1
|
Norambuena-Subiabre L, Carbonell P, Salgado P, Zamora C, Espinoza-González O. Sources and profiles of toxins in shellfish from the south-central coast of Chile (36°‒ 43° S). HARMFUL ALGAE 2024; 133:102608. [PMID: 38485442 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2024.102608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2023] [Revised: 02/22/2024] [Accepted: 02/27/2024] [Indexed: 03/19/2024]
Abstract
The study of marine toxins in shellfish is of the utmost importance to ensure people's food safety. Marine toxins in shellfish and microalgae in the water column off the south-central coast of Chile (36°‒43° S) were studied in a network of 64 stations over a 14-month period. The relative abundance of harmful species Alexandrium catenella, Alexandrium ostenfeldii, Protoceratium reticulatum, Dinophysis acuminata, Dinophysis acuta, Pseudo-nitzschia seriata group and P. delicatissima group was analyzed. The detection and quantification of lipophilic toxins and domoic acid (DA) in shellfish was determined by UHPLC-MS/MS, and for Paralytic Shellfish Toxins (PSTs) by HPLC-FD with post-column oxidation, while for a culture of A. ostenfeldii a Hylic-UHPLC-MS/MS was used. Results showed that DA, gonyautoxin (GTX)-2, GTX-3 and pectenotoxin (PTX)-2 were detected below the permitted limits, while Gymnodimine (GYM)-A and 13-desmethylespirolide C (SPX-1) were below the limit of quantitation. According to the distribution and abundance record of microalgae, DA would be associated to P. seriata and P. delicatissima-groups, PTX-2 to D. acuminata, and GTX-2, GTX-3, GYM-A, and SPX-1 to A. ostenfeldii. However, the toxin analysis of an A. ostenfeldii culture from the Biobío region only showed the presence of the paralytic toxins C2, GTX-2, GTX-3, GTX-5 and saxitoxin, therefore, the source of production of GYM and SPX is still undetermined.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Luis Norambuena-Subiabre
- Instituto de Fomento Pesquero (IFOP), Centro de Estudios de Algas Nocivas (CREAN), Padre Harter 574, Puerto Montt, Chile.
| | - Pamela Carbonell
- Instituto de Fomento Pesquero (IFOP), Centro de Estudios de Algas Nocivas (CREAN), Padre Harter 574, Puerto Montt, Chile
| | - Pablo Salgado
- Instituto de Fomento Pesquero (IFOP), Centro de Estudios de Algas Nocivas (CREAN), Enrique Abello 0552, Punta Arenas, Chile
| | - Claudia Zamora
- Instituto de Fomento Pesquero (IFOP), Centro de Estudios de Algas Nocivas (CREAN), Enrique Abello 0552, Punta Arenas, Chile
| | - Oscar Espinoza-González
- Instituto de Fomento Pesquero (IFOP), Centro de Estudios de Algas Nocivas (CREAN), Padre Harter 574, Puerto Montt, Chile
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Yang J, Sun W, Sun M, Cui Y, Wang L. Current Research Status of Azaspiracids. Mar Drugs 2024; 22:79. [PMID: 38393050 PMCID: PMC10890026 DOI: 10.3390/md22020079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2023] [Revised: 01/31/2024] [Accepted: 02/02/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
The presence and impact of toxins have been detected in various regions worldwide ever since the discovery of azaspiracids (AZAs) in 1995. These toxins have had detrimental effects on marine resource utilization, marine environmental protection, and fishery production. Over the course of more than two decades of research and development, scientists from all over the world have conducted comprehensive studies on the in vivo metabolism, in vitro synthesis methods, pathogenic mechanisms, and toxicology of these toxins. This paper aims to provide a systematic introduction to the discovery, distribution, pathogenic mechanism, in vivo biosynthesis, and in vitro artificial synthesis of AZA toxins. Additionally, it will summarize various detection methods employed over the past 20 years, along with their advantages and disadvantages. This effort will contribute to the future development of rapid detection technologies and the invention of detection devices for AZAs in marine environmental samples.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Lianghua Wang
- Basic Medical College, Naval Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China; (J.Y.); (W.S.); (M.S.); (Y.C.)
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Rosales SA, Díaz PA, Muñoz P, Álvarez G. Modeling the dynamics of harmful algal bloom events in two bays from the northern Chilean upwelling system. HARMFUL ALGAE 2024; 132:102583. [PMID: 38331541 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2024.102583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2023] [Revised: 01/08/2024] [Accepted: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 02/10/2024]
Abstract
The bays of Tongoy and Guanaqueros are located in the Humboldt Current system, where Argopecten purpuratus has been the subject of intense aquaculture development. These bays lie in one of the most productive marine ecosystems on Earth and are dominated by permanent coastal upwelling at Lengua de Vaca Point and Choros Point, one of the three upwelling centers on the Chilean coast. Significantly, this productive system experiences a high recurrence of harmful algal bloom (HAB) events. This paper examines 9-year (2010-2018) samples of three toxic microalgal species collected in different monitoring programs and research projects. During this period, nine HAB events were detected in Guanaqueros Bay and 14 in Tongoy Bay. Among these, three HAB events were produced simultaneously in both bays by Pseudo-nitzschia australis, and two events produced simultaneously were detected in one bay by Alexandrium spp. and the other by Dinophysis acuminata. Before El Niño 2015-16, there were more HAB events of longer duration by the three species. Since El Niño, the number and duration of events were reduced and only produced by P. australis. HAB events were simulated with the FVCOM model and a virtual particle tracker model to evaluate the dynamics of bays and their relationship with HAB events. The results showed retention in bays during the relaxation conditions of upwelling and low connectivity between bays, which explains why almost no simultaneous events were recorded.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sergio A Rosales
- Programa de Doctorado en Biología y Ecología Aplicada, Universidad Católica del Norte, Coquimbo, Chile; Departamento de Biología Marina, Facultad de Ciencias del Mar, Universidad Católica del Norte, Coquimbo, Chile.
| | - Patricio A Díaz
- Centro i∼mar & CeBiB, Universidad de Los Lagos, Casilla 557, Puerto Montt, Chile
| | - Práxedes Muñoz
- Departamento de Biología Marina, Facultad de Ciencias del Mar, Universidad Católica del Norte, Coquimbo, Chile
| | - Gonzalo Álvarez
- Departamento de Acuicultura, Facultad de Ciencias del Mar, Universidad Católica del Norte, Coquimbo, Chile
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Ozawa M, Uchida H, Watanabe R, Matsushima R, Oikawa H, Takahashi K, Iwataki M, Suzuki T. Azaspiracid accumulation in Japanese coastal bivalves and ascidians fed with Azadinium poporum producing azaspiracid-2 as the dominant toxin component. Toxicon 2023; 226:107069. [PMID: 36871920 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2023.107069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2022] [Revised: 02/27/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2023]
Abstract
The filter-feeding bivalves often accumulate marine toxins by feeding on toxic dinoflagellates that produce marine toxins. Azaspiracids (AZAs) are a group of lipophilic polyether toxins which have been detected in a variety of organisms in many countries. In our present study, accumulation kinetics and toxin distributions in the tissues of seven bivalve species and ascidians relevant to Japanese coastal waters were investigated by experimentally feeding a toxic dinoflagellate Azadinium poporum, which produces azaspiracid-2 (AZA2) as the dominant toxin component. All bivalve species and ascidians investigated in this study had the capability to accumulate AZA2 and no metabolites of AZA2 were detected in the bivalves and the ascidians. Japanese short-neck clams, Japanese oysters, Pacific oysters and ascidians accumulated AZA2 with the highest concentrations on the hepatopancreas, whereas the highest concentrations of AZA2 were found on the gills in surf clams and horse clams. Hard clams and cockles accumulated high levels of AZA2 in both the hepatopancreas and the gills. As far as we know, this is the first report describing detailed tissue distribution of AZAs in several bivalve species other than mussels (M. edulis) and scallops (P. maximus). Variation of accumulation rates of AZA2 in Japanese short-neck clams on different cell densities or temperatures were observed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mayu Ozawa
- Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, 4-5-7 Konan, Minato, Tokyo, 108-8477, Japan; Fisheries Technology Institute, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 236-8648, Japan.
| | - Hajime Uchida
- Fisheries Technology Institute, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 236-8648, Japan.
| | - Ryuichi Watanabe
- Fisheries Technology Institute, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 236-8648, Japan.
| | - Ryoji Matsushima
- Fisheries Technology Institute, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 236-8648, Japan.
| | - Hiroshi Oikawa
- Fisheries Technology Institute, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 236-8648, Japan.
| | - Kazuya Takahashi
- Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo, Tokyo, 113-8657, Japan.
| | - Mitsunori Iwataki
- Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo, Tokyo, 113-8657, Japan.
| | - Toshiyuki Suzuki
- Fisheries Technology Institute, Japan Fisheries Research and Education Agency, 2-12-4 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 236-8648, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Blanco J, Arévalo F, Moroño Á, Correa J, Rossignoli AE, Lamas JP. Spirolides in Bivalve Mollusk of the Galician (NW Spain) Coast: Interspecific, Spatial, Temporal Variation and Presence of an Isomer of 13-Desmethyl Spirolide C. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 15:13. [PMID: 36668833 PMCID: PMC9861247 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15010013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2022] [Revised: 12/10/2022] [Accepted: 12/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Spirolides are cyclic imines whose risks to human health have not been sufficiently evaluated. To determine the possible impact of these compounds in Galicia (NW Spain), their presence and concentration in bivalve mollusk were studied from 2014 to 2021. Only 13-desmethyl spirolide C (13desmSPXC) and an isomer have been detected, and always at low concentrations. Mussel, Mytilus galloprovincialis, was the species which accumulated more spirolides, but the presence of its isomer was nearly restricted to cockle, Cerastoderma edule, and two clam species, Venerupis corrugata and Polititapes rhomboides. On average, the highest 13desmSPXC levels were found in autumn-winter, while those of its isomer were recorded in spring-summer. Both compounds showed decreasing trends during the study period. Geographically, the concentration tends to decrease from the southern to the north-eastern locations, but temporal variability predominates over spatial variability.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Juan Blanco
- Centro de Investigacións Mariñas, Xunta de Galicia, Pedras de Corón, 36620 Vilanova de Arousa, Spain
| | - Fabiola Arévalo
- Instituto Tecnolóxico para o Control de Medio Mariño de Galicia (INTECMAR), Xunta de Galicia, Peirao de Vilaxoán s/n, 36611 Vilagarcía de Arousa, Spain
| | - Ángeles Moroño
- Instituto Tecnolóxico para o Control de Medio Mariño de Galicia (INTECMAR), Xunta de Galicia, Peirao de Vilaxoán s/n, 36611 Vilagarcía de Arousa, Spain
| | - Jorge Correa
- Instituto Tecnolóxico para o Control de Medio Mariño de Galicia (INTECMAR), Xunta de Galicia, Peirao de Vilaxoán s/n, 36611 Vilagarcía de Arousa, Spain
| | - Araceli E. Rossignoli
- Centro de Investigacións Mariñas, Xunta de Galicia, Pedras de Corón, 36620 Vilanova de Arousa, Spain
| | - Juan Pablo Lamas
- Instituto Tecnolóxico para o Control de Medio Mariño de Galicia (INTECMAR), Xunta de Galicia, Peirao de Vilaxoán s/n, 36611 Vilagarcía de Arousa, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Samdal IA, Sandvik M, Vu J, Sukenthirarasa MS, Kanesamurthy S, Løvberg KLE, Kilcoyne J, Forsyth CJ, Wright EJ, Miles CO. Preparation and characterization of an immunoaffinity column for the selective extraction of azaspiracids. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2022; 1207:123360. [PMID: 35839625 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2022.123360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2022] [Revised: 06/27/2022] [Accepted: 06/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The presence of azaspiracids (AZAs) in shellfish may cause food poisoning in humans. AZAs can accumulate in shellfish filtering seawater that contains marine dinoflagellates such as Azadinium and Amphidoma spp. More than 60 AZA analogues have been identified, of which AZA1, AZA2 and AZA3 are regulated in Europe. Shellfish matrices may complicate quantitation by ELISA and LC-MS methods. Polyclonal antibodies have been developed that bind specifically to the C-26-C-40 domain of the AZA structure and could potentially be used for selectively extracting compounds containing this substructure. This includes almost all known analogues of AZAs, including AZA1, AZA2 and AZA3. Here we report preparation of immunoaffinity chromatography (IAC) columns for clean-up and concentration of AZAs. The IAC columns were prepared by coupling polyclonal anti-AZA IgG to CNBr-activated sepharose. The columns were evaluated using shellfish extracts, and the resulting fractions were analyzed by ELISA and LC-MS. The columns selectively bound over 300 ng AZAs per mL of gel without significant leakage, and did not retain the okadaic acid, cyclic imine, pectenotoxin and yessotoxin analogues that were present in the applied samples. Furthermore, 90-92% of the AZAs were recovered by elution with 90% MeOH, and the columns could be re-used without significant loss of performance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ingunn A Samdal
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 64, 1431 Ås, Norway.
