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Bobic L, Harbolic A, Warner GR. Reproductive & Developmental Toxicity of quaternary ammonium compounds. Biol Reprod 2024:ioae107. [PMID: 38959857 DOI: 10.1093/biolre/ioae107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2024] [Revised: 06/19/2024] [Accepted: 07/01/2024] [Indexed: 07/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) are a class of chemicals commonly used as disinfectants in household and healthcare settings. Their usage has significantly increased in recent years due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In addition, QACs have replaced the recently banned disinfectants triclosan and triclocarban in consumer products. QACs are found in daily antimicrobial and personal care products such as household disinfectants, mouthwash, and hair care products. Due to the pervasiveness of QACs in daily use products, humans are constantly exposed. However, little is known about the health effects of everyday QAC exposure, particularly effects on human reproduction and development. Studies that investigate the harmful effects of QACs on reproduction are largely limited to high-dose studies, which may not be predictive of low dose, daily exposure, especially as QACs may be endocrine disrupting chemicals. This review analyzes recent studies on QAC effects on reproductive health, identifying knowledge gaps, and recommending future directions in QAC-related research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leyla Bobic
- Department of Chemistry and Environmental Science, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, NJ
| | - Allison Harbolic
- Department of Chemistry and Environmental Science, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, NJ
| | - Genoa R Warner
- Department of Chemistry and Environmental Science, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, NJ
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2
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Ghosh A, Majie A, Karmakar V, Chatterjee K, Chakraborty S, Pandey M, Jain N, Roy Sarkar S, Nair AB, Gorain B. In-depth Mechanism, Challenges, and Opportunities of Delivering Therapeutics in Brain Using Intranasal Route. AAPS PharmSciTech 2024; 25:96. [PMID: 38710855 DOI: 10.1208/s12249-024-02810-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2024] [Accepted: 04/16/2024] [Indexed: 05/08/2024] Open
Abstract
Central nervous system-related disorders have become a continuing threat to human life and the current statistic indicates an increasing trend of such disorders worldwide. The primary therapeutic challenge, despite the availability of therapies for these disorders, is to sustain the drug's effective concentration in the brain while limiting its accumulation in non-targeted areas. This is attributed to the presence of the blood-brain barrier and first-pass metabolism which limits the transportation of drugs to the brain irrespective of popular and conventional routes of drug administration. Therefore, there is a demand to practice alternative routes for predictable drug delivery using advanced drug delivery carriers to overcome the said obstacles. Recent research attracted attention to intranasal-to-brain drug delivery for promising targeting therapeutics in the brain. This review emphasizes the mechanisms to deliver therapeutics via different pathways for nose-to-brain drug delivery with recent advancements in delivery and formulation aspects. Concurrently, for the benefit of future studies, the difficulties in administering medications by intranasal pathway have also been highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arya Ghosh
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, 835215, India
| | - Ankit Majie
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, 835215, India
| | - Varnita Karmakar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, 835215, India
| | - Kaberi Chatterjee
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, 835215, India
| | - Swarup Chakraborty
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, 835215, India
| | - Manisha Pandey
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Central University of Haryana, Mahendergarh, 123031, India
| | - Neha Jain
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Amity Institute of Pharmacy, Amity University, Noida, U.P., India
| | - Suparna Roy Sarkar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, 835215, India
| | - Anroop B Nair
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Clinical Pharmacy, King Faisal University, Al-Ahsa, 31982, Saudi Arabia
| | - Bapi Gorain
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technology, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, 835215, India.
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3
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Rubini S, Rubini R, Bertocchi S, Zordan S, Magri A, Barsi F, Sampieri M, Locatelli CA, Baldini E, Manfredini S, Vertuani S. A case of severe benzalkonium chloride intoxication in a cat. Acta Vet Scand 2024; 66:18. [PMID: 38622748 PMCID: PMC11020912 DOI: 10.1186/s13028-024-00737-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2023] [Accepted: 03/22/2024] [Indexed: 04/17/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Benzalkonium chloride (BAC) is a quaternary ammonium compound (QAC), that can be found in a wide variety of household products-from disinfectants to medicaments and home fragrances-but also professional products. In pets, cats have long been reported as more sensitive than dogs to QACs; in fact, signs of irritation such as oral ulcerations, stomatitis and pharyngitis can be observed after contact with concentrations of 2% or lower. In a review of 245 cases of BAC exposure in cats, reported by the Veterinary Poisons Information Service (United Kingdom) only 1.2% of the cases died or were euthanized. Nevertheless, BAC toxidromes in cats can result in transitory CNS and respiratory distress, as well as severe mucosal and cutaneous lesions. Currently, only a few reports are available concerning BAC poisoning in this species. CASE PRESENTATION A 4 month-old kitten presented with severe glossitis, lameness in the hindlimbs and episodes of vomiting and diarrhoea. The cause was unknown until the owners reported use of a BAC-containing mould remover (5%) 4 days later. The patient developed severe oral burns requiring a pharyngeal tube for feeding and severe cutaneous chemical burns. The kitten was managed with supportive therapy and required hospitalization for 10 days. The symptoms disappeared completely 3 weeks after exposure. CONCLUSIONS BAC is a very common compound contained in several household and professional products but, to the best of our knowledge, no previous case had been reported in Italy. We hope that this report will help raise awareness on the hazards of BAC products for cats in both domestic and work contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silva Rubini
- Zooprophylactic Institute of Lombardy and Emilia Romagna, Ferrara Territorial Office, Via Modena 483, 44124, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Roberto Rubini
- Europa Veterinary Clinic, Via Arginone 381/C, 44124, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Silvia Bertocchi
- Europa Veterinary Clinic, Via Arginone 381/C, 44124, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Silvia Zordan
- Europa Veterinary Clinic, Via Arginone 381/C, 44124, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Alice Magri
- Zooprophylactic Institute of Lombardy and Emilia Romagna, Ferrara Territorial Office, Via Modena 483, 44124, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Filippo Barsi
- Zooprophylactic Institute of Lombardy and Emilia Romagna, Ferrara Territorial Office, Via Modena 483, 44124, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Maria Sampieri
- Zooprophylactic Institute of Lombardy and Emilia Romagna, Bologna Territorial Office, Via P. Fiorini 5, 40127, Bologna, Italy
| | - Carlo Alessandro Locatelli
- Poison Control Center of Pavia-National Center for Toxicological Information-Clinical and Experimental Toxicology Laboratories, Clinical Scientific Institutes Maugeri SpA SB, IRCCS Pavia, Via Salvatore Maugeri 10, 27100, Pavia, Italy
| | - Erika Baldini
- Department of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Faculty of Medicine, Pharmacy and Prevention, University of Ferrara, Via Luigi Borsari 46, 44121, Ferrara, Italy.
