhizosphere in both wheat seasons. Whereas, such changes were not remarkable in bulk soil. Moreover, microbial communities were less respondent to biochar in the second year following the addition. Therefore, microbial growth and functioning for N transforming and cycling in metal contaminated soils could be largely improved with BSA at 40 t ha^-1. Of course, studies are still deserved to mimic the long term changes with biochar in N cycling of the metal contaminated dry croplands.

Different Recovery Processes of Soil Ammonia Oxidizers from Flooding Disturbance

Understanding how microorganisms respond to environmental disturbance is one of the key focuses in microbial ecology. Ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB) and archaea (AOA) are responsible for ammonia oxidation which is a crucial step in the nitrogen cycle. Although the physiology, distribution, and activity of AOA and AOB in soil have been extensively investigated, their recovery from a natural disturbance remains largely unknown. To assess the recovery capacities, including resistance and resilience, of AOA and AOB, soil samples were taken from a reservoir riparian zone which experienced periodically water flooding. The samples were classified into three groups (flooding, recovery, and control) for a high-throughput sequencing and quantitative PCR analysis. We used a relative quantitative index of both the resistance (RS) and resilience (RL) to assess the variation of gene abundance, alpha-diversity, and community composition. The AOA generally demonstrated a better recovery capability after the flooding disturbance compared to AOB. In particular, AOA were more resilient after the flooding disturbance. Taxa within the AOA and AOB showed different RS and RL values, with the most abundant taxa showing in general the highest RS indices. Soil NH₄⁺ and Fe²⁺/Fe³⁺ were the main variables controlling the key taxa of AOA and AOB and probably influenced the resistance and resilience properties of AOA and AOB communities. The distinct mechanisms of AOA and AOB in maintaining community stability against the flooding disturbance might be linked to the different life-history strategies: the AOA community was more likely to represent r-strategists in contrast to the AOB community following a K-life strategy. Our results indicated that the AOA may play a vital role in ammonia oxidation in a fluctuating habitat and contribute to the stability of riparian ecosystem.

Impacts of nonpoint source pollutants on microbial community in rain gardens

Low-impact development (LID) techniques are being applied to reduce non-point source (NPS) pollution which are generated from various land uses. Cost-effective LID design requires consideration of influent runoff properties as well as physical and ecological pollutant-removing mechanisms. However, current LID technology design has failed to reflect the different properties of influent water from various land uses, and the biological design factors in LID facilities causing low efficiency and difficulties in maintenance. This study was conducted to identify biological design factors by analyzing the impact of the pollutants included in influent runoff and physical environment on microbial growth in rain garden facilities applied to different land uses. The results showed that the non-point source pollutant loadings were about 1.5-3 times higher in the runoff from parking lots, which are frequently visited by automobiles than in roof runoff. Type of soil, chemical species, and chemical composition were assessed as internal environmental factors having significant impact on the phylum and the count of microorganisms in the facilities. The growth of Cyanobacteria, Streptophyta, Chlorophyta, Bacillariophyta, and Xanthophyceae was good when there was appropriate water content in the soil, light, and sandy soil. Based on these results, the future design of rain garden facilities should be performed by considering a microorganism appropriate to the properties of the influent pollutants, determining appropriate water content, nutrient content and soil type, and choosing plants that contribute to microbial growth.

The cycle of nitrogen in river systems: sources, transformation, and flux

Nitrogen is a requisite and highly demanded element for living organisms on Earth. However, increasing human activities have greatly altered the global nitrogen cycle, especially in rivers and streams, resulting in eutrophication, formation of hypoxic zones, and increased production of N2O, a powerful greenhouse gas. This review focuses on three aspects of the nitrogen cycle in streams and rivers. We firstly introduce the distributions and concentrations of nitrogen compounds in streams and rivers as well as the techniques for tracing the sources of nitrogen pollution. Secondly, the overall picture of nitrogen transformations in rivers and streams conducted by organisms is described, especially focusing on the roles of suspended particle-water surfaces in overlying water, sediment-water interfaces, and riparian zones in the nitrogen cycle of streams and rivers. The coupling of nitrogen and other element (C, S, and Fe) cycles in streams and rivers is also briefly covered. Finally, we analyze the nitrogen budget of river systems as well as nitrogen loss as N2O and N2 through the fluvial network and give a summary of the effects and consequences of human activities and climate change on the riverine nitrogen cycle. In addition, future directions for the research on the nitrogen cycle in river systems are outlined.