| | - Morten Sandvik
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 64, 1431 Ås, Norway
| | - Jennie Vu
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 64, 1431 Ås, Norway; Oslo Metropolitan University, P.O. Box 4, St. Olavs plass, N-0130 Oslo, Norway
| | - Merii S Sukenthirarasa
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 64, 1431 Ås, Norway; Oslo Metropolitan University, P.O. Box 4, St. Olavs plass, N-0130 Oslo, Norway
| | - Sinthuja Kanesamurthy
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 64, 1431 Ås, Norway; Oslo Metropolitan University, P.O. Box 4, St. Olavs plass, N-0130 Oslo, Norway
| | | | - Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore H91 R673, County Galway, Ireland
| | - Craig J Forsyth
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43220, United States
| | - Elliott J Wright
- Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council of Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - Christopher O Miles
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 64, 1431 Ås, Norway; Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council of Canada, 1411 Oxford Street, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 3Z1, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Díaz PA, Álvarez G, Pizarro G, Blanco J, Reguera B. Lipophilic Toxins in Chile: History, Producers and Impacts. Mar Drugs 2022; 20:122. [PMID: 35200651 PMCID: PMC8874607 DOI: 10.3390/md20020122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2022] [Revised: 02/01/2022] [Accepted: 02/02/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
A variety of microalgal species produce lipophilic toxins (LT) that are accumulated by filter-feeding bivalves. Their negative impacts on human health and shellfish exploitation are determined by toxic potential of the local strains and toxin biotransformations by exploited bivalve species. Chile has become, in a decade, the world's major exporter of mussels (Mytilus chilensis) and scallops (Argopecten purpuratus) and has implemented toxin testing according to importing countries' demands. Species of the Dinophysis acuminata complex and Protoceratium reticulatum are the most widespread and abundant LT producers in Chile. Dominant D. acuminata strains, notwithstanding, unlike most strains in Europe rich in okadaic acid (OA), produce only pectenotoxins, with no impact on human health. Dinophysis acuta, suspected to be the main cause of diarrhetic shellfish poisoning outbreaks, is found in the two southernmost regions of Chile, and has apparently shifted poleward. Mouse bioassay (MBA) is the official method to control shellfish safety for the national market. Positive results from mouse tests to mixtures of toxins and other compounds only toxic by intraperitoneal injection, including already deregulated toxins (PTXs), force unnecessary harvesting bans, and hinder progress in the identification of emerging toxins. Here, 50 years of LST events in Chile, and current knowledge of their sources, accumulation and effects, are reviewed. Improvements of monitoring practices are suggested, and strategies to face new challenges and answer the main questions are proposed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Patricio A. Díaz
- Centro i~mar (CeBiB), Universidad de Los Lagos, Casilla 557, Puerto Montt 5480000, Chile;
| | - Gonzalo Álvarez
- Departamento de Acuicultura, Facultad de Ciencias del Mar, Universidad Católica del Norte, Larrondo 1281, Coquimbo 1781421, Chile;
- Centro de Investigación y Desarrollo Tecnológico en Algas (CIDTA), Facultad de Ciencias del Mar, Universidad Católica del Norte, Larrondo 1281, Coquimbo 17811421, Chile
| | - Gemita Pizarro
- Centro de Estudios de Algas Nocivas (CREAN), Instituto de Fomento Pesquero (IFOP), Enrique Abello 0552, Punta Arenas 6200000, Chile;
| | - Juan Blanco
- Centro de Investigacións Mariñas (Xunta de Galicia), Apto. 13, 36620 Vilanova de Arousa, Pontevedra, Spain;
| | - Beatriz Reguera
- Centro Oceanográfico de Vigo (IEO, CSIC), Subida a Radio Faro 50, 36390 Vigo, Pontevedra, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Sandvik M, Miles CO, Løvberg KLE, Kryuchkov F, Wright EJ, Mudge EM, Kilcoyne J, Samdal IA. In Vitro Metabolism of Azaspiracids 1-3 with a Hepatopancreatic Fraction from Blue Mussels ( Mytilus edulis). JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2021; 69:11322-11335. [PMID: 34533950 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.1c03831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are a group of biotoxins produced by the marine dinoflagellates Azadinium and Amphidoma spp. that can accumulate in shellfish and cause food poisoning in humans. Of the 60 AZAs identified, levels of AZA1, AZA2, and AZA3 are regulated in shellfish as a food safety measure based on occurrence and toxicity. Information about the metabolism of AZAs in shellfish is limited. Therefore, a fraction of blue mussel hepatopancreas was made to study the metabolism of AZA1-3 in vitro. A range of AZA metabolites were detected by liquid chromatography-high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry analysis, most notably the novel 22α-hydroxymethylAZAs AZA65 and AZA66, which were also detected in naturally contaminated mussels. These appear to be the first intermediates in the metabolic conversion of AZA1 and AZA2 to their corresponding 22α-carboxyAZAs (AZA17 and AZA19). α-Hydroxylation at C-23 was also a prominent metabolic pathway, producing AZA8, AZA12, and AZA5 as major metabolites of AZA1-3, respectively, and AZA67 and AZA68 as minor metabolites via double-hydroxylation of AZA1 and AZA2, but only low levels of 3β-hydroxylation were observed in this study. In vitro generation of algal toxin metabolites, such as AZA3, AZA5, AZA6, AZA8, AZA12, AZA17, AZA19, AZA65, and AZA66 that would otherwise have to be laboriously purified from shellfish, has the potential to be used for the production of standards for analytical and toxicological studies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Morten Sandvik
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 64, N-1431 Ås, Norway
| | - Christopher O Miles
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 64, N-1431 Ås, Norway
- Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, Halifax, NS B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | | | - Fedor Kryuchkov
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 64, N-1431 Ås, Norway
| | - Elliott J Wright
- Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, Halifax, NS B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - Elizabeth M Mudge
- Biotoxin Metrology, National Research Council Canada, Halifax, NS B3H 3Z1, Canada
| | - Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, County Galway H91 R673, Ireland
| | - Ingunn A Samdal
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 64, N-1431 Ås, Norway
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Lamas JP, Arévalo F, Moroño Á, Correa J, Rossignoli AE, Blanco J. Gymnodimine A in mollusks from the north Atlantic Coast of Spain: Prevalence, concentration, and relationship with spirolides. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2021; 279:116919. [PMID: 33744630 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2021.116919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2020] [Revised: 02/28/2021] [Accepted: 03/06/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Gymnodimine A has been found in mollusks obtained along the whole northern coast of Spain from April 2017 to December 2019. This is the first time that this toxin is detected in mollusks from the Atlantic coast of Europe. The prevalence of the toxin was, in general, low, being detected on average in approximately 6% of the obtained samples (122 out of 1900). The concentrations recorded were also, in general, low, with a median of 1.3 μg kg-1, and a maximum value of 23.93 μg kg-1. The maxima of prevalence and concentration were not geographically coincident, taking place the first at the easternmost part of the sampled area and the second at the westernmost part. In most cases (>94%), gymnodimine A and 13-desmethyl spirolide C were concurrently detected, suggesting that Alexandrium ostenfeldii could be the responsible producer species. The existence of cases in which gymnodimine A was detected alone suggests also that a Karenia species could also be involved. The geographical heterogeneity of the distribution suggests that blooms of the producer species are mostly local. Not all bivalves are equally affected, clams being less affected than mussels, oysters, and razor clams. Due to their relatively low toxicity, and their low prevalence and concentration, it seems that these toxins do not pose an important risk for the mollusk consumers in the area.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J Pablo Lamas
- Intecmar (Instituto Tecnolóxico para o Control Do Medio Mariño de Galicia), Peirao de Vilaxoán S/n, Vilagarcía de Arousa, 36611, Pontevedra, Spain
| | - Fabiola Arévalo
- Intecmar (Instituto Tecnolóxico para o Control Do Medio Mariño de Galicia), Peirao de Vilaxoán S/n, Vilagarcía de Arousa, 36611, Pontevedra, Spain.
| | - Ángeles Moroño
- Intecmar (Instituto Tecnolóxico para o Control Do Medio Mariño de Galicia), Peirao de Vilaxoán S/n, Vilagarcía de Arousa, 36611, Pontevedra, Spain.
| | - Jorge Correa
- Intecmar (Instituto Tecnolóxico para o Control Do Medio Mariño de Galicia), Peirao de Vilaxoán S/n, Vilagarcía de Arousa, 36611, Pontevedra, Spain.
| | - Araceli E Rossignoli
- Centro de Investigacións Mariñas (CIMA), Pedras de Corón S/n, 36620, Vilanova de Arousa, Spain.
| | - Juan Blanco
- Centro de Investigacións Mariñas (CIMA), Pedras de Corón S/n, 36620, Vilanova de Arousa, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Sunesen I, Méndez SM, Mancera-Pineda JE, Dechraoui Bottein MY, Enevoldsen H. The Latin America and Caribbean HAB status report based on OBIS and HAEDAT maps and databases. HARMFUL ALGAE 2021; 102:101920. [PMID: 33875182 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2020.101920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2020] [Revised: 10/04/2020] [Accepted: 10/12/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Harmful Algae Blooms (HAB) have been documented for at least fifty years in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC), however, their impacts at social, ecological and economic levels are still little known. To contribute to the impact assessment of HABs in LAC region, the available information in HAEDAT, OBIS, CAREC, and CARPHA databases, and scientific literature was analyzed. This historical analysis allows identification of the main syndromes and causal organisms. Considering the existence of two regional working groups of the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC): Algas Nocivas del Caribe (ANCA) and Floraciones Algales Nocivas en Sudamérica (FANSA), representing Central American/Caribbean and South American countries, respectively, the analysis is presented both globally and subregional. For the FANSA region, the HAEDAT data base listed 249 records from 1970 to 2019, with a total of 1432 human intoxications, including 37 fatalities. The majority of these events comprised Paralytic Shellfish Toxins (49%), Diarrhetic Shellfish Toxins (34%), Cyanotoxins (12%) and 6 % other toxins. The total number of harmful taxa in the OBIS database includes 79 species distributed over 25 genera. The most commonly reported species are Alexandrium catenella/tamarense, Gymnodinium catenatum and the Dinophysis acuminata complex. Two new species Prorocentrum caipirignum Fraga, Menezes and Nascimento and Alexandrium fragae Branco and Menezes were newly described from Brazilian waters. In the ANCA region, HAEDAT listed 131 records from 1956 to 2018. The main problems are PSP and Ciguatera and common HAB taxa are Gambierdiscus, Gymnodinium, Pyrodinium, Alexandrium and Dinophysis. The most reported HAB forming species are Gymnodinium catenatum, Pyrodinium bahamense and Gambierdiscus spp. In recent years Margalefidinium polykrikoides blooms have become frequent, causing fish and invertebrates massive mortalities and impacts on touristic activities. In the LAC region, the greatest economic losses were produced by ichthyotoxic massive events causing salmon deaths associated to Pseudochattonella verruculosa and Alexandrium catenella in Chile and tuna deaths related to Tripos furca and Chattonella spp. in the Mexican Pacific. In the last decade, several studies in LAC have linked HAB events with local mesoscale oceanographic and atmospheric phenomena. Trends analyzed up to 2019 are related to the increasing awareness about presence of toxic species, the geographical expansion of already known species, the detection of new toxins for the region, and HAB events duration and/or impacts.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Inés Sunesen
- División Ficología Dr. Sebastián Guarrera, FCNyM, Paseo del Bosque s/n, 1900, La Plata, Argentina. CONICET - UNLP.