| | - Stefano Manfredini
- Department of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Faculty of Medicine, Pharmacy and Prevention, University of Ferrara, Via Luigi Borsari 46, 44121, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Silvia Vertuani
- Department of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Faculty of Medicine, Pharmacy and Prevention, University of Ferrara, Via Luigi Borsari 46, 44121, Ferrara, Italy
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4
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Vieira LS, Seguin RP, Xu L, Wang J. Interaction and Transport of Benzalkonium Chlorides by the Organic Cation and Multidrug and Toxin Extrusion Transporters. Drug Metab Dispos 2024; 52:312-321. [PMID: 38307853 PMCID: PMC10955720 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.123.001625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2023] [Revised: 01/28/2024] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 02/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Humans are chronically exposed to benzalkonium chlorides (BACs) from environmental sources. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has recently called for additional BAC safety data, as these compounds are cytotoxic and have great potential for biochemical interactions. Biodistribution studies revealed that BACs extensively distribute to many tissues and accumulate at high levels, especially in the kidneys, but the underlying mechanisms are unclear. In this study, we characterized the interactions of BACs of varying alkyl chain length (C8 to C14) with the human organic cation transporters (hOCT1-3) and multidrug and toxin extrusion proteins (hMATE1/2K) with the goal to identify transporters that could be involved in BAC disposition. Using transporter-expressing cell lines, we showed that all BACs are inhibitors of hOCT1-3 and hMATE1/2K (IC50 ranging 0.83-25.8 μM). Further, the short-chain BACs (C8 and C10) were identified as substrates of these transporters. Interestingly, although BAC C8 displayed typical Michaelis-Menten kinetics, C10 demonstrated a more complex substrate-inhibition profile. Transwell studies with transfected Madin-Darby canine kidney cells revealed that intracellular accumulation of basally applied BAC C8 and C10 was substantially higher (8.2- and 3.7-fold, respectively) in hOCT2/hMATE1 double-transfected cells in comparison with vector-transfected cells, supporting a role of these transporters in mediating renal accumulation of these compounds in vivo. Together, our results suggest that BACs interact with hOCT1-3 and hMATE1/2K as both inhibitors and substrates and that these transporters may play important roles in tissue-specific accumulation and potential toxicity of short-chain BACs. Our findings have important implications for understanding human exposure and susceptibility to BACs due to environmental exposure. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Humans are systemically exposed to benzalkonium chlorides (BACs). These compounds broadly distribute through tissues, and their safety has been questioned by the FDA. Our results demonstrate that hOCT2 and hMATE1 contribute to the renal accumulation of BAC C8 and C10 and that hOCT1 and hOCT3 may be involved in the tissue distribution of these compounds. These findings can improve our understanding of BAC disposition and toxicology in humans, as their accumulation could lead to biochemical interactions and deleterious effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Letícia Salvador Vieira
- Department of Pharmaceutics (L.S.V., J.W.), Department of Medicinal Chemistry (R.P.S., L.X.), and Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, School of Public Health (L.X.), University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Ryan P Seguin
- Department of Pharmaceutics (L.S.V., J.W.), Department of Medicinal Chemistry (R.P.S., L.X.), and Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, School of Public Health (L.X.), University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Libin Xu
- Department of Pharmaceutics (L.S.V., J.W.), Department of Medicinal Chemistry (R.P.S., L.X.), and Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, School of Public Health (L.X.), University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Joanne Wang
- Department of Pharmaceutics (L.S.V., J.W.), Department of Medicinal Chemistry (R.P.S., L.X.), and Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, School of Public Health (L.X.), University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
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5
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Morse CN, Hite CC, Wamer NC, Gadient JN, Baki G, Prestwich EG. MALDI-TOF imaging analysis of benzalkonium chloride penetration in ex vivo human skin. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0297992. [PMID: 38330048 PMCID: PMC10852276 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0297992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2023] [Accepted: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 02/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Benzalkonium chloride (BZK), alkyldimethylbenzlamonium chloride, is a cationic surfactant that is used as an antiseptic. BZK is classified as a quaternary ammonium compound composed of molecules of several alkyl chains of differing lengths, that dictate its effectiveness towards different microbes. As a result, BZK has become one of the most used preservatives in antibacterial solutions. Despite its widespread use, it is not clear whether BZK penetrates human skin. To answer this question, BZK treated skin was analyzed using matrix assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry imaging. Solutions containing BZK and differing excipients, including citric acid, caprylyl glycol, and vitamin E, were applied ex vivo to excised human skin using Franz diffusion cells. Treated skin was embedded in gelatin and sectioned prior to MALDI-TOF imaging. BZK penetrates through the epidermis and into the dermis, and the penetration depth was significantly altered by pH and additives in tested solutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chase N. Morse
- Department of Medicinal and Biological Chemistry, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Collin C. Hite
- Department of Medicinal and Biological Chemistry, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Nathan C. Wamer
- Department of Medicinal and Biological Chemistry, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Jennifer N. Gadient
- Natural Sciences and Mathematics Instrumentation Center, The College of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, The University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Gabriella Baki
- Department of Pharmacy Practice, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Erin G. Prestwich
- Department of Medicinal and Biological Chemistry, College of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio, United States of America
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6
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Arnold W, Blum A, Branyan J, Bruton TA, Carignan CC, Cortopassi G, Datta S, DeWitt J, Doherty AC, Halden RU, Harari H, Hartmann EM, Hrubec TC, Iyer S, Kwiatkowski CF, LaPier J, Li D, Li L, Muñiz Ortiz JG, Salamova A, Schettler T, Seguin RP, Soehl A, Sutton R, Xu L, Zheng G. Quaternary Ammonium Compounds: A Chemical Class of Emerging Concern. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:7645-7665. [PMID: 37157132 PMCID: PMC10210541 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c08244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 47.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2022] [Revised: 03/24/2023] [Accepted: 03/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs), a large class of chemicals that includes high production volume substances, have been used for decades as antimicrobials, preservatives, and antistatic agents and for other functions in cleaning, disinfecting, personal care products, and durable consumer goods. QAC use has accelerated in response to the COVID-19 pandemic and the banning of 19 antimicrobials from several personal care products by the US Food and Drug Administration in 2016. Studies conducted before and after the onset of the pandemic indicate increased human exposure to QACs. Environmental releases of these chemicals have also increased. Emerging information on adverse environmental and human health impacts of QACs is motivating a reconsideration of the risks and benefits across the life cycle of their production, use, and disposal. This work presents a critical review of the literature and scientific perspective developed by a multidisciplinary, multi-institutional team of authors from academia, governmental, and nonprofit organizations. The review evaluates currently available information on the ecological and human health profile of QACs and identifies multiple areas of potential concern. Adverse ecological effects include acute and chronic toxicity to susceptible aquatic organisms, with concentrations of some QACs approaching levels of concern. Suspected or known adverse health outcomes include dermal and respiratory effects, developmental and reproductive toxicity, disruption of metabolic function such as lipid homeostasis, and impairment of mitochondrial function. QACs' role in antimicrobial resistance has also been demonstrated. In the US regulatory system, how a QAC is managed depends on how it is used, for example in pesticides or personal care products. This can result in the same QACs receiving different degrees of scrutiny depending on the use and the agency regulating it. Further, the US Environmental Protection Agency's current method of grouping QACs based on structure, first proposed in 1988, is insufficient to address the wide range of QAC chemistries, potential toxicities, and exposure scenarios. Consequently, exposures to common mixtures of QACs and from multiple sources remain largely unassessed. Some restrictions on the use of QACs have been implemented in the US and elsewhere, primarily focused on personal care products. Assessing the risks posed by QACs is hampered by their vast structural diversity and a lack of quantitative data on exposure and toxicity for the majority of these compounds. This review identifies important data gaps and provides research and policy recommendations for preserving the utility of QAC chemistries while also seeking to limit adverse environmental and human health effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- William