Compositional and abundance changes of nitrogen-cycling genes in plant-root microbiomes along a salt marsh chronosequence

Disentangling the relative influences of soil properties and plant-host on root-associated microbiomes in natural systems is challenging, given that spatially segregated soil types display distinct historical legacies. In addition, distant locations may also lead to biogeographical patterns of microbial communities. Here, we used an undisturbed salt marsh chronosequence spanning over a century of ecosystem development to investigate changes in the community composition and abundance of a set of nitrogen-cycling genes. Specifically, we targeted genes of diazotrophs and ammonia oxidizers associated with the bulk and rhizosphere soil of the plant species Limonium vulgare. Samples were collected across five distinct successional stages of the chronosequence (ranging from 5 to 105 years) at two time-points. Our results indicate that soil variables such as sand:silt:clay % content and pH strongly relates to the abundance of N-cycling genes in the bulk soil. However, in the rhizosphere samples, the abundance of ammonia-oxidizing organisms (both bacteria and archaea, AOB and AOA, respectively) was relatively constant across most of the successional stages, albeit displaying seasonal variation. This result indicates a potentially stronger control of plant host (rather than soil) on the abundance of these organisms. Interestingly, the plant host did not have a significant effect on the composition of AOA and AOB communities, being mostly divergent according to soil successional stages. The abundance of diazotrophic communities in rhizosphere samples was more affected by seasonality than those of bulk soil. Moreover, the abundance pattern of diazotrophs in the rhizosphere related to the systematic increase of plant biomass and soil organic matter along the successional gradient. These results suggest a potential season-dependent regulation of diazotrophs exerted by the plant host. Overall, this study contributes to a better understanding of how the natural formation of a soil and host plants influence the compositional and abundance changes of nitrogen-cycling genes in bulk and rhizosphere soil microhabitats.

Characterization of Microbial Communities in Pilot-Scale Constructed Wetlands with Salicornia for Treatment of Marine Aquaculture Effluents

Microorganisms play an essential role in the performance of constructed wetlands (CWs) for wastewater treatment. However, there has been limited discussion on the characteristics of microbial communities in CWs for treatment of effluents from marine recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS). This study is aimed at characterizing the microbial communities of pilot-scale CWs with Salicornia bigelovii for treatment of saline wastewater from a land-based Atlantic salmon RAS plant located in Northern China. Illumina high-throughput sequencing was employed to identify the profile of microbial communities of three CWs receiving wastewater under different total ammonia nitrogen (TAN) concentrations. Results of this study showed remarkable spatial variations in diversity and composition of microbial communities between roots and substrates in three CWs, with distinct response to different TAN concentrations. In particular, Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Cyanobacteria, and Bacteroidetes were predominant in roots, while Cyanobacteria, Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Verrucomicrobia, and Bacteroidetes were prevalent in substrates. Moreover, redundancy analysis indicated that specific functional genera, such as Nitrosopumilus, Vibrio, Pseudoalteromonas, Nitrospina, and Planctomyces, played key roles in the removal of nitrogen/phosphorus pollutants and growth of wetland plants. From a microorganism perspective, the findings of this study could contribute to better understanding of contaminants' removal mechanism and improved management of CWs for treatment of effluents from land-based marine aquaculture.

Candidatus Nitrosocaldus cavascurensis, an Ammonia Oxidizing, Extremely Thermophilic Archaeon with a Highly Mobile Genome

Ammonia oxidizing archaea (AOA) of the phylum Thaumarchaeota are widespread in moderate environments but their occurrence and activity has also been demonstrated in hot springs. Here we present the first enrichment of a thermophilic representative with a sequenced genome, which facilitates the search for adaptive strategies and for traits that shape the evolution of Thaumarchaeota. Candidatus Nitrosocaldus cavascurensis has been enriched from a hot spring in Ischia, Italy. It grows optimally at 68°C under chemolithoautotrophic conditions on ammonia or urea converting ammonia stoichiometrically into nitrite with a generation time of approximately 23 h. Phylogenetic analyses based on ribosomal proteins place the organism as a sister group to all known mesophilic AOA. The 1.58 Mb genome of Ca. N. cavascurensis harbors an amoAXCB gene cluster encoding ammonia monooxygenase and genes for a 3-hydroxypropionate/4-hydroxybutyrate pathway for autotrophic carbon fixation, but also genes that indicate potential alternative energy metabolisms. Although a bona fide gene for nitrite reductase is missing, the organism is sensitive to NO-scavenging, underlining the potential importance of this compound for AOA metabolism. Ca. N. cavascurensis is distinct from all other AOA in its gene repertoire for replication, cell division and repair. Its genome has an impressive array of mobile genetic elements and other recently acquired gene sets, including conjugative systems, a provirus, transposons and cell appendages. Some of these elements indicate recent exchange with the environment, whereas others seem to have been domesticated and might convey crucial metabolic traits.