| | - Silvia M Méndez
- Dirección Nacional de Recursos Acuáticos/MGAP, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | | | | | - Henrik Enevoldsen
- IOC Science and Communication Centre on Harmful Algae, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Boente-Juncal A, Raposo-García S, Louzao MC, Vale C, Botana LM. Targeting Chloride Ion Channels: New Insights into the Mechanism of Action of the Marine Toxin Azaspiracid. Chem Res Toxicol 2021; 34:865-879. [PMID: 33512997 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.0c00494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are marine toxins produced by dinoflagellates belonging to the genera Azadinium and Amphidoma that caused human intoxications after consumption of contaminated fishery products, such as mussels. However, the exact mechanism for the AZA induced cytotoxic and neurotoxic effects is still unknown. In this study several pharmacological approaches were employed to evaluate the role of anion channels on the AZA effects that demonstrated that cellular anion dysregulation was involved in the toxic effects of these compounds. The results presented here demonstrated that volume regulated anion channels (VRACs) are affected by this group of toxins, and, because there is not any specific activator of VRACs besides the intracellular application of GTPγ-S molecule, this group of natural compounds could represent a powerful tool to analyze the role of these channels in cellular homeostasis. In addition to this, in this work, a detailed pharmacological approach was performed in order to elucidate the anion channels present in human HEK293 cells as well as their regulation by the marine toxins azaspiracids. Altogether, the data presented here demonstrated that the effect of azaspiracids in human cells was completely dependent on ATP-regulated anion channels, whose upregulation by these toxins could lead to regulatory volume decrease and underlie the reported toxicity of these compounds.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Boente-Juncal
- Departamento de Farmacología, Farmacia y Tecnología Farmacéutica, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Campus Universitario s/n, 27002 Lugo, España
| | - Sandra Raposo-García
- Departamento de Farmacología, Farmacia y Tecnología Farmacéutica, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Campus Universitario s/n, 27002 Lugo, España
| | - M Carmen Louzao
- Departamento de Farmacología, Farmacia y Tecnología Farmacéutica, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Campus Universitario s/n, 27002 Lugo, España
| | - Carmen Vale
- Departamento de Farmacología, Farmacia y Tecnología Farmacéutica, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Campus Universitario s/n, 27002 Lugo, España
| | - Luis M Botana
- Departamento de Farmacología, Farmacia y Tecnología Farmacéutica, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Campus Universitario s/n, 27002 Lugo, España
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Tillmann U, Wietkamp S, Gu H, Krock B, Salas R, Clarke D. Multiple New Strains of Amphidomataceae (Dinophyceae) from the North Atlantic Revealed a High Toxin Profile Variability of Azadinium spinosum and a New Non-Toxigenic Az. cf. spinosum. Microorganisms 2021; 9:134. [PMID: 33430155 PMCID: PMC7826828 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9010134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2020] [Revised: 01/04/2021] [Accepted: 01/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZA) are a group of lipophilic toxins, which are produced by a few species of the marine nanoplanktonic dinoflagellates Azadinium and Amphidoma (Amphidomataceae). A survey was conducted in 2018 to increase knowledge on the diversity and distribution of amphidomatacean species and their toxins in Irish and North Sea waters (North Atlantic). We here present a detailed morphological, phylogenetic, and toxinological characterization of 82 new strains representing the potential AZA producers Azadinium spinosum and Amphidoma languida. A total of ten new strains of Am. languida were obtained from the North Sea, and all conformed in terms of morphology and toxin profile (AZA-38 and-39) with previous records from the area. Within 72 strains assigned to Az. spinosum there were strains of two distinct ribotypes (A and B) which consistently differed in their toxin profile (dominated by AZA-1 and -2 in ribotype A, and by AZA-11 and -51 in ribotype B strains). Five strains conformed in morphology with Az. spinosum, but no AZA could be detected in these strains. Moreover, they revealed significant nucleotide differences compared to known Az. spinosum sequences and clustered apart from all other Az. spinosum strains within the phylogenetic tree, and therefore were provisionally designated as Az. cf. spinosum. These Az. cf. spinosum strains without detectable AZA were shown not to cause amplification in the species-specific qPCR assay developed to detect and quantify Az. spinosum. As shown here for the first time, AZA profiles differed between strains of Az. spinosum ribotype A in the presence/absence of AZA-1, AZA-2, and/or AZA-33, with the majority of strains having all three AZA congeners, and others having only AZA-1, AZA-1 and AZA-2, or AZA-1 and AZA-33. In contrast, no AZA profile variability was observed in ribotype B strains. Multiple AZA analyses of a period of up to 18 months showed that toxin profiles (including absence of AZA for Az. cf. spinosum strains) were consistent and stable over time. Total AZA cell quotas were highly variable both among and within strains, with quotas ranging from 0.1 to 63 fg AZA cell-1. Cell quota variability of single AZA compounds for Az. spinosum strains could be as high as 330-fold, but the underlying causes for the extraordinary large variability of AZA cell quota is poorly understood.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Urban Tillmann
- Helmholtz Center for Polar and Marine Research, Alfred Wegener Institute, Am Handelshafen 12, D-27570 Bremerhaven, Germany; (S.W.); (B.K.)
| | - Stephan Wietkamp
- Helmholtz Center for Polar and Marine Research, Alfred Wegener Institute, Am Handelshafen 12, D-27570 Bremerhaven, Germany; (S.W.); (B.K.)
| | - Haifeng Gu
- Third Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Xiamen 361005, China;
- School of Marine Sciences, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing 210044, China
| | - Bernd Krock
- Helmholtz Center for Polar and Marine Research, Alfred Wegener Institute, Am Handelshafen 12, D-27570 Bremerhaven, Germany; (S.W.); (B.K.)
| | - Rafael Salas
- Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, H91 R673 Co. Galway, Ireland; (R.S.); (D.C.)
| | - Dave Clarke
- Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, H91 R673 Co. Galway, Ireland; (R.S.); (D.C.)
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Kvrgić K, Lešić T, Aysal AI, Džafić N, Pleadin J. Cyclic imines in shellfish and ascidians in the northern Adriatic Sea. FOOD ADDITIVES & CONTAMINANTS PART B-SURVEILLANCE 2020; 14:12-22. [PMID: 33280535 DOI: 10.1080/19393210.2020.1851778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to determine the occurrence of the most representative cyclic imines (CIs) gymnodimine (GYM), pinnatoxin G (PnTX-G), and 13-desmethyl SPX C (SPX1) in Mediterranean mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis Lamarck, 1819) (n = 416), European oysters (Ostrea edulis Linnaeus, 1758) (n = 104), Queen scallops (Aequipecten opercularis Linnaeus, 1758) (n = 52) and edible ascidians of the Microcosmus spp. (n = 104) originating from nine harvesting and breeding areas in the northern part of the Adriatic Sea using ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). All CI concentrations were far below the guidance level of 400 μg SPXs/kg proposed by the EU Reference Laboratory for Marine Toxins. In contrast to Queen scallops and ascidians, in Mediterranean mussels and European oysters CIs were found throughout the year. Our data reveal the differences between species predisposed for CIs accumulation, as well as seasonal and locational variations in CIs occurrence.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kristina Kvrgić
- Croatian Veterinary Institute, Veterinary Center Rijeka, Laboratory for Analytical Chemistry and Residues , Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Tina Lešić
- Department for Veterinary Public Health, Croatian Veterinary Institute Zagreb, Laboratory for Analytical Chemistry , Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Ayhan Ibrahim Aysal
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Gazi University , Ankara, Turkey
| | - Natalija Džafić
- Croatian Veterinary Institute, Veterinary Center Rijeka, Laboratory for Analytical Chemistry and Residues , Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Jelka Pleadin
- Department for Veterinary Public Health, Croatian Veterinary Institute Zagreb, Laboratory for Analytical Chemistry , Zagreb, Croatia
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Mass Spectrometry-Based Characterization of New Spirolides from Alexandrium ostenfeldii (Dinophyceae). Mar Drugs 2020; 18:md18100505. [PMID: 33023163 PMCID: PMC7599687 DOI: 10.3390/md18100505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2020] [Revised: 09/23/2020] [Accepted: 09/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Spirolides belong to a group of marine phycotoxins produced by the marine planktonic dinophyte Alexandrium ostenfeldii. Composed of an imine moiety and a spiroketal ring system within a macrocylcle, spirolides are highly diverse with toxin types that vary among different strains. This study aims to characterize the spirolides from clonal A. ostenfeldii strains collected from The Netherlands, Greenland and Norway by mass spectral techniques. The structural characterization of unknown spirolides as inferred from high-resolution mass spectrometry (HR-MS) and collision induced dissociation (CID) spectra revealed the presence of nine novel spirolides that have the pseudo-molecular ions m/z 670 (1), m/z 666 (2), m/z 696 (3), m/z 678 (4), m/z 694 (5), m/z 708 (6), m/z 720 (7), m/z 722 (8) and m/z 738 (9). Of the nine new spirolides proposed in this study, compound 1 was suggested to have a truncated side chain in lieu of the commonly observed butenolide ring in spirolides. Moreover, there is indication that compound 5 might belong to new spirolide subclasses with a trispiroketal ring configuration having a 6:5:6 trispiroketal ring system. On the other hand, the other compounds were proposed as C- and G-type SPX, respectively. Compound 7 is proposed as the first G-type SPX with a 10-hydroxylation as usually observed in C-type SPX. This mass spectrometry-based study thus demonstrates that structural variability of spirolides is larger than previously known and does not only include the presence or absence of certain functional groups but also involves the triketal ring system.
Collapse
|
15
|
Adams NG, Tillmann U, Trainer VL. Temporal and spatial distribution of Azadinium species in the inland and coastal waters of the Pacific northwest in 2014-2018. HARMFUL ALGAE 2020; 98:101874. [PMID: 33129464 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2020.101874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2020] [Revised: 07/20/2020] [Accepted: 07/22/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Azaspiracids, produced by some species of the dinoflagellate genera Azadinium and Amphidoma, can cause a syndrome in humans called azaspiracid shellfish poisoning (AZP). In 1995, mussels from the Irish west coast contaminated with azaspiracids were, for the first time, linked to this human illness that has symptoms of nausea, vomiting, severe diarrhea, and stomach cramps. The only confirmed cases of AZP to date in the United States occurred in Washington State in 2008 from mussels imported from Ireland. Shortly after this case, several others involving similar gastrointestinal symptoms were reported by shellfish consumers from Washington State. However, no detectable diarrhetic shellfish toxins or Vibrio contamination were found. Cursory analysis of Solid Phase Adsorption Toxin Tracking (SPATT) samplers suggested the presence of azaspiracids in Washington State waters and motivated a study to evaluate the presence and distribution of Azadinium species in the region. During the spring and summer months of 2014-2015, quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) analyses detected the presence of the toxigenic species Azadinium poporum and A. spinosum on the outer coast and throughout the inland waters of Washington State. In 2016-2018, standard curves developed using A. poporum isolated from Puget Sound and A. spinosum isolated from the North Sea were used to quantify abundances of up to 10,525 cells L-1 of A. poporum and 156 cells L-1 of A. spinosum at shore-based sites. Abundances up to 1,206 cells L-1 of A. poporum and 30 cells L-1 of A. spinosum were measured in the coastal waters of the Pacific Northwest in 2017. Other harmful genera, including Alexandrium, Dinophysis, and Pseudo-nitzschia, were observed using light microscopy at coastal sites where A. poporum was also observed. In some samples where both A. poporum and A. spinosum were absent, an Amphidomataceae-specific qPCR assay indicated that other species of Azadinium or Amphidoma were present. The identification of Azadinium species in the PNW demonstrates the need to assess their toxicity and to incorporate their routine detection in monitoring programs to aid resource managers in mitigating risks to azaspiracid shellfish poisoning in this region.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicolaus G Adams
- Environmental and Fisheries Science Division, Northwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2725 Montlake Blvd. E., Seattle, WA 98112, USA.
| | - Urban Tillmann
- Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12 D-27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Vera L Trainer
- Environmental and Fisheries Science Division, Northwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2725 Montlake Blvd. E., Seattle, WA 98112, USA
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Cyclic Imines (CIs) in Mussels from North-Central Adriatic Sea: First Evidence of Gymnodimine A in Italy. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12060370. [PMID: 32512714 PMCID: PMC7354633 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12060370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2020] [Revised: 05/25/2020] [Accepted: 05/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Cyclic imines (CIs) are emerging marine lipophilic toxins (MLTs) occurring in microalgae and shellfish worldwide. The present research aimed to study CIs in mussels farmed in the Adriatic Sea (Italy) during the period 2014–2015. Twenty-eight different compounds belonging to spirolides (SPXs), gymnodimines (GYMs), pinnatoxins (PnTXs) and pteriatoxins (PtTXs) were analyzed by the official method for MLTs in 139 mussel samples collected along the Marche coast. Compounds including 13-desmethyl spirolide C (13-desMe SPX C) and 13,19-didesmethyl spirolide C (13,19-didesMe SPX C) were detected in 86% of the samples. The highest levels were generally reported in the first half of the year reaching 29.2 µg kg−1 in January/March with a decreasing trend until June. GYM A, for the first time reported in Italian mussels, was found in 84% of the samples, reaching the highest concentration in summer (12.1 µg kg−1). GYM A and SPXs, submitted to tissue distribution studies, showed the tendency to accumulate mostly in mussel digestive glands. Even if SPX levels in mussels were largely below the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) reference of 400 μg SPXs kg−1, most of the samples contained CIs for the large part of the year. Since chronic toxicity data are still missing, monitoring is surely recommended.