A. Arnold
- University
of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Arlene Blum
- Green
Science Policy Institute, Berkeley, California 94709, United States
- University
of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Jennifer Branyan
- California
Department of Toxic Substances Control, Sacramento, California 95814, United States
| | - Thomas A. Bruton
- California
Department of Toxic Substances Control, Sacramento, California 95814, United States
| | | | - Gino Cortopassi
- University
of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Sandipan Datta
- University
of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Jamie DeWitt
- East
Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina 27834, United States
| | - Anne-Cooper Doherty
- California
Department of Toxic Substances Control, Sacramento, California 95814, United States
| | - Rolf U. Halden
- Arizona
State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287, United States
| | - Homero Harari
- Icahn
School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York 10029, United States
| | | | - Terry C. Hrubec
- Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine, Blacksburg, Virginia 24060, United States
| | - Shoba Iyer
- California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment, Oakland, California 94612, United States
| | - Carol F. Kwiatkowski
- Green
Science Policy Institute, Berkeley, California 94709, United States
- North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695 United States
| | - Jonas LaPier
- Green
Science Policy Institute, Berkeley, California 94709, United States
| | - Dingsheng Li
- University
of Nevada, Reno, Nevada 89557, United States
| | - Li Li
- University
of Nevada, Reno, Nevada 89557, United States
| | | | - Amina Salamova
- Indiana University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Ted Schettler
- Science and Environmental Health Network, Bolinas, California 94924, United States
| | - Ryan P. Seguin
- University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Anna Soehl
- Green
Science Policy Institute, Berkeley, California 94709, United States
| | - Rebecca Sutton
- San Francisco Estuary Institute, Richmond, California 94804, United States
| | - Libin Xu
- University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Guomao Zheng
- Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518055, China
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7
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Mohapatra S, Yutao L, Goh SG, Ng C, Luhua Y, Tran NH, Gin KYH. Quaternary ammonium compounds of emerging concern: Classification, occurrence, fate, toxicity and antimicrobial resistance. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2023; 445:130393. [PMID: 36455328 PMCID: PMC9663149 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.130393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 49.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2022] [Revised: 11/01/2022] [Accepted: 11/11/2022] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Amplified hygiene and precautionary measures are of utmost importance to control the spread of COVID-19 and future infection; however, these changes in practice are projected to trigger a rise in the purchase, utilisation and hence, discharge of many disinfectants into the environment. While alcohol-based, hydrogen peroxide-based, and chlorine-based compounds have been used widely, quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) based disinfectants are of significant concern due to their overuse during this pandemic. This review presents the classification of disinfectants and their mechanism of action, focusing on QACs. Most importantly, the occurrence, fate, toxicity and antimicrobial resistance due to QACs are covered in this paper. Here we collated evidence from multiple studies and found rising trends of concern, including an increase in the mass load of QACs at a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) by 331% compared to before the COVID-19 pandemic, as well as an increases in the concentration of 62% in residential dust, resulting in high concentrations of QACs in human blood and breast milk and suggesting that these could be potential sources of persistent QACs in infants. In addition to increased toxicity to human and aquatic life, increased use of QACs and accelerated use of antibiotics and antimicrobials during the COVID-19 pandemic could multiply the threat to antimicrobial resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanjeeb Mohapatra
- NUS Environmental Research Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117411, Singapore; Energy and Environmental Sustainability for Megacities (E2S2) Phase II, Campus for Research Excellence and Technological Enterprise (CREATE), 1 Create Way, Singapore 138602, Singapore
| | - Lin Yutao
- NUS Environmental Research Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117411, Singapore
| | - Shin Giek Goh
- NUS Environmental Research Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117411, Singapore; Energy and Environmental Sustainability for Megacities (E2S2) Phase II, Campus for Research Excellence and Technological Enterprise (CREATE), 1 Create Way, Singapore 138602, Singapore
| | - Charmaine Ng
- NUS Environmental Research Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117411, Singapore; Energy and Environmental Sustainability for Megacities (E2S2) Phase II, Campus for Research Excellence and Technological Enterprise (CREATE), 1 Create Way, Singapore 138602, Singapore
| | - You Luhua
- NUS Environmental Research Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117411, Singapore; Energy and Environmental Sustainability for Megacities (E2S2) Phase II, Campus for Research Excellence and Technological Enterprise (CREATE), 1 Create Way, Singapore 138602, Singapore
| | - Ngoc Han Tran
- NUS Environmental Research Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117411, Singapore; Energy and Environmental Sustainability for Megacities (E2S2) Phase II, Campus for Research Excellence and Technological Enterprise (CREATE), 1 Create Way, Singapore 138602, Singapore
| | - Karina Yew-Hoong Gin
- NUS Environmental Research Institute, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117411, Singapore; Energy and Environmental Sustainability for Megacities (E2S2) Phase II, Campus for Research Excellence and Technological Enterprise (CREATE), 1 Create Way, Singapore 138602, Singapore; Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, National University of Singapore, Engineering Drive 2, Singapore 117576, Singapore.
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8
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Li ZM, Lakuleswaran M, Kannan K. LC-MS/MS methods for the determination of 30 quaternary ammonium compounds including benzalkonium and paraquat in human serum and urine. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2023; 1214:123562. [PMID: 36495685 PMCID: PMC9839631 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2022.123562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2022] [Revised: 11/09/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/07/2022]
Abstract
Benzalkyldimethylammonium (or benzalkonium; BACs), alkyltrimethylammonium (ATMACs), and dialkyldimethylammonium compounds (DDACs) have been widely used for over six decades as disinfectants, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic. Here we describe methods for the determination of 7 BACs, 6 ATMACs, 6 DDACs, 8 BAC metabolites, and the structurally similar quaternary ammonium compound (QAC) herbicides diquat, paraquat, and difenzoquat in human serum and urine using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The methods were optimized using isotopically labelled internal standards and solid-phase extraction with weak cation-exchange cartridges. We separated diquat and paraquat chromatographically using a mixed-mode LC column, and BACs, ATMACs, DDACs, difenzoquat, and BAC metabolites using reversed-phase (C8 and C18) LC columns. Method limits of detection (MLODs) and quantification (MLOQs) were 0.002-0.42 and 0.006-1.40 ng/mL, respectively. Recoveries of all analytes fortified at 1, 5, and 20 ng/mL concentrations in serum and urine matrices were 61-129%, with standard deviations of 0-20%. Repeated analysis of similarly fortified serum and urine samples yielded intra-day and inter-day variations of 0.22-17.4% and 0.35-17.3%, respectively. Matrix effects for analytes spiked into serum and urine matrices ranged from -27% to 15.4%. Analysis of real urine and serum samples revealed the presence of several QACs in human serum. Although no parent BACs were found in urine, we detected, for the first time, several ω-hydroxy and ω-carboxylic acid metabolites of BACs at average concentrations in the range of 0.05-0.35 ng/mL. The developed method is suitable for application in large-scale biomonitoring of human exposure to QACs and their metabolites in human serum and urine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhong-Min Li
- Department of Pediatrics, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, United States; Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, United States
| | - Mathusa Lakuleswaran
- Department of Pediatrics, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, United States; Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, United States
| | - Kurunthachalam Kannan
- Department of Pediatrics, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, United States; Department of Environmental Medicine, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, United States.