Response of ammonia oxidizing archaea and bacteria to decabromodiphenyl ether and copper contamination in river sediments

Ammonia oxidation plays a fundamental role in river nitrogen cycling ecosystems, which is normally governed by both ammonia oxidizing archaea (AOA) and ammonia oxidizing bacteria (AOB). Co-contamination of typical emerging pollutant Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and heavy metal on AOA and AOB communities in river sediments remains unknown. In this study, multiple analytical tools, including high-throughput pyrosequencing and real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR), were used to reveal the ammonia monooxygenase (AMO) activity, subunit alpha (amoA) gene abundance, and community structures of AOA and AOB in river sediments. It was found that the inhibition of AMO activities was increased with the increase of decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE 209, 1-100 mg kg^-1) and copper (Cu, 50-500 mg kg^-1) concentrations. Moreover, the synergic effects of BDE 209 and Cu resulted in a higher AMO activity reduction than the individual pollutant BDE 209. The AOA amoA copy number declined by 75.9% and 83.2% and AOB amoA gene abundance declined 82.8% and 90.0% at 20 and 100 mg kg^-1 BDE 209 with a 100 mg kg^-1 Cu co-contamination, respectively. The pyrosequencing results showed that both AOB and AOA community structures were altered, with a higher change of AOB than that of AOA. The results demonstrated that the AOB microbial community may be better adapted to BDE 209 and Cu pollution, while AOA might possess a greater capacity for stress resistance. Our study provides a better understanding of the ecotoxicological effects of heavy metal and micropollutant combined exposure on AOA and AOB in river sediments.

Effects of microbial activity on perfluorinated carboxylic acids (PFCAs) generation during aerobic biotransformation of fluorotelomer alcohols in activated sludge

Biotransformation of fluorotelomer alcohols (FTOHs) in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) can release toxic intermediates and perfluorinated carboxylic acids (PFCAs) to the aqueous environment. However, little information is known about the role of relevant microbial activity (i.e., autotrophs and/or heterotrophs) in biotransformation of FTOHs. Additionally, the dynamics of microbial community in sludge after exposure to FTOHs remain unclear. In the present research, using domestic and industrial WWTP sludge, we performed lab-scale batch experiments to characterize the FTOHs biodegradation property under aerobic condition. Both heterotrophs and the autotrophs were associated with FTOHs biotransformation. However, the microbial activity influenced PFCAs generation efficiency. Autotrophs based on ammonia oxidation (50mgN/L) resulted in more effective generation of PFCAs than heterotrophs based on glucose (200mgC/L) metabolism. Moreover, autotrophs generated more amounts of short-chain PFCAs (carbon number ≤7) than the heterotrophs. The ammonia monooxygenase (AMO) in ammonia oxidizing microorganisms (AOMs) are suggested as responsible for the enhanced generation of PFCAs during FTOHs biotransformation. In the sludge that had been exposed to poly- and perfluorinated alkyl substances in an industrial WWTP, Chlorobi was the predominant microorganisms (36.9%), followed by Proteobacteria (20.2%), Bacteroidetes (11.1%), Chloroflexi (6.2%), Crenarchaeota (5.6%), Planctomycetes (4.2%), and Acidobacteria (3.5%). In the present research, the dosed 8:2 FTOH (12.1mg/L) and its biotransformation products (intermediates and PFCAs) could force a shift in microbial community composition in the sludge. After 192h, Proteobacteria significantly increased and dominated. These results provide knowledge for comprehending the effects of microbial activity on FTOHs biodegradation and the information about interaction between microbial community and the exposure to FTOHs in activated sludge.