Collapse
|
17
|
Dhanji-Rapkova M, O'Neill A, Maskrey BH, Coates L, Swan SC, Teixeira Alves M, Kelly RJ, Hatfield RG, Rowland-Pilgrim SJ, Lewis AM, Turner AD. Variability and profiles of lipophilic toxins in bivalves from Great Britain during five and a half years of monitoring: azaspiracids and yessotoxins. HARMFUL ALGAE 2019; 87:101629. [PMID: 31349886 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2019.101629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2019] [Revised: 05/04/2019] [Accepted: 06/11/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Cefas has been responsible for the delivery of official control biotoxin testing of bivalve molluscs from Great Britain for just over a decade. Liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometric (LC-MS/MS) methodology has been used for the quantitation of lipophilic toxins (LTs) since 2011. The temporal and spatial distribution of okadaic acid group toxins and profiles in bivalves between 2011 and 2016 have been recently reported. Here we present data on the two other groups of regulated lipophilic toxins, azaspiracids (AZAs) and yessotoxins (YTXs), over the same period. The latter group has also been investigated for a potential link with Protoceratium reticulatum and Lingulodinium polyedra, both previously recognised as YTXs producing phytoplankton. On average, AZAs were quantified in 3.2% of all tested samples but notable inter-annual variation in abundance was observed. The majority of all AZA contaminated samples were found between July 2011 and August 2013 in Scotland, while only two, three-month long, AZA events were observed in 2015 and 2016 in the south-west of England. Maximum concentrations were generally reached in late summer or early autumn. Reasons for AZAs persistence during the 2011/2012 and 2012/2013 winters are discussed. Only one toxin profile was identified, represented by both AZA1 and AZA2 toxins at an approximate ratio of 2 : 1, suggesting a single microalgal species was the source of AZAs in British bivalves. Although AZA1 was always the most dominant toxin, its proportion varied between mussels, Pacific oysters and surf clams. The YTXs were the least represented group among regulated LTs. YTXs were found almost exclusively on the south-west coast of Scotland, with the exception of 2013, when the majority of contaminated samples originated from the Shetland Islands. The highest levels were recorded in the summer months and followed a spike in Protoceratium reticulatum cell densities. YTX was the most dominant toxin in shellfish, further strengthening the link to P. reticulatum as the YTX source. Neither homo-YTX, nor 45-OH homo-YTX were detected throughout the monitored period. 45-OH YTX, thought to be a shellfish metabolite associated with YTX elimination, contributed on average 26% in mussels. Although the correlation between 45-OH YTX abundance and the speed of YTX depuration could not be confirmed, we noted the half-life of YTX was more than two-times longer in queen scallops, which contained 100% YTX, than in mussels. No other bivalve species were affected by YTXs. This is the first detailed evaluation of AZAs and YTXs occurrences and their profiles in shellfish from Great Britain over a period of multiple years.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Monika Dhanji-Rapkova
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), The Nothe, Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom.
| | - Alison O'Neill
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), The Nothe, Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom
| | - Benjamin H Maskrey
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), The Nothe, Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom
| | - Lewis Coates
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), The Nothe, Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom
| | - Sarah C Swan
- Scottish Association for Marine Science (SAMS), Scottish Marine Institute, Oban, Argyll, PA37 1QA, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Mickael Teixeira Alves
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), The Nothe, Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom
| | - Rebecca J Kelly
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), The Nothe, Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom
| | - Robert G Hatfield
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), The Nothe, Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom
| | - Stephanie J Rowland-Pilgrim
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), The Nothe, Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom
| | - Adam M Lewis
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), The Nothe, Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew D Turner
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), The Nothe, Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset, DT4 8UB, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Samdal IA, Løvberg KE, Kristoffersen AB, Briggs LR, Kilcoyne J, Forsyth CJ, Miles CO. A Practical ELISA for Azaspiracids in Shellfish via Development of a New Plate-Coating Antigen. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2019; 67:2369-2376. [PMID: 30763083 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.8b05652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are a group of biotoxins that appear periodically in shellfish and can cause food poisoning in humans. Current methods for quantifying the regulated AZAs are restricted to LC-MS but are not well suited to detecting novel and unregulated AZAs. An ELISA method for total AZAs in shellfish was reported recently, but unfortunately, it used relatively large amounts of the AZA-1-containing plate-coating conjugate, consuming significant amounts of pure AZA-1 per assay. Therefore, a new plate-coater, OVA-cdiAZA1 was produced, resulting in an ELISA with a working range of 0.30-4.1 ng/mL and a limit of quantification of 37 μg/kg for AZA-1 in shellfish. This ELISA was nearly twice as sensitive as the previous ELISA while using 5-fold less plate-coater. The new ELISA displayed broad cross-reactivity toward AZAs, detecting all available quantitative AZA reference materials as well as the precursors to AZA-3 and AZA-6, and results from shellfish analyzed with the new ELISA showed excellent correlation ( R2 = 0.99) with total AZA-1-10 by LC-MS. The results suggest that the new ELISA is suitable for screening samples for total AZAs, even in cases where novel AZAs are present and regulated AZAs are absent, such as was reported recently from Puget Sound and the Bay of Naples.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ingunn A Samdal
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute , P.O. Box 750 Sentrum, N-0106 Oslo , Norway
| | - Kjersti E Løvberg
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute , P.O. Box 750 Sentrum, N-0106 Oslo , Norway
| | | | - Lyn R Briggs
- AgResearch Ltd., Ruakura Research Centre , Hamilton 3214 , New Zealand
| | - Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute , Rinville, Oranmore, County Galway H91 R673 , Ireland
| | - Craig J Forsyth
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , The Ohio State University , Columbus , Ohio 43220 , United States
| | - Christopher O Miles
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute , P.O. Box 750 Sentrum, N-0106 Oslo , Norway
- National Research Council Canada , 1411 Oxford St , Halifax , NS B3H 3Z1 , Canada
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Krock B, Tillmann U, Tebben J, Trefault N, Gu H. Two novel azaspiracids from Azadinium poporum, and a comprehensive compilation of azaspiracids produced by Amphidomataceae, (Dinophyceae). HARMFUL ALGAE 2019; 82:1-8. [PMID: 30928006 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2018.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2018] [Revised: 11/26/2018] [Accepted: 12/18/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Two novel azaspiracids (AZA) with a molecular mass of 869 Da were found in Pacific strains of Azadinium poporum and characterized by tandem mass spectrometry and high resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS). One compound, AZA-42, was found in Az. poporum strains AZFC25 and AZFC26, both isolated from the South China Sea. AZA-42 belongs to the 360-type AZA that in comparison to AZA-1 has an additional double bond in the F-I ring system of AZA comprising C28-C40. The other compound, AZA-62, was detected in Az. poporum strain 1D5 isolated off Chañaral, Northern Chile. Mass spectral data indicate that AZA-62 is a variant of AZA-11 with an additional double bond in the C1-C9 region of AZA. In addition to the description of the two novel AZA, a comprehensive list of all AZA known to be produced by species of the genera Azadinium and Amphidoma comprising 26 AZA variants is presented.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bernd Krock
- Alfred Wegener Institut-Helmholtz Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany.
| | - Urban Tillmann
- Alfred Wegener Institut-Helmholtz Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Jan Tebben
- Alfred Wegener Institut-Helmholtz Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Nicole Trefault
- GEMA Center for Genomics, Ecology & Environment, Faculty of Sciences, Universidad Mayor, Camino La Pirámide 5750, Huechuraba, Santiago, Chile
| | - Haifeng Gu
- Third Institute of Oceanography, State Oceanic Administration, Xiamen 361005, China
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Tillmann U, Edvardsen B, Krock B, Smith KF, Paterson RF, Voß D. Diversity, distribution, and azaspiracids of Amphidomataceae (Dinophyceae) along the Norwegian coast. HARMFUL ALGAE 2018; 80:15-34. [PMID: 30502808 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2018.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2018] [Revised: 08/27/2018] [Accepted: 08/30/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZA) are a group of lipophilic polyether compounds which have been implicated in shellfish poisoning incidents around Europe. They are produced by a few species of the dinophycean genera Azadinium and Amphidoma (Amphidomataceae). The presence of AZA toxins in Norway is well documented, but knowledge of the distribution and diversity of Azadinium and other Amphidomataceae along the Norwegian coast is rather limited and poorly documented. On a research survey along the Norwegian coast in 2015 from the Skagerrak in the South to Trondheimsfjorden in the North, plankton samples from 67 stations were analysed for the presence of Azadinium and Amphidoma and their respective AZA by on-board live microscopy, real-time PCR assays specific for Amphidomataceae, and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Microscopy using live samples and positive real-time PCR assays using a general family probe and two species specific probes revealed the presence of Amphidomataceae distributed throughout the sampling area. Overall abundance was low, however, and was in agreement with a lack of detectable AZA in plankton samples. Single cell isolation and morphological and molecular characterisation of established strains revealed the presence of 7 amphidomatacean species (Azadiniun spinosum, Az. poporum, Az. obesum, Az. dalianense, Az. trinitatum, Az. polongum, Amphidoma languida) in the area. Azaspiracids were produced by the known AZA producing species Az. spinosum, Az. poporum and Am. languida only. LC-MS/MS analysis further revealed that Norwegian strains produce previously unreported AZA for Norway (AZA-11 by Az. spinosum, AZA-37 by Az. poporum, AZA-38 and AZA-39 by Am. languida), and also four novel compounds (AZA-50, -51 by Az. spinosum, AZA-52, -53 by Am. languida), whose structural properties are described and which now can be included in existing analytical protocols. A maximum likelihood analysis of concatenated rDNA regions (SSU, ITS1-ITS2, partial LSU) showed that the strains of Az. spinosum fell in two well supported clades, where most but not all new Norwegian strains formed the new Ribotype B. Ribotype differentiation was supported by a minor morphological difference with respect to the presence/absence of a rim around the pore plate, and was consistently reflected by different AZA profiles. Strains of Az. spinosum from ribotype A produce AZA-1, -2 and -33, whereas the new strains of ribotype B produce mainly AZA-11 and AZA-51. Significant sequence differences between both Az. spinosum ribotypes underline the need to redesign the currently used qPCR probes in order to detect all AZA producing Az. spinosum. The results generally underline the conclusion that for the Norwegian coast area it is important that amphidomatacean species are taken into account in future studies and monitoring programs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Urban Tillmann
- Alfred Wegener Institute, Am Handelshafen 12, D-27570 Bremerhaven, Germany.