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9
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Tambuzzi S, Gentile G, Andreola S, Migliorini AS, Zoja R. Visceral Microscopic Pattern From Suicidal Ingestion of Professional Lysoform® With Delayed Death. Acad Forensic Pathol 2022; 12:118-125. [PMID: 36093372 PMCID: PMC9459401 DOI: 10.1177/19253621221119081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2022] [Accepted: 07/24/2022] [Indexed: 08/14/2023]
Abstract
Lysoform® in the formulation of professional detergent is widely used in several fields, whereas its suicidal ingestion is an unusual occurrence. Therefore, the biological signs of this fatal poisoning remain unclear and elusive, similarly to the histological lesions induced by its main constituent, which is benzalkonium chloride (BZK). Furthermore, since all the deaths that has been reported in the literature occurred immediately, microscopic pictures of BZK lethal toxicity in subjects with prolonged survival have never been reported to date. Specifically, this brief communication reports the unique case of a woman who ingested professional Lysoform® to commit suicide, for which she died two weeks later. The autopsy examination showed either local or systemic signs of caustic ingestion; moreover, the histological analysis showed clear cellular damage of lungs, heart, and kidneys. In our case, toxicological investigations were not authorized as they were no longer considered significant. In this framework, the histological examination has therefore assumed a fundamental role in investigating and demonstrating the lethal effects caused by the systemic dissemination of BZK, which would otherwise no longer be investigable. Therefore, in cases of substance intoxication with prolonged survival where forensic toxicological investigations may be no longer possible or feasible, the histological examination may be the only resource to successfully observe and demonstrate its lethal effects.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Guendalina Gentile
- Guendalina Gentile BSc, Sezione di Medicina
Legale—Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche per la Salute—Università degli Studi, via Luigi
Mangiagalli, 37, 20133 Milano, Italy,
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10
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Beil S, Markiewicz M, Pereira CS, Stepnowski P, Thöming J, Stolte S. Toward the Proactive Design of Sustainable Chemicals: Ionic Liquids as a Prime Example. Chem Rev 2021; 121:13132-13173. [PMID: 34523909 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.0c01265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
The tailorable and often unique properties of ionic liquids (ILs) drive their implementation into a broad variety of seminal technologies. The modular design of ILs allows in this context a proactive selection of structures that favor environmental sustainability─ideally without compromising their technological performance. To achieve this objective, the whole life cycle must be taken into account and various aspects considered simultaneously. In this review, we discuss how the structural design of ILs affects their environmental impacts throughout all stages of their life cycles and scrutinize the available data in order to point out knowledge gaps that need further research activities. The design of more sustainable ILs starts with the selection of the most beneficial precursors and synthesis routes, takes their technical properties and application specific performance into due account, and considers its environmental fate particularly in terms of their (eco)toxicity, biotic and abiotic degradability, mobility, and bioaccumulation potential. Special emphasis is placed on reported structure-activity relationships and suggested mechanisms on a molecular level that might rationalize the empirically found design criteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephan Beil
- Institute of Water Chemistry, TU Dresden, 01062 Dresden, Germany
| | - Marta Markiewicz
- Institute of Water Chemistry, TU Dresden, 01062 Dresden, Germany
| | - Cristina Silva Pereira
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa (ITQB NOVA), Av. da República, 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Piotr Stepnowski
- Department of Environmental Analysis, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Gdańsk, ul. Wita Stwosza 63, 80-308 Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Jorg Thöming
- Chemical Process Engineering, University of Bremen, Leobener Straße 6, 28359 Bremen, Germany
| | - Stefan Stolte
- Institute of Water Chemistry, TU Dresden, 01062 Dresden, Germany
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11
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Hrubec TC, Seguin RP, Xu L, Cortopassi GA, Datta S, Hanlon AL, Lozano AJ, McDonald VA, Healy CA, Anderson TC, Musse NA, Williams RT. Altered toxicological endpoints in humans from common quaternary ammonium compound disinfectant exposure. Toxicol Rep 2021; 8:646-656. [PMID: 33868951 PMCID: PMC8041661 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxrep.2021.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2020] [Revised: 02/04/2021] [Accepted: 03/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Humans are frequently exposed to Quaternary Ammonium Compounds (QACs). QACs are ubiquitously used in medical settings, restaurants, and homes as cleaners and disinfectants. Despite their prevalence, nothing is known about the health effects associated with chronic low-level exposure. Chronic QAC toxicity, only recently identified in mice, resulted in developmental, reproductive, and immune dysfunction. Cell based studies indicate increased inflammation, decreased mitochondrial function, and disruption of cholesterol synthesis. If these findings translate to human toxicity, multiple physiological processes could be affected. This study tested whether QAC concentrations could be detected in the blood of 43 human volunteers, and whether QAC concentrations influenced markers of inflammation, mitochondrial function, and cholesterol synthesis. QAC concentrations were detected in 80 % of study participants. Blood QACs were associated with increase in inflammatory cytokines, decreased mitochondrial function, and disruption of cholesterol homeostasis in a dose dependent manner. This is the first study to measure QACs in human blood, and also the first to demonstrate statistically significant relationships between blood QAC and meaningful health related biomarkers. Additionally, the results are timely in light of the increased QAC disinfectant exposure occurring due to the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. MAIN FINDINGS This study found that 80 % of study participants contained QACs in their blood; and that markers of inflammation, mitochondrial function, and sterol homeostasis varied with blood QAC concentration.
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Key Words
- 7-DHC, 7-Dehydrocholesterol
- 7-DHD, 7-Dehydrodesmosterol
- 8-DHC, 8-Dehydrocholesterol
- ADBAC, alkyldimethylbenzyl ammonium chloride
- ANOVA, analysis of variance
- BAC, benzalkonium chloride
- CRP, C-reactive protein
- DDAC, didecyldimethyl ammonium chloride
- Environmental toxicology
- FCCP, trifluoromethoxy carbonylcyanide phenylhydrazone
- IL-10, interleukin 10
- IL-12, interleukin 12
- IL-6, interleukin 6
- IRB, Institutional Review Board
- Inflammation
- LC, liquid chromatography
- LOD, level of detection
- LOQ, level of quantification
- LPS, lipopolysaccharide
- Lipid metabolism
- Mitochondrial function
- NF-κB, nuclear factor kappa beta
- NOEL, no effect level
- OCR, oxygen consumption rate
- OEL, occupational exposure limit
- QAC, quaternary ammonium compounds
- Quaternary ammonium compounds
- TNFα, tumor necrosis factor alpha
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Affiliation(s)
- Terry C. Hrubec
- Department of Biomedical Science, E. Via College of Osteopathic Medicine – Virginia, Blacksburg, VA, 24060, USA
- Department of Biomedical Science and Pathobiology, VA-MD College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA
| | - Ryan P. Seguin
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA
| | - Libin Xu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA
| | - Gino A. Cortopassi
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California – Davis, Davis, CA, 95618, USA
| | - Sandipan Datta
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California – Davis, Davis, CA, 95618, USA
| | - Alexandra L. Hanlon
- Center for Biostatistics and Health Data Science, Department of Statistics, College of Science, Virginia Tech, Riverside Circle, Roanoke, VA, 24016, USA
| | - Alicia J. Lozano
- Center for Biostatistics and Health Data Science, Department of Statistics, College of Science, Virginia Tech, Riverside Circle, Roanoke, VA, 24016, USA
| | - Valerie A. McDonald
- Department of Biomedical Science, E. Via College of Osteopathic Medicine – Virginia, Blacksburg, VA, 24060, USA
| | - Claire A. Healy
- Department of Biomedical Science, E. Via College of Osteopathic Medicine – Virginia, Blacksburg, VA, 24060, USA
| | - Tyler C. Anderson
- Department of Biomedical Science, E. Via College of Osteopathic Medicine – Virginia, Blacksburg, VA, 24060, USA
| | - Najaha A. Musse
- Department of Biomedical Science, E. Via College of Osteopathic Medicine – Virginia, Blacksburg, VA, 24060, USA
| | - Richard T. Williams
- Department of Biomedical Science, E. Via College of Osteopathic Medicine – Virginia, Blacksburg, VA, 24060, USA
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12
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Kera H, Fuke C, Usumoto Y, Nasu A, Maeda K, Mukai M, Sato W, Tanabe M, Kuninaka H, Ihama Y. Kinetics and distribution of benzalkonium compounds with different alkyl chain length following intravenous administration in rats. Leg Med (Tokyo) 2021; 48:101821. [PMID: 33348260 DOI: 10.1016/j.legalmed.2020.101821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2020] [Revised: 11/17/2020] [Accepted: 11/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Benzalkonium chloride is widely used in disinfectants. Several toxicological and fatal cases have been reported; however, little is known about its kinetics and distribution. We investigated the kinetic characteristics and distribution of benzalkonium cation (BZK) based on the length of the alkyl chains C12, C14, and C16. Rats were treated intravenously with BZK solution (dose, 13.9 mg/kg) containing equal amounts of the three homologues. Kinetic parameters in the blood were assessed, and BZK distribution in the blood and tissues was examined both in rapid intravenous (IV) and drip intravenous (DIV) administrations. BZK concentrations were analysed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). BZK with longer alkyl chains showed lower elimination tendencies and remained in the blood for a longer duration. Concentrations of BZK were higher in the heart, lung, spleen, and kidney than those in the blood, and lower in the brain and fat. In both the IV and DIV groups, the lung, liver, spleen, and fat samples showed higher concentrations of the longer alkyl chains (BZK-C12 < -C14 < -C16), and the opposite trend was observed in the kidney (BZK-C16 < -C14 < -C12). Only the heart and muscle samples displayed the homologues in ratios comparable to the original administered solutions. Differences between IV and DIV groups could be identified by comparing concentrations of BZK homologues in the heart, lung, spleen, and kidney samples. We found that the kinetics and distribution of BZK were influenced by the alkyl chain length, and analysing each BZK homologues in blood and tissue samples may provide useful information.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hitomi Kera
- Department of Legal Medicine, Yokohama City University Graduate School of Medicine, 3-9 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-0004, Japan
| | - Chiaki Fuke
- Department of Legal Medicine, Yokohama City University Graduate School of Medicine, 3-9 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-0004, Japan.