Effects of various fertilization regimes on abundance and activity of anaerobic ammonium oxidation bacteria in rice-wheat cropping systems in China

Anaerobic ammonium oxidation (anammox) is an important process in many marine and paddy ecosystems. However, few studies have reported on the contribution to the nitrogen cycle of anammox and its dynamics in rice-wheat cropping systems with different fertilization regimes. Here, isotope tracing and molecular techniques were used to determine the potential rates of anammox and their association with bacterial abundance, diversity, and activity. Rice-wheat cropping systems at two sites in Jiangsu Province, China were selected and the treatments at each site were: 1) no fertilization (CK), 2) 100% chemical fertilization (CF), 3) pig manure compost plus 50% chemical fertilization (PMCF), and 4) straw plus 100% chemical fertilization (SRCF). The results revealed that anammox bacteria with high abundance were detected in both the wheat and rice seasons. The abundance of anammox in PMCF treatment was higher than that in SRCF treatment in both Changshu and Jintan. Moreover, the abundance of anammox bacteria in CF treatment was significantly higher than that in CK in Changshu. Analysis of anammox hydrazine synthase β subunit (hzs-β) gene sequences showed that in the rice season, the anammox bacteria Ca. Brocadia, Ca. Scalindua, and Ca. Jettenia were present. In contrast, all of the anammox hydrazine oxidase (hzo) genes were affiliated with Ca. Brocadia, suggesting that hzs genes are more representative of anammox biological diversity compared to hzo. Sequences from the PMCF treatment where affiliated with both Ca. Jettenia and Ca. Brocadia, and showed the highest diversity. Anammox activity was detected in both the wheat and rice seasons, but there were significant differences between seasons. The anammox rates were in the range 0.34 to 1.04nmol dinitrogen gas∙g^-1 dry soil∙h^-1, and 3.15 to 9.62% of dinitrogen gas emissions were attributed to anammox. However, no significant difference among the fertilizer treatments for anammox activity was found in the study.

Phylogenetic diversity and distribution of bacterial and archaeal amoA genes in the East China Sea during spring

Microbial nitrification is a key process in the nitrogen cycle in the continental shelf ecosystems. The genotype compositions and abundance of the ammonia monooxygenase gene, amoA, derived from ammonia-oxidizing archaea (AOA) and bacteria (AOB) in two size fractions (2-10 and 0.2-2 µm), were investigated in the East China Sea (ECS) in May 2008 using PCR-denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) and quantitative PCR (qPCR). Four sites were selected across the continental shelf edge: continental shelf water (CSW), Kuroshio branch water (KBW), transition between CSW and KBW (TCSKB) and coastal KBW (CKBW). The gene copy numbers of AOA-amoA were higher than those of AOB-amoA in ECS. The relative abundance of amoA to the total 16S rRNA gene level reached approximately 15% in KBW and CKBW for the free-living fraction of AOA, whereas the level was less than 0.01% throughout ECS for the AOB. A cluster analysis of the AOA-amoA-DGGE band pattern showed distinct genotype compositions in CSW in both the size fractions and in the surface of the TCSKB and KBW. Sequences of the DGGE bands were assigned to two clades. One of the clades exclusively consisted of sequences derived from the 2-10-µm fraction. This study revealed that AOA-amoA abundance dominated over AOB-amoA throughout the ECS, whereas the genotype composition of AOA-amoA were distributed heterogeneously across the water masses. Additionally, this is the first report showing the distribution of AOA-amoA genotypes characteristic to particle-associated AOA in the offshore of the East China Sea.

The draft genome of the hyperthermophilic archaeon Pyrodictium delaneyi strain hulk, an iron and nitrate reducer, reveals the capacity for sulfate reduction

Pyrodictium delaneyi strain Hulk is a newly sequenced strain isolated from chimney samples collected from the Hulk sulfide mound on the main Endeavour Segment of the Juan de Fuca Ridge (47.9501 latitude, -129.0970 longitude, depth 2200 m) in the Northeast Pacific Ocean. The draft genome of strain Hulk shared 99.77% similarity with the complete genome of the type strain Su06T, which shares with strain Hulk the ability to reduce iron and nitrate for respiration. The annotation of the genome of strain Hulk identified genes for the reduction of several sulfur-containing electron acceptors, an unsuspected respiratory capability in this species that was experimentally confirmed for strain Hulk. This makes P. delaneyi strain Hulk the first hyperthermophilic archaeon known to gain energy for growth by reduction of iron, nitrate, and sulfur-containing electron acceptors. Here we present the most notable features of the genome of P. delaneyi strain Hulk and identify genes encoding proteins critical to its respiratory versatility at high temperatures. The description presented here corresponds to a draft genome sequence containing 2,042,801 bp in 9 contigs, 2019 protein-coding genes, 53 RNA genes, and 1365 hypothetical genes.