| | - Bente Edvardsen
- University of Oslo, Department of Biosciences, Section for Aquatic Biology and Toxicology, P.O. Box 1066 Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway
| | - Bernd Krock
- Alfred Wegener Institute, Am Handelshafen 12, D-27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Kirsty F Smith
- Cawthron Institute, Privat Bag 2, Nelson 7042, New Zealand
| | - Ruth F Paterson
- Scottish Association for Marine Science, Scotland, PA37 1QA, United Kingdom
| | - Daniela Voß
- Institut für Chemie und Biologie des Meeres (ICBM), Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg, Schleusenstraße 1, D-26382 Wilhelmshaven, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Next Generation Sequencing and mass spectrometry reveal high taxonomic diversity and complex phytoplankton-phycotoxins patterns in Southeastern Pacific fjords. Toxicon 2018; 151:5-14. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2018.06.078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2017] [Revised: 05/17/2018] [Accepted: 06/18/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
|
22
|
Vilariño N, Louzao MC, Abal P, Cagide E, Carrera C, Vieytes MR, Botana LM. Human Poisoning from Marine Toxins: Unknowns for Optimal Consumer Protection. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:E324. [PMID: 30096904 PMCID: PMC6116008 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10080324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2018] [Revised: 08/03/2018] [Accepted: 08/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Marine biotoxins are produced by aquatic microorganisms and accumulate in shellfish or finfish following the food web. These toxins usually reach human consumers by ingestion of contaminated seafood, although other exposure routes like inhalation or contact have also been reported and may cause serious illness. This review shows the current data regarding the symptoms of acute intoxication for several toxin classes, including paralytic toxins, amnesic toxins, ciguatoxins, brevetoxins, tetrodotoxins, diarrheic toxins, azaspiracids and palytoxins. The information available about chronic toxicity and relative potency of different analogs within a toxin class are also reported. The gaps of toxicological knowledge that should be studied to improve human health protection are discussed. In general, gathering of epidemiological data in humans, chronic toxicity studies and exploring relative potency by oral administration are critical to minimize human health risks related to these toxin classes in the near future.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Vilariño
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| | - M Carmen Louzao
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| | - Paula Abal
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| | - Eva Cagide
- Laboratorio CIFGA S.A., Plaza Santo Domingo 20-5°, 27001 Lugo, Spain.
| | - Cristina Carrera
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
- Hospital Veterinario Universitario Rof Codina, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| | - Mercedes R Vieytes
- Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| | - Luis M Botana
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Farabegoli F, Blanco L, Rodríguez LP, Vieites JM, Cabado AG. Phycotoxins in Marine Shellfish: Origin, Occurrence and Effects on Humans. Mar Drugs 2018; 16:E188. [PMID: 29844286 PMCID: PMC6025170 DOI: 10.3390/md16060188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2018] [Revised: 05/18/2018] [Accepted: 05/25/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Massive phytoplankton proliferation, and the consequent release of toxic metabolites, can be responsible for seafood poisoning outbreaks: filter-feeding mollusks, such as shellfish, mussels, oysters or clams, can accumulate these toxins throughout the food chain and present a threat for consumers' health. Particular environmental and climatic conditions favor this natural phenomenon, called harmful algal blooms (HABs); the phytoplankton species mostly involved in these toxic events are dinoflagellates or diatoms belonging to the genera Alexandrium, Gymnodinium, Dinophysis, and Pseudo-nitzschia. Substantial economic losses ensue after HABs occurrence: the sectors mainly affected include commercial fisheries, tourism, recreational activities, and public health monitoring and management. A wide range of symptoms, from digestive to nervous, are associated to human intoxication by biotoxins, characterizing different and specific syndromes, called paralytic shellfish poisoning, amnesic shellfish poisoning, diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, and neurotoxic shellfish poisoning. This review provides a complete and updated survey of phycotoxins usually found in marine invertebrate organisms and their relevant properties, gathering information about the origin, the species where they were found, as well as their mechanism of action and main effects on humans.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Federica Farabegoli
- Food Safety and Industrial Hygiene Division, ANFACO-CECOPESCA. 16, Crta. Colexio Universitario, 36310 Vigo (Pontevedra), Spain.
| | - Lucía Blanco
- Food Safety and Industrial Hygiene Division, ANFACO-CECOPESCA. 16, Crta. Colexio Universitario, 36310 Vigo (Pontevedra), Spain.
| | - Laura P Rodríguez
- Food Safety and Industrial Hygiene Division, ANFACO-CECOPESCA. 16, Crta. Colexio Universitario, 36310 Vigo (Pontevedra), Spain.
| | - Juan Manuel Vieites
- Food Safety and Industrial Hygiene Division, ANFACO-CECOPESCA. 16, Crta. Colexio Universitario, 36310 Vigo (Pontevedra), Spain.
| | - Ana García Cabado
- Food Safety and Industrial Hygiene Division, ANFACO-CECOPESCA. 16, Crta. Colexio Universitario, 36310 Vigo (Pontevedra), Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Bodero M, Hoogenboom RL, Bovee TF, Portier L, de Haan L, Peijnenburg A, Hendriksen PJ. Whole genome mRNA transcriptomics analysis reveals different modes of action of the diarrheic shellfish poisons okadaic acid and dinophysis toxin-1 versus azaspiracid-1 in Caco-2 cells. Toxicol In Vitro 2018; 46:102-112. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2017.09.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2017] [Revised: 09/12/2017] [Accepted: 09/18/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
|
25
|
Alarcan J, Biré R, Le Hégarat L, Fessard V. Mixtures of Lipophilic Phycotoxins: Exposure Data and Toxicological Assessment. Mar Drugs 2018; 16:E46. [PMID: 29385038 PMCID: PMC5852474 DOI: 10.3390/md16020046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2017] [Revised: 01/18/2018] [Accepted: 01/29/2018] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Lipophilic phycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by phytoplanktonic species. They accumulate in filter-feeding shellfish and can cause human intoxication. Regulatory limits have been set for individual toxins, and the toxicological features are well characterized for some of them. However, phycotoxin contamination is often a co-exposure phenomenon, and toxicological data regarding mixtures effects are very scarce. Moreover, the type and occurrence of phycotoxins can greatly vary from one region to another. This review aims at summarizing the knowledge on (i) multi-toxin occurrence by a comprehensive literature review and (ii) the toxicological assessment of mixture effects. A total of 79 publications was selected for co-exposure evaluation, and 44 of them were suitable for toxin ratio calculations. The main toxin mixtures featured okadaic acid in combination with pectenotoxin-2 or yessotoxin. Only a few toxicity studies dealing with co-exposure were published. In vivo studies did not report particular mixture effects, whereas in vitro studies showed synergistic or antagonistic effects. Based on the combinations that are the most reported, further investigations on mixture effects must be carried out.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jimmy Alarcan
- Toxicology of Contaminants Unit, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety, ANSES, 35300 Fougères, France.
| | - Ronel Biré
- Marine Biotoxins Unit, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety, ANSES, 94706 Maisons-Alfort, France.
| | - Ludovic Le Hégarat
- Toxicology of Contaminants Unit, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety, ANSES, 35300 Fougères, France.
| | - Valérie Fessard
- Toxicology of Contaminants Unit, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety, ANSES, 35300 Fougères, France.
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Toxic equivalency factors (TEFs) after acute oral exposure of azaspiracid 1, -2 and -3 in mice. Toxicol Lett 2017; 282:136-146. [PMID: 29107028 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2017.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2017] [Revised: 10/18/2017] [Accepted: 10/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are marine algal toxins that can be accumulated by edible shellfish to cause a foodborne gastrointestinal poisoning in humans. In the European Union, only AZA1, -2 and -3 are currently regulated and their concentration in shellfish is determined through their toxic equivalency factors (TEFs) derived from the intraperitoneal lethal potency in mice. Nevertheless, considering the potential human exposure by oral route, AZAs TEFs should be calculated by comparative oral toxicity data. Thus, the acute oral toxicity of AZA1, -2 and -3 was investigated in female CD-1 mice treated with different doses (AZA1: 135-1100μg/kg; AZA2 and AZA3: 300-1100μg/kg) and sacrificed after 24h or 14days. TEFs derived from the median lethal doses (LD50) were 1.0, 0.7 and 0.5, respectively for AZA1, -2 and -3. In fact, after 24h from gavage administration, LD50s were 443μg/kg (AZA1; 95% CL: 350-561μg/kg), 626μg/kg (AZA2; 95% CL: 430-911μg/kg) and 875μg/kg (AZA3; 95% CL: 757-1010μg/kg). Mice dead more than 5h after the treatment or those sacrificed after 24h (doses: ≥175μg AZA1/kg, ≥500μg AZA2/kg and ≥600μg AZA3/kg) showed enlarged pale liver, while increased serum markers of liver alteration were recorded even at the lowest doses. Blood chemistry revealed significantly increased serum levels of K+ ions (≥500mg/kg), whereas light microscopy showed tissue changes in the gastrointestinal tract, liver and spleen. No lethality, macroscopic, tissue or haematological changes were recorded two weeks post exposure, indicating reversible toxic effects. LC-MS/MS analysis of the main organs showed a dose-dependency in gastrointestinal absorption of these toxins: at 24h, the highest levels were detected in the stomach and, in descending order, in the intestinal content, liver, small intestine, kidneys, lungs, large intestine, heart as well as detectable traces in the brain. After 14days, AZA1 and AZA2 were still detectable in almost all the organs and intestinal content.
Collapse
|
27
|
Presence of azaspiracids in bivalve molluscs from Northern Spain. Toxicon 2017; 137:135-143. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2017.07.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2017] [Revised: 07/19/2017] [Accepted: 07/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
|
28
|
Orellana G, Van Meulebroek L, De Rijcke M, Janssen CR, Vanhaecke L. High resolution mass spectrometry-based screening reveals lipophilic toxins in multiple trophic levels from the North Sea. HARMFUL ALGAE 2017; 64:30-41. [PMID: 28427570 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2017.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2016] [Revised: 12/01/2016] [Accepted: 03/22/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Lipophilic marine biotoxins, which are mainly produced by small dinoflagellates, are increasingly detected in coastal waters across the globe. As these producers are consumed by zooplankton and shellfish, the toxins are introduced, bioaccumulated and possibly biomagnified throughout marine food chains. Recent research has demonstrated that ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry (UHPLC-HRMS) is an excellent tool to detect marine toxins in algae and seafood. In this study, UHPLC-HRMS was used to screen lipophilic marine biotoxins in organisms from different trophic levels of the Belgian coastal zone ecosystem. A total of 20 tentatively identified lipophilic compounds was detected. Hereby, the trophic transfer of lipophilic marine biotoxins to the upper trophic level was considered to be rather limited. Furthermore, 36% of the compounds was clearly transferred between different organisms. A significant biotransformation of compounds from the okadaic acid and spirolide toxin groups was observed (64%), mainly in filter feeders. Through a multi-targeted approach, this study showed that marine organisms in the Belgian coastal zone are exposed to a multi-toxin mixture. Further research on both single compound and interactive toxic effects of the frequently detected lipophilic marine toxin ester metabolites throughout the food chain is therefore needed. As a future perspective, confirmatory identification of potential toxins by studying their fragmentation spectra (using new tools such as hybrid quadrupole Q-Exactive™ Orbitrap-MS) is designated.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel Orellana
- Ghent University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Laboratory of Chemical Analysis, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium; Ghent University, Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology and Aquatic Ecology, Jozef Plateaustraat 22, 9000 Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Lieven Van Meulebroek
- Ghent University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Laboratory of Chemical Analysis, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - Maarten De Rijcke
- Ghent University, Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology and Aquatic Ecology, Jozef Plateaustraat 22, 9000 Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Colin R Janssen
- Ghent University, Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology and Aquatic Ecology, Jozef Plateaustraat 22, 9000 Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Lynn Vanhaecke
- Ghent University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Veterinary Public Health and Food Safety, Laboratory of Chemical Analysis, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Tillmann U, Jaén D, Fernández L, Gottschling M, Witt M, Blanco J, Krock B. Amphidoma languida (Amphidomatacea, Dinophyceae) with a novel azaspiracid toxin profile identified as the cause of molluscan contamination at the Atlantic coast of southern Spain. HARMFUL ALGAE 2017; 62:113-126. [PMID: 28118886 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2016.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2016] [Revised: 12/13/2016] [Accepted: 12/14/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZA) are a group of food poisoning phycotoxins that are known to accumulate in shellfish. They are produced by some species of the planktonic dinophycean taxon Amphidomataceae. Azaspiracids have been first discovered in Ireland but are now reported in shellfish from numerous global sites thus showing a wide distribution. In shellfish samples collected in 2009 near Huelva (Spain), AZA was also found along the Andalusian Atlantic coast for the first time. Analysis using LC-MS/MS revealed the presence of two different AZA analogues in different bivalve shellfish species (Chamelea gallina, Cerastoderma edule, Donax trunculus, and Solen vagina). In a number of samples, AZA levels exceeded the EU regulatory level of 160μg AZA-1 eq. kg-1 (reaching maximum levels of >500μg AZA-1 eq. kg-1 in Chamelea gallina and >250μg AZA-1 eq. kg-1 in Donax trunculus) causing closures of some local shellfish production areas. One dinophyte strain established from the local plankton during the AZA contamination period and determined as Amphidoma languida was in fact toxigenic, and its AZA profile disclosed it as the causative species: it contained AZA-2 as the main compound and the new compound AZA-43 initially detected in the shellfish. AZA-43 had the same mass as AZA-3, but produced different collision induced dissociation (CID) spectra. High resolution mass spectrometric measurements indicated that there is an unsaturation in the H, I ring system of AZA-43 distinguishing it from the classical AZA such as AZA-1, -2, and -3. Furthermore, the Spanish strain was different from the previously reported AZA profile of the species that consist of AZA-38 and AZ-39. In molecular phylogenetics, the Andalusian strain formed a monophyletic group together with other strains of Am. languida, but ITS sequences data revealed surprisingly high intragenomic variability. The first Andalusian case of AZA contamination of shellfish above the EU regulatory limit reported here clearly revealed the risk of azaspiracid poisoning (AZP) for this area and also for the Atlantic coast of Iberia and North Africa. The present study underlines the need for continuous monitoring of AZA and the organisms producing such toxins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Urban Tillmann
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Am Handelshafen 12, D-27570 Bremerhaven, Germany.