| | - Yosuke Usumoto
- Department of Legal Medicine, Yokohama City University Graduate School of Medicine, 3-9 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-0004, Japan
| | - Ayako Nasu
- Department of Legal Medicine, Yokohama City University Graduate School of Medicine, 3-9 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-0004, Japan
| | - Kazuho Maeda
- Department of Legal Medicine, Yokohama City University Graduate School of Medicine, 3-9 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-0004, Japan
| | - Moe Mukai
- Department of Legal Medicine, Yokohama City University Graduate School of Medicine, 3-9 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-0004, Japan
| | - Wakana Sato
- Department of Legal Medicine, Yokohama City University Graduate School of Medicine, 3-9 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-0004, Japan
| | - Momoka Tanabe
- Department of Legal Medicine, Yokohama City University Graduate School of Medicine, 3-9 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-0004, Japan
| | - Hikaru Kuninaka
- Department of Legal Medicine, Yokohama City University Graduate School of Medicine, 3-9 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-0004, Japan
| | - Yoko Ihama
- Department of Legal Medicine, Yokohama City University Graduate School of Medicine, 3-9 Fukuura, Kanazawa, Yokohama, Kanagawa 236-0004, Japan
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Keller LA, Merkel O, Popp A. Intranasal drug delivery: opportunities and toxicologic challenges during drug development. Drug Deliv Transl Res 2021; 12:735-757. [PMID: 33491126 PMCID: PMC7829061 DOI: 10.1007/s13346-020-00891-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 59.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Over the past 10 years, the interest in intranasal drug delivery in pharmaceutical R&D has increased. This review article summarises information on intranasal administration for local and systemic delivery, as well as for CNS indications. Nasal delivery offers many advantages over standard systemic delivery systems, such as its non-invasive character, a fast onset of action and in many cases reduced side effects due to a more targeted delivery. There are still formulation limitations and toxicological aspects to be optimised. Intranasal drug delivery in the field of drug development is an interesting delivery route for the treatment of neurological disorders. Systemic approaches often fail to efficiently supply the CNS with drugs. This review paper describes the anatomical, histological and physiological basis and summarises currently approved drugs for administration via intranasal delivery. Further, the review focuses on toxicological considerations of intranasally applied compounds and discusses formulation aspects that need to be considered for drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lea-Adriana Keller
- Preclinical Safety, AbbVie Deutschland GmbH & Co. KG, Knollstrasse, 67061 Ludwigshafen, Germany
- Department of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical Technology and Biopharmacy, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Butenandtstraße 5-13, 81337 Munich, Germany
| | - Olivia Merkel
- Department of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical Technology and Biopharmacy, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Butenandtstraße 5-13, 81337 Munich, Germany
| | - Andreas Popp
- Preclinical Safety, AbbVie Deutschland GmbH & Co. KG, Knollstrasse, 67061 Ludwigshafen, Germany
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14
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Li D, Sangion A, Li L. Evaluating consumer exposure to disinfecting chemicals against coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and associated health risks. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2020; 145:106108. [PMID: 32927283 PMCID: PMC7470762 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2020.106108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2020] [Revised: 08/03/2020] [Accepted: 08/31/2020] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Disinfection of surfaces has been recommended as one of the most effective ways to combat the spread of novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) that causes coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). However, overexposure to disinfecting chemicals may lead to unintended human health risks. Here, using an indoor fate and chemical exposure model, we estimate human exposure to 22 disinfecting chemicals on the lists recommended by various governmental agencies against COVID-19, resulting from contact with disinfected surfaces and handwashing. Three near-field exposure routes, i.e., mouthing-mediated oral ingestion, inhalation, and dermal absorption, are considered to calculate the whole-body uptake doses and blood concentrations caused by single use per day for three age groups (3, 14, and 24-year-old). We also assess the health risks by comparing the predicted whole-body uptake doses with in vivo toxicological data and the predicted blood concentrations with in vitro bioactivity data. Our results indicate that both the total exposure and relative contribution of each exposure route vary considerably among the disinfecting chemicals due to their diverse physicochemical properties. 3-year-old children have consistent higher exposure than other age groups, especially in the scenario of contact with disinfected surfaces, due to their more frequent hand contact and mouthing activities. Due to the short duration of handwashing, we do not expect any health risk from the use of disinfecting chemicals in handwashing. In contrast, exposure from contact with disinfected surfaces may result in health risks for certain age groups especially children, even the surfaces are disinfected once a day. Interestingly, risk assessments based on whole-body uptake doses and in vivo toxicological data tend to give higher risk estimates than do those based on blood concentrations and in vitro bioactivity data. Our results reveal the most important exposure routes for disinfecting chemicals used in the indoor environment; they also highlight the need for more accurate data for both chemical properties and toxicity to better understand the risks associated with the increased use of disinfecting chemicals in the pandemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dingsheng Li
- School of Community Health Sciences, University of Nevada Reno, Reno, NV 89557-274, United States
| | - Alessandro Sangion
- Department of Physical and Environmental Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, Ontario M1C 1A4, Canada
| | - Li Li
- School of Community Health Sciences, University of Nevada Reno, Reno, NV 89557-274, United States.