| | - David Jaén
- Laboratorio de Control de Calidad de los Recursos Pesqueros, Ctra. Punta Umbría-Cartaya, km 12, 21459 Cartaya, Spain
| | - Lourdes Fernández
- Laboratorio de Control de Calidad de los Recursos Pesqueros, Ctra. Punta Umbría-Cartaya, km 12, 21459 Cartaya, Spain
| | - Marc Gottschling
- Department Biologie, Systematische Botanik und Mykologie, GeoBio-Center, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Menzinger Str. 67, D-80638 München, Germany
| | - Matthias Witt
- Bruker Daltonik GmbH, Fahrenheitstr. 4, 28359 Bremen, Germany
| | - Juan Blanco
- Centro de Investigacións Mariñas, Apdo 13. 36620 Vilanova de Arousa, Spain
| | - Bernd Krock
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Am Handelshafen 12, D-27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Affiliation(s)
- Luis M. Botana
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Tillmann U, Borel CM, Barrera F, Lara R, Krock B, Almandoz GO, Witt M, Trefault N. Azadinium poporum from the Argentine Continental Shelf, Southwestern Atlantic, produces azaspiracid-2 and azaspiracid-2 phosphate. HARMFUL ALGAE 2016; 51:40-55. [PMID: 28003061 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2015.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2015] [Revised: 11/02/2015] [Accepted: 11/02/2015] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The marine dinophycean genus Azadinium has been identified as the primary source of azaspiracids (AZA), a group of lipophilic phycotoxins known to accumulate in shellfish. Blooms of Azadinium in the southern Atlantic off Argentina have been described from the 1990s, but due to a lack of cultures, the diversity of South-Atlantic Azadinium has not yet been fully explored and their toxin production potential is completely unknown. During a spring 2010 research cruise covering the El Rincón (ER) estuarine system (North Patagonian coast, Argentina, Southwestern Atlantic) a search was conducted for the presence of Azadinium. Although neither Azadinium cells nor AZA in field plankton samples were detected, 10 clonal strains of Azadinium poporum were successfuly established by incubation of sediment samples. Argentinean A. poporum were more variable in size and shape than the type description but conformed to it by the presence of multiple pyrenoids with starch sheath, in plate pattern and arrangement, and in the position of the ventral pore located on the left side of the pore plate. In contrast to all previous description of A. poporum, isolates of the Argentinean A. poporum possessed a distinct field of pores on the second antapical plate. Conspecificity of the Argentinean isolates with A. poporum was confirmed by molecular phylogeny of concatenated ITS and LSU rDNA sequences, where all Argentinean isolates together with some Chinese A. poporum strains formed a well-supported ribotype clade within A. poporum. All isolates produced AZA with the same profile, consisting of AZA-2 as the major compound and, to a lesser extent, its phosphated form. This is the first report of a phosphated marine algal toxin. This first confirmation of the presence of AZA producing Azadinium in the Argentinean coastal area underlines the risk of AZA shellfish contamination episodes in the Southwestern Atlantic region.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Urban Tillmann
- Alfred Wegener Institute, Am Handelshafen 12, D-27570 Bremerhaven, Germany.
| | - C Marcela Borel
- Instituto Geológico del Sur (CONICET - Universidad Nacional del Sur), Departamento de Geología, Laboratorio de Palinología, San Juan 670, 8000 Bahía Blanca, Argentina
| | - Facundo Barrera
- Instituto Argentino de Oceanografía, Biogeoquímica Marina, IADO - CONICET, Camino la Carrindanga km 7,5 c.c. 804, B8000FWB, Bahía Blanca, Argentina
| | - Rubén Lara
- Instituto Argentino de Oceanografía, Biogeoquímica Marina, IADO - CONICET, Camino la Carrindanga km 7,5 c.c. 804, B8000FWB, Bahía Blanca, Argentina
| | - Bernd Krock
- Alfred Wegener Institute, Am Handelshafen 12, D-27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Gastón O Almandoz
- División Ficología, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales y Museo, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Paseo del Bosque s/n, B1900FWA, La Plata, Argentina
| | - Matthias Witt
- Bruker Daltonik GmbH, Fahrenheitstr. 4, 28359 Bremen, Germany
| | - Nicole Trefault
- Centro de Genómica y Bioinformática, Universidad Mayor, Camino La Pirámide 5750, Huechuraba, Santiago, Chile
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Determination of multiple toxins in whelk and clam samples collected from the Chukchi and Bering seas. Toxicon 2016; 109:84-93. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2015.11.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2015] [Revised: 11/20/2015] [Accepted: 11/24/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
|
33
|
Davidson K, Baker C, Higgins C, Higman W, Swan S, Veszelovszki A, Turner AD. Potential Threats Posed by New or Emerging Marine Biotoxins in UK Waters and Examination of Detection Methodologies Used for Their Control: Cyclic Imines. Mar Drugs 2015; 13:7087-112. [PMID: 26703628 PMCID: PMC4699231 DOI: 10.3390/md13127057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2015] [Revised: 10/28/2015] [Accepted: 11/03/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Cyclic imines (CIs) are a group of phytoplankton produced toxins related to shellfish food products, some of which are already present in UK and European waters. Their risk to shellfish consumers is poorly understood, as while no human intoxication has been definitively related to this group, their fast acting toxicity following intraperitoneal injection in mice has led to concern over their human health implications. A request was therefore made by UK food safety authorities to examine these toxins more closely to aid possible management strategies. Of the CI producers only the spirolide producer Alexandrium ostenfeldii is known to exist in UK waters at present but trends in climate change may lead to increased risk from other organisms/CI toxins currently present elsewhere in Europe and in similar environments worldwide. This paper reviews evidence concerning the prevalence of CIs and CI-producing phytoplankton, together with testing methodologies. Chemical, biological and biomolecular methods are reviewed, including recommendations for further work to enable effective testing. Although the focus here is on the UK, from a strategic standpoint many of the topics discussed will also be of interest in other parts of the world since new and emerging marine biotoxins are of global concern.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Keith Davidson
- Scottish Association for Marine Science, Scottish Marine Institute, Oban PA37 1QA, Scotland, UK.
| | - Clothilde Baker
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Cowan Higgins
- Agri-food and Biosciences Institute (AFBI), Newforge Lane, Belfast BT9 5PX, Northern Ireland, UK.
| | - Wendy Higman
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Sarah Swan
- Scottish Association for Marine Science, Scottish Marine Institute, Oban PA37 1QA, Scotland, UK.
| | - Andrea Veszelovszki
- Scottish Association for Marine Science, Scottish Marine Institute, Oban PA37 1QA, Scotland, UK.
| | - Andrew D Turner
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
Krock B, Tillmann U, Potvin É, Jeong HJ, Drebing W, Kilcoyne J, Al-Jorani A, Twiner MJ, Göthel Q, Köck M. Structure Elucidation and in Vitro Toxicity of New Azaspiracids Isolated from the Marine Dinoflagellate Azadinium poporum. Mar Drugs 2015; 13:6687-702. [PMID: 26528990 PMCID: PMC4663548 DOI: 10.3390/md13116687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2015] [Revised: 06/14/2015] [Accepted: 10/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Two strains of Azadinium poporum, one from the Korean West coast and the other from the North Sea, were mass cultured for isolation of new azaspiracids. Approximately 0.9 mg of pure AZA-36 (1) and 1.3 mg of pure AZA-37 (2) were isolated from the Korean (870 L) and North Sea (120 L) strains, respectively. The structures were determined to be 3-hydroxy-8-methyl-39-demethyl-azaspiracid-1 (1) and 3-hydroxy-7,8-dihydro-39-demethyl-azaspiracid-1 (2) by ¹H- and (13)C-NMR. Using the Jurkat T lymphocyte cell toxicity assay, (1) and (2) were found to be 6- and 3-fold less toxic than AZA-1, respectively.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bernd Krock
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Am Handelshafen 12, Bremerhaven 27570, Germany; E-Mails: (U.T.); (W.D.); (Q.G.)
| | - Urban Tillmann
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Am Handelshafen 12, Bremerhaven 27570, Germany; E-Mails: (U.T.); (W.D.); (Q.G.)
| | - Éric Potvin
- Division of Polar Ocean Environment, Korea Polar Research Institute, Incheon 406-840, Korea; E-Mail:
| | - Hae Jin Jeong
- School of Earth and Environmental Science, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-747, Korea; E-Mail:
| | - Wolfgang Drebing
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Am Handelshafen 12, Bremerhaven 27570, Germany; E-Mails: (U.T.); (W.D.); (Q.G.)
| | - Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, Co. Galway, H91 R673, Ireland; E-Mail:
| | - Ahmed Al-Jorani
- Department of Natural Sciences, University of Michigan, Dearborn, MI 48202, USA; E-Mails: (A.A.-J.); (M.J.T.)
| | - Michael J. Twiner
- Department of Natural Sciences, University of Michigan, Dearborn, MI 48202, USA; E-Mails: (A.A.-J.); (M.J.T.)
| | - Qun Göthel
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Am Handelshafen 12, Bremerhaven 27570, Germany; E-Mails: (U.T.); (W.D.); (Q.G.)
| | - Matthias Köck
- Alfred-Wegener-Institut, Helmholtz-Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Am Handelshafen 12, Bremerhaven 27570, Germany; E-Mails: (U.T.); (W.D.); (Q.G.)
| |
Collapse
|
35
|
Samdal IA, Løvberg KE, Briggs LR, Kilcoyne J, Xu J, Forsyth CJ, Miles CO. Development of an ELISA for the Detection of Azaspiracids. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2015; 63:7855-7861. [PMID: 26245830 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.5b02513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are a group of biotoxins that cause food poisoning in humans. These toxins are produced by small marine dinoflagellates such as Azadinium spinosum and accumulate in shellfish. Ovine polyclonal antibodies were produced and used to develop an ELISA for quantitating AZAs in shellfish, algal cells, and culture supernatants. Immunizing antigens were prepared from synthetic fragments of the constant region of AZAs, while plate coating antigen was prepared from AZA-1. The ELISA provides a sensitive and rapid analytical method for screening large numbers of samples. It has a working range of 0.45-8.6 ng/mL and a limit of quantitation for total AZAs in whole shellfish at 57 μg/kg, well below the maximum permitted level set by the European Commission. The ELISA has good cross-reactivity to AZA-1-10, -33, and -34 and 37-epi-AZA-1. Naturally contaminated Irish mussels gave similar results whether they were cooked or uncooked, indicating that the ELISA also detects 22-carboxy-AZA metabolites (e.g., AZA-17 and AZA-19). ELISA results showed excellent correlation with LC-MS/MS analysis, both for mussel extract spiked with AZA-1 and for naturally contaminated Irish mussels. The assay is therefore well suited to screening for AZAs in shellfish samples intended for human consumption, as well as for studies on AZA metabolism.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ingunn A Samdal
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 750 Sentrum, N-0106 Oslo, Norway
| | - Kjersti E Løvberg
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 750 Sentrum, N-0106 Oslo, Norway
| | - Lyn R Briggs
- AgResearch, Ruakura, East Street, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton, New Zealand
| | - Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute , Rinville, Oranmore, County Galway, Ireland
| | - Jianyan Xu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities , Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Craig J Forsyth
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The Ohio State University , Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
| | | |
Collapse
|
36
|
Aráoz R, Ouanounou G, Iorga BI, Goudet A, Alili D, Amar M, Benoit E, Molgó J, Servent D. The Neurotoxic Effect of 13,19-Didesmethyl and 13-Desmethyl Spirolide C Phycotoxins Is Mainly Mediated by Nicotinic Rather Than Muscarinic Acetylcholine Receptors. Toxicol Sci 2015; 147:156-67. [DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfv119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
|
37
|
Silva M, Pratheepa VK, Botana LM, Vasconcelos V. Emergent toxins in North Atlantic temperate waters: a challenge for monitoring programs and legislation. Toxins (Basel) 2015; 7:859-85. [PMID: 25785464 PMCID: PMC4379530 DOI: 10.3390/toxins7030859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2015] [Revised: 03/03/2015] [Accepted: 03/04/2015] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Harmful Algal Blooms (HAB) are complex to manage due to their intermittent nature and their severe impact on the economy and human health. The conditions which promote HAB have not yet been fully explained, though climate change and anthropogenic intervention are pointed as significant factors. The rise of water temperature, the opening of new sea canals and the introduction of ship ballast waters all contribute to the dispersion and establishment of toxin-producing invasive species that promote the settling of emergent toxins in the food-chain. Tetrodotoxin, ciguatoxin, palytoxin and cyclic imines are commonly reported in warm waters but have also caused poisoning incidents in temperate zones. There is evidence that monitoring for these toxins exclusively in bivalves is simplistic and underestimates the risk to public health, since new vectors have been reported for these toxins and as well for regulated toxins such as PSTs and DSTs. In order to avoid public health impacts, there is a need for adequate monitoring programs, a need for establishing appropriate legislation, and a need for optimizing effective methods of analysis. In this review, we will compile evidence concerning emergent marine toxins and provide data that may indicate the need to restructure the current monitoring programs of HAB.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marisa Silva
- CIIMAR/CIMAR-Interdisciplinary Center of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Rua dos Bragas 289, Porto 4050-123, Portugal.
- Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, Porto 4169-007, Portugal.
| | - Vijaya K Pratheepa
- CIIMAR/CIMAR-Interdisciplinary Center of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Rua dos Bragas 289, Porto 4050-123, Portugal.
| | - Luis M Botana
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary, University of Santiago of Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain.
| | - Vitor Vasconcelos
- CIIMAR/CIMAR-Interdisciplinary Center of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Rua dos Bragas 289, Porto 4050-123, Portugal.
- Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, Porto 4169-007, Portugal.
| |
Collapse
|
38
|
Colorimetric microtiter plate receptor-binding assay for the detection of freshwater and marine neurotoxins targeting the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Toxicon 2014; 91:45-56. [PMID: 25260255 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2014.08.073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2014] [Revised: 08/22/2014] [Accepted: 08/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Anatoxin-a and homoanatoxin-a, produced by cyanobacteria, are agonists of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs). Pinnatoxins, spirolides, and gymnodimines, produced by dinoflagellates, are antagonists of nAChRs. In this study we describe the development and validation of a competitive colorimetric, high throughput functional assay based on the mechanism of action of freshwater and marine toxins against nAChRs. Torpedo electrocyte membranes (rich in muscle-type nAChR) were immobilized and stabilized on the surface of 96-well microtiter plates. Biotinylated α-bungarotoxin (the tracer) and streptavidin-horseradish peroxidase (the detector) enabled the detection and quantitation of anatoxin-a in surface waters and cyclic imine toxins in shellfish extracts that were obtained from different locations across the US. The method compares favorably to LC/MS/MS and provides accurate results for anatoxin-a and cyclic imine toxins monitoring. Study of common constituents at the concentrations normally found in drinking and environmental waters, as well as the tolerance to pH, salt, solvents, organic and inorganic compounds did not significantly affect toxin detection. The assay allowed the simultaneous analysis of up to 25 samples within 3.5 h and it is well suited for on-site or laboratory monitoring of low levels of toxins in drinking, surface, and ground water as well as in shellfish extracts.
Collapse
|
39
|
García-Altares M, Casanova A, Bane V, Diogène J, Furey A, de la Iglesia P. Confirmation of pinnatoxins and spirolides in shellfish and passive samplers from Catalonia (Spain) by liquid chromatography coupled with triple quadrupole and high-resolution hybrid tandem mass spectrometry. Mar Drugs 2014; 12:3706-32. [PMID: 24960460 PMCID: PMC4071598 DOI: 10.3390/md12063706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2014] [Revised: 05/13/2014] [Accepted: 05/19/2014] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Cyclic imines are lipophilic marine toxins that bioaccumulate in seafood. Their structure comprises a cyclic-imino moiety, responsible for acute neurotoxicity in mice. Cyclic imines have not been linked yet to human poisonings and are not regulated in Europe, although the European Food Safety Authority requires more data to perform a conclusive risk assessment for consumers. This work presents the first detection of pinnatoxin G (PnTX-G) in Spain and 13-desmethyl spirolide C (SPX-1) in shellfish from Catalonia (Spain, NW Mediterranean Sea). Cyclic imines were found at low concentrations (2 to 60 µg/kg) in 13 samples of mussels and oysters (22 samples analyzed). Pinnatoxin G has been also detected in 17 seawater samples (out of 34) using solid phase adsorption toxin tracking devices (0.3 to 0.9 µg/kg-resin). Pinnatoxin G and SPX-1 were confirmed with both low and high resolution (<2 ppm) mass spectrometry by comparison of the response with that from reference standards. For other analogs without reference standards, we applied a strategy combining low resolution MS with a triple quadrupole mass analyzer for a fast and reliable screening, and high resolution MS LTQ Orbitrap® for unambiguous confirmation. The advantages and limitations of using high resolution MS without reference standards were discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- María García-Altares
- Institute of Agrifood Research and Technology (IRTA), Poble Nou Road, km. 5.5, Sant Carles de la Ràpita 43540, Spain.
| | - Alexis Casanova
- Institute of Agrifood Research and Technology (IRTA), Poble Nou Road, km. 5.5, Sant Carles de la Ràpita 43540, Spain.
| | - Vaishali Bane
- Mass Spectrometry Research Centre (MSRC) and PROTEOBIO Research Group, Department of Chemistry, Cork Institute of Technology, Bishopstown, Cork, Ireland.
| | - Jorge Diogène
- Institute of Agrifood Research and Technology (IRTA), Poble Nou Road, km. 5.5, Sant Carles de la Ràpita 43540, Spain.
| | - Ambrose Furey
- Mass Spectrometry Research Centre (MSRC) and PROTEOBIO Research Group, Department of Chemistry, Cork Institute of Technology, Bishopstown, Cork, Ireland.
| | - Pablo de la Iglesia
- Institute of Agrifood Research and Technology (IRTA), Poble Nou Road, km. 5.5, Sant Carles de la Ràpita 43540, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
40
|
High-throughput receptor-based assay for the detection of spirolides by chemiluminescence. Toxicon 2013; 75:35-43. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2013.06.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2013] [Revised: 06/13/2013] [Accepted: 06/21/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
|
41
|
Rodríguez LP, Vilariño N, Louzao MC, Dickerson TJ, Nicolaou KC, Frederick MO, Botana LM. Microsphere-based immunoassay for the detection of azaspiracids. Anal Biochem 2013; 447:58-63. [PMID: 24215909 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2013.10.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2013] [Revised: 10/22/2013] [Accepted: 10/31/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Azaspiracids (AZAs) are a group of lipophilic toxins discovered in mussels from Ireland in 1995 following a human poisoning incident. Nowadays the regulatory limit for AZAs in many countries is set at 160 μg of azaspiracid equivalents per kilogram of shellfish meat. In this work a microsphere-based immunoassay has been developed for the detection of AZAs using a Luminex system. This method is based on the competition between AZA-2 immobilized onto the surface of microspheres and free AZAs for the interaction with a monoclonal anti-azaspiracid antibody (mAb 8F4). In this inhibition immunoassay the amount of mAb 8F4 bound to AZA-2 microspheres was quantified using a phycoerythrin-labeled anti-mouse antibody, and the fluorescence was measured with a Luminex analyzer. Simple acetate/methanol or methanol extractions yielded final extracts with no matrix interferences and adequate recovery rates of 86.5 and 75.8%, respectively. In summary, this work presents a sensitive and easily performed screening method capable of detecting AZAs at concentrations below the range of the European regulatory limit using a microsphere/flow cytometry system.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Laura P Rodríguez
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Natalia Vilariño
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| | - M Carmen Louzao
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Tobin J Dickerson
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA; Worm Institute for Research and Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - K C Nicolaou
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA; Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA; Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA; Department of Chemistry, BioScience Research Collaborative, Rice University, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Michael O Frederick
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA; Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA; Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Luis M Botana
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
42
|
Percopo I, Siano R, Rossi R, Soprano V, Sarno D, Zingone A. A new potentially toxic Azadinium species (Dinophyceae) from the Mediterranean Sea, A. dexteroporum sp. nov. JOURNAL OF PHYCOLOGY 2013; 49:950-966. [PMID: 27007318 DOI: 10.1111/jpy.12104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2012] [Accepted: 05/24/2013] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
A new photosynthetic planktonic marine dinoflagellate, Azadinium dexteroporum sp. nov., is described from the Gulf of Naples (South Tyrrhenian Sea, Mediterranean Sea). The plate formula of the species, Po, cp, X, 4', 3a, 6″, 6C, 5?S, 6‴ and 2″″, is typical for this recently described genus. Azadinium dexteroporum is the smallest rep-resentative of the genus (8.5 μm average length, 6.2 μm average width) and shares the presence of a small antapical spine with the type species A. spinosum and with A. polongum. However, it differs from all other Azadinium species for the markedly asymmetrical Po plate and the position of the ventral pore, which is located at the right posterior end of the Po plate. Another peculiarity of A. dexteroporum is the pronounced concavity of the second intercalary plate (2a), which appears collapsed with respect to the other plates. Phylogenetic analyses based on the large subunit 28S rDNA (D1/D2) and the internal transcribed spacer (ITS rDNA) support the attribution of A. dexteroporum to the genus Azadinium and its separation from the other known species. LC/MS-TOF analysis shows that Azadinium dex-teroporum produces azaspiracids in low amounts. Some of them have the same molecular weight as known compounds such as azaspiracid-3 and -7 and Compound 3 from Amphidoma languida, as well as similar fragmentation patterns in some cases. This is the first finding of a species producing azapiracids in the Mediterranean Sea.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Isabella Percopo
- Taxonomy and Identification of Marine Phytoplankton Service, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Villa Comunale, Naples, 80121, Italy
| | - Raffaele Siano
- IFREMER, Centre de Brest, DYNECO/Pelagos, ZI de la Pointe du Diable CS 170, Plouzané, 29280, France
| | - Rachele Rossi
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, Via Salute 2, Portici, Naples, 80055, Italy
| | - Vittorio Soprano
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, Via Salute 2, Portici, Naples, 80055, Italy
| | - Diana Sarno
- Taxonomy and Identification of Marine Phytoplankton Service, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Villa Comunale, Naples, 80121, Italy
| | - Adriana Zingone
- Ecology and Evolution of Plankton Laboratory, Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Villa Comunale, Naples, 80121, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
43
|
Zamorano R, Marín M, Cabrera F, Figueroa D, Contreras C, Barriga A, Lagos N, García C. Determination of the variability of both hydrophilic and lipophilic toxins in endemic wild bivalves and carnivorous gastropods from the Southern part of Chile. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2013; 30:1660-77. [DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2013.805438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
|
44
|
Silva M, Barreiro A, Rodriguez P, Otero P, Azevedo J, Alfonso A, Botana LM, Vasconcelos V. New invertebrate vectors for PST, spirolides and okadaic acid in the North Atlantic. Mar Drugs 2013; 11:1936-60. [PMID: 23739043 PMCID: PMC3721215 DOI: 10.3390/md11061936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2013] [Revised: 04/17/2013] [Accepted: 05/10/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The prevalence of poisoning events due to harmful algal blooms (HABs) has declined during the last two decades through monitoring programs and legislation, implemented mainly for bivalves. However, new toxin vectors and emergent toxins pose a challenge to public health. Several locations on the Portuguese coast were surveyed between 2009 and 2010 for three distinct biotoxin groups [saxitoxin (PST), spirolide (SPX) and okadaic acid (OA)], in 14 benthic species of mollusks and echinoderms. Our main goals were to detect new vectors and unravel the seasonal and geographical patterns of these toxins. PSTs were analyzed by the Lawrence method, SPXs by LC-MS/MS, and OA by LC-MS/MS and UPLC-MS/MS. We report 16 new vectors for these toxins in the North Atlantic. There were differences in toxin contents among species, but no significant geographical or seasonal patterns were found. Our results suggest that legislation should be adjusted to extend the monitoring of marine toxins to a wider range of species besides edible bivalves.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marisa Silva
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, Porto 4619-007, Portugal; E-Mails: (M.S.); (A.B.)