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15
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Choi HY, Lee YH, Lim CH, Kim YS, Lee IS, Jo JM, Lee HY, Cha HG, Woo HJ, Seo DS. Assessment of respiratory and systemic toxicity of Benzalkonium chloride following a 14-day inhalation study in rats. Part Fibre Toxicol 2020; 17:5. [PMID: 31992310 PMCID: PMC6986023 DOI: 10.1186/s12989-020-0339-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2019] [Accepted: 01/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Although biocides at low concentrations have been used to control pests, they can be more harmful than industrial chemicals as humans are directly and frequently exposed to such biocides. Benzalkonium chloride (BAC or BKC) is a non-toxic substance used to control pests. Recently, BAC has been increasingly used as a component in humidifier disinfectants in Korea, raising a serious health concern. Moreover, it poses significant health hazards to workers handling the chemical because of direct exposure. In the present study, we aimed to evaluate the respiratory toxicity of BAC due to its inhalation at exposure concentrations of 0.8 (T1 group), 4 (T2 group) and 20 (T3 group) mg/m3. Results In our previous study on the acute inhalational toxicity of BAC, bleeding from the nasal cavity was observed in all the rats after exposure to 50 mg/m3 BAC. Therefore, in this study, 20 mg/m3 was set as the highest exposure concentration, followed by 4 and 0.8 mg/m3 as the medium and low concentrations for 6 h/day and 14 days, respectively. After exposure, recovery periods of 2 and 4 weeks were provided. Additionally, alveolar lavage fluid was analyzed in males of the BAC-exposed groups at the end of exposure and 2 weeks after exposure to evaluate oxidative damage. In the T3 group exposed to BAC, deep breathing, hoarseness, and nasal discharge were observed along with a decline in feed intake and body weight, and nasal discharge was also observed in the T1 and T2 groups. ROS/RNS, IL-1β, IL-6, and MIP-2 levels decreased in a concentration-dependent manner in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. Histopathological examination showed cellular changes in the nasal cavity and the lungs of the TI, T2, and T3 groups. Conclusions As a result, it was confirmed that the target organs in the respiratory system were the nasal cavity and the lungs. The adverse effects were evaluated as reversible responses to oxidative damage. Furthermore, the no observed adverse effect level was found to be less than 0.8 mg/m3 and the lowest benchmark dose was 0.0031 mg/m3. Accordingly, the derived no-effect level of BAC was calculated as 0.000062 mg/m3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hye-Yeon Choi
- Inhalation Toxicity Research Center, Occupational Safety and Health Research Institute, KOSHA, 30 Expo-ro 339beon-gil, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 34122, Republic of Korea.,Laboratory of Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Yong-Hoon Lee
- Inhalation Toxicity Research Center, Occupational Safety and Health Research Institute, KOSHA, 30 Expo-ro 339beon-gil, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 34122, Republic of Korea
| | - Cheol-Hong Lim
- Inhalation Toxicity Research Center, Occupational Safety and Health Research Institute, KOSHA, 30 Expo-ro 339beon-gil, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 34122, Republic of Korea
| | - Yong-Soon Kim
- Inhalation Toxicity Research Center, Occupational Safety and Health Research Institute, KOSHA, 30 Expo-ro 339beon-gil, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 34122, Republic of Korea
| | - In-Seop Lee
- Inhalation Toxicity Research Center, Occupational Safety and Health Research Institute, KOSHA, 30 Expo-ro 339beon-gil, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 34122, Republic of Korea
| | - Ji-Min Jo
- Inhalation Toxicity Research Center, Occupational Safety and Health Research Institute, KOSHA, 30 Expo-ro 339beon-gil, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 34122, Republic of Korea
| | - Ha-Young Lee
- Inhalation Toxicity Research Center, Occupational Safety and Health Research Institute, KOSHA, 30 Expo-ro 339beon-gil, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 34122, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyo-Geun Cha
- Inhalation Toxicity Research Center, Occupational Safety and Health Research Institute, KOSHA, 30 Expo-ro 339beon-gil, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 34122, Republic of Korea
| | - Hee Jong Woo
- Laboratory of Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong-Seok Seo
- Inhalation Toxicity Research Center, Occupational Safety and Health Research Institute, KOSHA, 30 Expo-ro 339beon-gil, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 34122, Republic of Korea.
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16
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Seguin RP, Herron JM, Lopez V, Dempsey JL, Xu L. Metabolism of Benzalkonium Chlorides by Human Hepatic Cytochromes P450. Chem Res Toxicol 2019; 32:2466-2478. [PMID: 31730751 PMCID: PMC7269367 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.9b00293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Benzalkonium chlorides (BACs) are widely used as disinfectants in cleaning products, medical products, and the food processing industry. Despite a wide range of reported toxicities, limited studies have been conducted on the metabolism of these compounds in animal models and none in human-derived cells or tissues. In this work, we report on the metabolism of BACs in human liver microsomes (HLM) and by recombinant human hepatic cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes. BAC metabolism in HLM was NADPH-dependent and displayed apparent half-lives that increased with BAC alkyl chain length (C10 < C12 < C14 < C16), suggesting enhanced metabolic stability of the more lipophilic, longer chain BACs. Metabolites of d7-benzyl labeled BAC substrates retained all deuteriums and there was no evidence of N-dealkylation. Tandem mass spectrometry fragmentation of BAC metabolites confirmed that oxidation occurs on the alkyl chain region. Major metabolites of C10-BAC were identified as ω-hydroxy-, (ω-1)-hydroxy-, (ω, ω-1)-diol-, (ω-1)-ketone-, and ω-carboxylic acid-C10-BAC by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry comparison with synthetic standards. In a screen of hepatic CYP isoforms, recombinant CYP2D6, CYP4F2, and CYP4F12 consumed substantial quantities of BAC substrates and produced the major microsomal metabolites. The use of potent pan-CYP4 inhibitor HET0016, the specific CYP2D6 inhibitor quinidine, or both confirmed major contributions of CYP4- and CYP2D6-mediated metabolism in the microsomal disappearance of BACs. Kinetic characterization of C10-BAC metabolite formation in HLM demonstrated robust Michaelis-Menten kinetic parameters for ω-hydroxylation (Vmax = 380 pmol/min/mg, Km = 0.69 μM) and (ω-1)-hydroxylation (Vmax = 126 pmol/min/mg, Km = 0.13 μM) reactions. This work illustrates important roles for CYP4-mediated ω-hydroxylation and CYP2D6/CYP4-mediated (ω-1)-hydroxylation during the hepatic elimination of BACs, an environmental contaminant of emerging concern. Furthermore, we demonstrate that CYP-mediated oxidation of C10-BAC mitigates the potent inhibition of cholesterol biosynthesis exhibited by this short-chain BAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan P. Seguin
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy,
University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | - Josi M. Herron
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health
Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
98195
| | - Vanessa Lopez
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy,
University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | - Joseph L. Dempsey
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health
Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
98195
| | - Libin Xu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy,
University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health
Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
98195
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17
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Lee H, Park K. Acute toxicity of benzalkonium chloride in Balb/c mice following intratracheal instillation and oral administration. Environ Anal Health Toxicol 2019. [DOI: 10.5620/eht.e2019009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
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18
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Lee H, Park K. Acute toxicity of benzalkonium chloride in Balb/c mice following intratracheal instillation and oral administration. Environ Anal Health Toxicol 2019; 34:e2019009. [PMID: 31771318 PMCID: PMC7014950 DOI: 10.5620/eaht.e2019009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2019] [Accepted: 08/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Benzalkonium chloride is a cationic surfactant widely used as a disinfectant, preservative, and sanitizer in many public places as well as domestically. The purpose of this study is to compare the acute toxicity of lethal doses (LDx) and the target organs after intratracheal instillation and oral ingestion by mice, which is a preliminary test prior to the repeated dose toxicity test. When Balb/c mice were treated with a single dose of benzalkonium chloride via oral administration, LD50 was 241.7 mg/kg. However, it was comparatively decreased to 8.5 mg/kg following intratracheal treatment, which suggests that lung may be the main target of toxicity. Although the histopathology showed inflammatory responses in the lung after intratracheal instillation, it still did not confirm that the inflammatory responses were the key factors inducing death in the treated animal. Acute and fatal mechanisms such as bronchoconstriction or neurotoxicity associated with benzalkonium chloride exposure should be further investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Handule Lee
- College of Pharmacy, Dongduk Women's University, Seoul 02748, Korea
| | - Kwangsik Park
- College of Pharmacy, Dongduk Women's University, Seoul 02748, Korea
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19
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Kwon D, Lim Y, Kwon J, Shim I, Kim E, Lee D, Yoon B, Kim P, Kim H. Evaluation of pulmonary toxicity of benzalkonium chloride and triethylene glycol mixtures using in vitro and in vivo systems. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2019; 34:561-572. [PMID: 30786124 PMCID: PMC6594094 DOI: 10.1002/tox.22722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2018] [Revised: 01/10/2019] [Accepted: 01/14/2019] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Benzalkonium chloride (BAC) is a widely used disinfectant/preservative, and respiratory exposure to this compound has been reported to be highly toxic. Spray-form household products have been known to contain BAC together with triethylene glycol (TEG) in their solutions. The purpose of this study was to estimate the toxicity of BAC and TEG mixtures to pulmonary organs using in vitro and in vivo experiments. Human alveolar epithelial (A549) cells incubated with BAC (1-10 μg/mL) for 24 hours showed significant cytotoxicity, while TEG (up to 1000 μg/mL) did not affect cell viability. However, TEG in combination with BAC aggravated cell damage and inhibited colony formation as compared to BAC alone. TEG also exacerbated BAC-promoted production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reduction of glutathione (GSH) level in A549 cells. However, pretreatment of the cells with N-acetylcysteine (NAC) alleviated the cytotoxicity, indicating oxidative stress could be a mechanism of the toxicity. Quantification of intracellular BAC by LC/MS/MS showed that cellular distribution/absorption of BAC was enhanced in A549 cells when it was exposed together with TEG. Intratracheal instillation of BAC (400 μg/kg) in rats was toxic to the pulmonary tissues while that of TEG (up to 1000 μg/kg) did not show any harmful effect. A combination of nontoxic doses of BAC (200 μg/kg) and TEG (1000 μg/kg) promoted significant lung injury in rats, as shown by increased protein content and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activity in bronchoalveolar lavage fluids (BALF). Moreover, BAC/TEG mixture recruited inflammatory cells, polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs), in terminal bronchioles and elevated cytokine levels, tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), and interleukin 6 (IL-6) in BALF. These results suggest that TEG can potentiate BAC-induced pulmonary toxicity and inflammation, and thus respiratory exposure to the air mist from spray-form products containing this chemical combination is potentially harmful to humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Doyoung Kwon
- Risk Assessment Division, Environmental Health Research DepartmentNational Institute of Environmental ResearchIncheonRepublic of Korea
| | - Yeon‐Mi Lim
- Risk Assessment Division, Environmental Health Research DepartmentNational Institute of Environmental ResearchIncheonRepublic of Korea
| | - Jung‐Taek Kwon
- Risk Assessment Division, Environmental Health Research DepartmentNational Institute of Environmental ResearchIncheonRepublic of Korea
| | - Ilseob Shim
- Risk Assessment Division, Environmental Health Research DepartmentNational Institute of Environmental ResearchIncheonRepublic of Korea
| | - Eunji Kim
- Risk Assessment Division, Environmental Health Research DepartmentNational Institute of Environmental ResearchIncheonRepublic of Korea
| | - Doo‐Hee Lee
- Environmental Measurement & Analysis CenterNational Institute of Environmental ResearchIncheonRepublic of Korea
| | - Byung‐Il Yoon
- College of Veterinary MedicineKangwon National UniversityChuncheon‐siGangwon‐doRepublic of Korea
| | - Pilje Kim
- Risk Assessment Division, Environmental Health Research DepartmentNational Institute of Environmental ResearchIncheonRepublic of Korea
| | - Hyun‐Mi Kim
- Risk Assessment Division, Environmental Health Research DepartmentNational Institute of Environmental ResearchIncheonRepublic of Korea
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Choi SM, Roh TH, Lim DS, Kacew S, Kim HS, Lee BM. Risk assessment of benzalkonium chloride in cosmetic products. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART B, CRITICAL REVIEWS 2017; 21:8-23. [PMID: 29211634 DOI: 10.1080/10937404.2017.1408552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
A risk assessment of benzalkonium chloride (BAC) was conducted based upon its toxicological profile and exposure evaluation. Since 1935, BAC has been used in a wide variety of products such as disinfectants, preservatives, and sanitizers. It is well-established that BAC is not genotoxic nor does it display tumorigenic potential, but safety concerns have been raised in local usage such as for ocular and intranasal applications. The Foundation of Korea Cosmetic Industry Institute (KCII) reported that in a hair conditioner manufactured as a cosmetic or personal product in South Korea, BAC was present at concentrations of 0.5-2%. The systemic exposure dosage (SED) was determined using the above in-use concentrations and a risk assessment analysis was conducted. The Margin of Safety (MOS) values for hair conditioners were calculated to be between 621 and 2,483. The risk of certain personal and cosmetic products was also assessed based upon assumptions that BAC was present at the maximal level of regulation in South Korea and that the maximal amount was used. The MOS values for the body lotion were all above 100, regardless of the application site. Collectively, data indicate that there are no safety concerns regarding use of products that contain BAC under the current concentration restrictions, even when utilized at maximal permitted levels. However, a chronic dermal toxicity study on BAC and comprehensive dermal absorption evaluation needs to be conducted to provide a more accurate prediction of the potential health risks to humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seul Min Choi
- a Division of Toxicology, College of Pharmacy , Sungkyunkwan University , Gyeonggi-Do , Suwon , South Korea
| | - Tae Hyun Roh
- a Division of Toxicology, College of Pharmacy , Sungkyunkwan University , Gyeonggi-Do , Suwon , South Korea
| | - Duck Soo Lim
- a Division of Toxicology, College of Pharmacy , Sungkyunkwan University , Gyeonggi-Do , Suwon , South Korea
| | - Sam Kacew
- b McLaughlin Centre for Population Health Risk Assessment , University of Ottawa , Ottawa , ON , Canada
| | - Hyung Sik Kim
- a Division of Toxicology, College of Pharmacy , Sungkyunkwan University , Gyeonggi-Do , Suwon , South Korea
| | - Byung-Mu Lee
- a Division of Toxicology, College of Pharmacy , Sungkyunkwan University , Gyeonggi-Do , Suwon , South Korea
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Datta S, He G, Tomilov A, Sahdeo S, Denison MS, Cortopassi G. In Vitro Evaluation of Mitochondrial Function and Estrogen Signaling in Cell Lines Exposed to the Antiseptic Cetylpyridinium Chloride. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2017; 125:087015. [PMID: 28885978 PMCID: PMC5783672 DOI: 10.1289/ehp1404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2016] [Revised: 05/04/2017] [Accepted: 05/09/2017] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Quaternary ammonium salts (QUATS), such as cetylpyridinium chloride (CPC) and benzalkonium chloride (BAK), are frequently used in antiseptic formulations, including toothpastes, mouthwashes, lozenges, throat and nasal sprays, and as biocides. Although in a recent ruling, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) banned CPC from certain products and requested more data on BAK's efficacy and safety profile, QUATS, in general, and CPC and BAK, in particular, continue to be used in personal health care, food, and pharmaceutical and cleaning industries. OBJECTIVES We aimed to assess CPC's effects on mitochondrial toxicity and endocrine disruption in vitro. METHOD Mitochondrial O2 consumption and adenosine triphosphate (ATP) synthesis rates of osteosarcoma cybrid cells were measured before and after CPC and BAK treatment. Antiestrogenic effects of the compounds were measured by a luciferase-based assay using recombinant human breast carcinoma cells (VM7Luc4E2, ERalpha-positive). RESULTS CPC inhibited both mitochondrial O2 consumption [half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50): 3.8μM] and ATP synthesis (IC50: 0.9μM), and additional findings supported inhibition of mitochondrial complex 1 as the underlying mechanism for these effects. In addition, CPC showed concentration-dependent antiestrogenic activity half maximal effective concentration [(EC50): 4.5μM)]. BAK, another antimicrobial QUATS that is structurally similar to CPC, and the pesticide rotenone, a known complex 1 inhibitor, also showed mitochondrial inhibitory and antiestrogenic effects. In all three cases, there was overlap of the antiestrogenic activity with the mitochondrial inhibitory activity. CONCLUSIONS Mitochondrial inhibition in vitro occurred at a CPC concentration that may be relevant to human exposures. The antiestrogenic activity of CPC, BAK, rotenone, and triclosan may be related to their mitochondrial inhibitory activity. Our findings support the need for additional research on the mitochondrial inhibitory and antiestrogenic effects of QUATS, including CPC and BAK. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP1404.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandipan Datta
- Department of Molecular Bioscience, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California , Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Guochun He
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, University of California , Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Alexey Tomilov