- Center of Marine and Environmental Research—CIMAR/CIIMAR, University of Porto, Rua dos Bragas 289, Porto 4050-123, Portugal; E-Mail:
| | - Aldo Barreiro
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, Porto 4619-007, Portugal; E-Mails: (M.S.); (A.B.)
- Center of Marine and Environmental Research—CIMAR/CIIMAR, University of Porto, Rua dos Bragas 289, Porto 4050-123, Portugal; E-Mail:
| | - Paula Rodriguez
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary, University of Santiago of Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain; E-Mails: (P.R.); (P.O.); (A.A.); (L.M.B.)
| | - Paz Otero
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary, University of Santiago of Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain; E-Mails: (P.R.); (P.O.); (A.A.); (L.M.B.)
| | - Joana Azevedo
- Center of Marine and Environmental Research—CIMAR/CIIMAR, University of Porto, Rua dos Bragas 289, Porto 4050-123, Portugal; E-Mail:
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Sciences, School of Health and Technology of Porto, Vila Nova de Gaia 4400-330, Portugal
| | - Amparo Alfonso
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary, University of Santiago of Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain; E-Mails: (P.R.); (P.O.); (A.A.); (L.M.B.)
| | - Luis M. Botana
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Veterinary, University of Santiago of Compostela, Lugo 27002, Spain; E-Mails: (P.R.); (P.O.); (A.A.); (L.M.B.)
| | - Vitor Vasconcelos
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, Porto 4619-007, Portugal; E-Mails: (M.S.); (A.B.)
- Center of Marine and Environmental Research—CIMAR/CIIMAR, University of Porto, Rua dos Bragas 289, Porto 4050-123, Portugal; E-Mail:
| |
Collapse
|
45
|
Jauffrais T, Kilcoyne J, Herrenknecht C, Truquet P, Séchet V, Miles CO, Hess P. Dissolved azaspiracids are absorbed and metabolized by blue mussels (Mytilus edulis). Toxicon 2013; 65:81-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2013.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2012] [Revised: 01/05/2013] [Accepted: 01/15/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
|
46
|
Sala GL, Bellocci M, Callegari F, Rossini GP. Azaspiracid-1 Inhibits the Maturation of Cathepsin D in Mammalian Cells. Chem Res Toxicol 2013; 26:444-55. [DOI: 10.1021/tx300511z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gian Luca Sala
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita, Università di Modena e Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 287, I-41125 Modena,
Italy
| | | | - Federica Callegari
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita, Università di Modena e Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 287, I-41125 Modena,
Italy
| | - Gian Paolo Rossini
- Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita, Università di Modena e Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 287, I-41125 Modena,
Italy
| |
Collapse
|
47
|
Aráoz R, Ramos S, Pelissier F, Guérineau V, Benoit E, Vilariño N, Botana LM, Zakarian A, Molgó J. Coupling the Torpedo microplate-receptor binding assay with mass spectrometry to detect cyclic imine neurotoxins. Anal Chem 2012; 84:10445-53. [PMID: 23131021 PMCID: PMC4118673 DOI: 10.1021/ac3027564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Cyclic imine neurotoxins constitute an emergent family of neurotoxins of dinoflagellate origin that are potent antagonists of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. We developed a target-directed functional method based on the mechanism of action of competitive agonists/antagonists of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors for the detection of marine cyclic imine neurotoxins. The key step for method development was the immobilization of Torpedo electrocyte membranes rich in nicotinic acetylcholine receptors on the surface of microplate wells and the use of biotinylated-α-bungarotoxin as tracer. Cyclic imine neurotoxins competitively inhibit biotinylated-α-bungarotoxin binding to Torpedo-nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in a concentration-dependent manner. The microplate-receptor binding assay allowed rapid detection of nanomolar concentrations of cyclic imine neurotoxins directly in shellfish samples. Although highly sensitive and specific for the detection of neurotoxins targeting nicotinic acetylcholine receptors as a class, the receptor binding assay cannot identify a given analyte. To address the low selectivity of the microplate-receptor binding assay, the cyclic imine neurotoxins tightly bound to the coated Torpedo nicotinic receptor were eluted with methanol, and the chemical nature of the eluted ligands was identified by mass spectrometry. The immobilization of Torpedo electrocyte membranes on the surface of microplate wells proved to be a high-throughput format for the survey of neurotoxins targeting nicotinic acetylcholine receptors directly in shellfish matrixes with high sensitivity and reproducibility.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rómulo Aráoz
- Centre de Recherche CNRS de Gif-sur-Yvette, Institut Fédératif de Neurobiologie Alfred Fessard FR2118, Laboratoire de Neurobiologie et Développement UPR 3294, 91198 Gif sur Yvette, France
| | - Suzanne Ramos
- Institut de Chimie des Substances Naturelles, UPR 2301, 91198 Gif sur Yvette, France
| | - Franck Pelissier
- Institut de Chimie des Substances Naturelles, UPR 2301, 91198 Gif sur Yvette, France
| | - Vincent Guérineau
- Institut de Chimie des Substances Naturelles, UPR 2301, 91198 Gif sur Yvette, France
| | - Evelyne Benoit
- Centre de Recherche CNRS de Gif-sur-Yvette, Institut Fédératif de Neurobiologie Alfred Fessard FR2118, Laboratoire de Neurobiologie et Développement UPR 3294, 91198 Gif sur Yvette, France
| | - Natalia Vilariño
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Campus Universitario, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Luis M. Botana
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Campus Universitario, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain
| | - Armen Zakarian
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106-9510, United States
| | - Jordi Molgó
- Centre de Recherche CNRS de Gif-sur-Yvette, Institut Fédératif de Neurobiologie Alfred Fessard FR2118, Laboratoire de Neurobiologie et Développement UPR 3294, 91198 Gif sur Yvette, France
| |
Collapse
|
48
|
Krock B, Tillmann U, Voß D, Koch BP, Salas R, Witt M, Potvin É, Jeong HJ. New azaspiracids in Amphidomataceae (Dinophyceae). Toxicon 2012; 60:830-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2012.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2012] [Revised: 05/10/2012] [Accepted: 05/17/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
|
49
|
Jauffrais T, Marcaillou C, Herrenknecht C, Truquet P, Séchet V, Nicolau E, Tillmann U, Hess P. Azaspiracid accumulation, detoxification and biotransformation in blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) experimentally fed Azadinium spinosum. Toxicon 2012; 60:582-95. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2012.04.351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2012] [Revised: 04/19/2012] [Accepted: 04/25/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
|
50
|
Jauffrais T, Kilcoyne J, Séchet V, Herrenknecht C, Truquet P, Hervé F, Bérard JB, Nulty C, Taylor S, Tillmann U, Miles CO, Hess P. Production and isolation of azaspiracid-1 and -2 from Azadinium spinosum culture in pilot scale photobioreactors. Mar Drugs 2012; 10:1360-1382. [PMID: 22822378 PMCID: PMC3397445 DOI: 10.3390/md10061360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2012] [Revised: 06/01/2012] [Accepted: 06/04/2012] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Azaspiracid (AZA) poisoning has been reported following consumption of contaminated shellfish, and is of human health concern. Hence, it is important to have sustainable amounts of the causative toxins available for toxicological studies and for instrument calibration in monitoring programs, without having to rely on natural toxin events. Continuous pilot scale culturing was carried out to evaluate the feasibility of AZA production using Azadinium spinosum cultures. Algae were harvested using tangential flow filtration or continuous centrifugation. AZAs were extracted using solid phase extraction (SPE) procedures, and subsequently purified. When coupling two stirred photobioreactors in series, cell concentrations reached 190,000 and 210,000 cell·mL−1 at steady state in bioreactors 1 and 2, respectively. The AZA cell quota decreased as the dilution rate increased from 0.15 to 0.3 day−1, with optimum toxin production at 0.25 day−1. After optimization, SPE procedures allowed for the recovery of 79 ± 9% of AZAs. The preparative isolation procedure previously developed for shellfish was optimized for algal extracts, such that only four steps were necessary to obtain purified AZA1 and -2. A purification efficiency of more than 70% was achieved, and isolation from 1200 L of culture yielded 9.3 mg of AZA1 and 2.2 mg of AZA2 of >95% purity. This work demonstrated the feasibility of sustainably producing AZA1 and -2 from A. spinosum cultures.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Thierry Jauffrais
- Ifremer, EMP/PHYC Laboratory, Rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, 44311 Nantes, France; (V.S.); (P.T.); (F.H.); (S.T.)
- Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed; (T.J.); (P.H.); Tel.: +33-2-40-37-40-00 (T.J.); Fax: +33-2-40-37-40-73 (T.J.); Tel.: +33-2-40-37-42-57 (P.H.); Fax: +33-2-40-37-40-26 (P.H.)
| | - Jane Kilcoyne
- Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, Co., Galway, Ireland; (J.K.); (C.N.)
| | - Véronique Séchet
- Ifremer, EMP/PHYC Laboratory, Rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, 44311 Nantes, France; (V.S.); (P.T.); (F.H.); (S.T.)
| | | | - Philippe Truquet
- Ifremer, EMP/PHYC Laboratory, Rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, 44311 Nantes, France; (V.S.); (P.T.); (F.H.); (S.T.)
| | - Fabienne Hervé
- Ifremer, EMP/PHYC Laboratory, Rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, 44311 Nantes, France; (V.S.); (P.T.); (F.H.); (S.T.)
| | | | - Cíara Nulty
- Marine Institute, Rinville, Oranmore, Co., Galway, Ireland; (J.K.); (C.N.)
| | - Sarah Taylor
- Ifremer, EMP/PHYC Laboratory, Rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, 44311 Nantes, France; (V.S.); (P.T.); (F.H.); (S.T.)
| | - Urban Tillmann
- Alfred Wegener Institute, Am Handelshafen 12, D-27570 Bremerhaven, Germany;
| | | | - Philipp Hess
- Ifremer, EMP/PHYC Laboratory, Rue de l'Ile d'Yeu, 44311 Nantes, France; (V.S.); (P.T.); (F.H.); (S.T.)
- Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed; (T.J.); (P.H.); Tel.: +33-2-40-37-40-00 (T.J.); Fax: +33-2-40-37-40-73 (T.J.); Tel.: +33-2-40-37-42-57 (P.H.); Fax: +33-2-40-37-40-26 (P.H.)
| |
Collapse
|