- Department of Molecular Bioscience, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California , Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Sunil Sahdeo
- Department of Molecular Bioscience, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California , Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Michael S Denison
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, University of California , Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Gino Cortopassi
- Department of Molecular Bioscience, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California , Davis, Davis, California, USA
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22
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Herron J, Reese RC, Tallman KA, Narayanaswamy R, Porter NA, Xu L. Identification of Environmental Quaternary Ammonium Compounds as Direct Inhibitors of Cholesterol Biosynthesis. Toxicol Sci 2016; 151:261-70. [PMID: 26919959 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfw041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, we aim to identify environmental molecules that can inhibit cholesterol biosynthesis, potentially leading to the same biochemical defects as observed in cholesterol biosynthesis disorders, which are often characterized by congenital malformations and developmental delay. Using the Distributed Structure-Searchable Toxicity (DSSTox) Database Network developed by EPA, we first carried out in silico screening of environmental molecules that display structures similar to AY9944, a known potent inhibitor of 3β-hydroxysterol-Δ(7)-reductase (DHCR7)-the last step of cholesterol biosynthesis. Molecules that display high similarity to AY9944 were subjected to test in mouse and human neuroblastoma cells for their effectiveness in inhibiting cholesterol biosynthesis by analyzing cholesterol and its precursor using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. We found that a common disinfectant mixture, benzalkonium chlorides (BACs), exhibits high potency in inhibiting DHCR7, as suggested by greatly elevated levels of the cholesterol precursor, 7-dehydrocholesterol (7-DHC). Subsequent structure-activity studies suggested that the potency of BACs as Dhcr7 inhibitors decrease with the length of their hydrocarbon chain: C10 > C12 ≫ C14 > C16. Real-time qPCR analysis revealed upregulation of the genes related to cholesterol biosynthesis and downregulation of the genes related to cholesterol efflux, suggesting a feedback response to the inhibition. Furthermore, an oxidative metabolite of 7-DHC that was previously identified as a biomarker in vivo was also found in cells exposed to BACs by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Our findings suggest that certain environmental molecules could potently inhibit cholesterol biosynthesis, which could be a new link between environment and developmental disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josi Herron
- *Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington; Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Rosalyn C Reese
- Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Keri A Tallman
- Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee
| | | | - Ned A Porter
- Department of Chemistry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Libin Xu
- *Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington;
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Ohnuma-Koyama A, Yoshida T, Tajima-Horiuchi H, Takahashi N, Yamaguchi S, Ohtsuka R, Takeuchi-Kashimoto Y, Kuwahara M, Takeda M, Nakashima N, Harada T. Didecyldimethylammonium chloride induces pulmonary fibrosis in association with TGF-β signaling in mice. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013; 65:1003-9. [PMID: 23537712 DOI: 10.1016/j.etp.2013.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2012] [Revised: 12/29/2012] [Accepted: 02/18/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Didecyldimethylammonium chloride (DDAC) is a representative dialkyl-quaternary ammonium compound that is used as a disinfectant against several pathogens and is also used in commercial, industrial, and residential settings. We previously investigated toxicity on air way system following single instillation of DDAC to the lungs in mice, and found that DDAC causes pulmonary injury, which is associated with altered antioxidant antimicrobial responses; the inflammatory phase is accompanied or followed by fibrotic response. The present study was conducted to monitor transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) signaling in pulmonary fibrosis induced by DDAC. Mice were intratracheally instilled with DDAC and sacrificed 1, 3, or 7 days after treatment to measure TGF-β signaling. In order to further evaluate TGF-β signaling, we treated isolated mouse lung fibroblasts with DDAC. Fibrotic foci were observed in the lungs on day 3, and were widely extended on day 7, with evidence of increased α-smooth muscle actin-positive mesenchymal cells and upregulation of Type I procollagen mRNA. Developing fibrotic foci were likely associated with increased expression of Tgf-β1 mRNA, in addition to decreased expression of Bone morphogenetic protein-7 mRNA. In fibrotic lung samples, the expression of phosphorylated SMAD2/3 was considerably higher than that of phosphorylated SMAD1/5. In isolated lung fibroblasts, the mRNA levels of Tgf-β1 were specifically increased by DDAC treatment, which prolonged phosphorylation of SMAD2/3. These effects were abolished by treatment with SD208 - a TGF-βRI kinase inhibitor. The results suggest that DDAC induces pulmonary fibrosis in association with TGF-β signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aya Ohnuma-Koyama
- Laboratory of Pathology, Toxicology Division, The Institute of Environmental Toxicology, Uchimoriya-machi 4321, Joso, Ibaraki 303-0043, Japan
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24
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Kilic E, Er N, Alkan A, Ferahbas A. Accidental benzalkonium chloride (zephiran) injection. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 112:e103-5. [PMID: 22014998 DOI: 10.1016/j.tripleo.2011.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2011] [Revised: 06/01/2011] [Accepted: 06/06/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
We report a case of an accidental injection of benzalkonium chloride (zephiran) instead of a local anesthetic agent during a tooth extraction. The sudden development of chin and neck swelling led to dyspnea and the patient lost consciousness. She was sent to an emergency clinic by her dentist immediately. After medical treatment for 20 days, the necrotic tissue was debrided and a gingival sulcoplasty was performed. Healing was uneventful.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erdem Kilic
- Erciyes University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Kayseri, Turkey.
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Severino P, Souto EB, Pinho SC, Santana MHA. Hydrophilic coating of mitotane-loaded lipid nanoparticles: preliminary studies for mucosal adhesion. Pharm Dev Technol 2011; 18:577-81. [PMID: 21958059 DOI: 10.3109/10837450.2011.614250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
The aim of the present work was to load mitotane, an effective drug for adrenocortical carcinoma treatment, in solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC). The SLN and NLC were successfully prepared by high shear homogenization followed by hot high pressure homogenization. Formulations were composed of cetyl palmitate as the solid lipid for SLN, whereas for NLC PEGylated stearic acid was selected as solid lipid and medium chain triacylglycerols as the liquid lipid. Tween® 80 and Span® 85 were used as surfactants for all formulations. The particle size, zeta potential, polydispersity index (PI), encapsulation efficiency (EE), and loading capacity (LC) were evaluated. The SLN showed a mean particle size of 150 nm, PI of 0.20, and surface charge -10 mV, and the EE and LC could reach up to 92.26% and 0.92%, respectively. The NLC were obtained with a mean particle size of 250 nm, PI of 0.30, zeta potential -15 mV and 84.50% EE, and 0.84% LC, respectively. Hydrophilic coating of SLN with chitosan or benzalkonium chloride was effective in changing zeta potential from negative to positive values. The results suggest that mitotane was efficiently loaded in SLN and in NLC, being potential delivery systems for improving mitotane LC and controlled drug release.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrícia Severino
- School of Chemical Engineering, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
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26
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Bílek F, Křížová T, Lehocký M. Preparation of active antibacterial LDPE surface through multistep physicochemical approach: I. Allylamine grafting, attachment of antibacterial agent and antibacterial activity assessment. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2011; 88:440-7. [PMID: 21816580 DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2011.07.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2011] [Revised: 07/07/2011] [Accepted: 07/07/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) samples were treated in air plasma discharge, coated by polyallyamine brush thought copolymeric grafting surface-from reaction and deposited four common antibacterial agents (benzalkonium chloride, bronopol, chlorhexidine and triclosan) to gain material with active antibacterial properties. Surface characteristics were evaluated by static contact angle measurement with surface energy evaluation ATR-FTIR, X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) and SEM analysis. Inhibition zone on agar was used as in vitro test of antibacterial properties on two representative gram positive Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) and gram negative Escherichia coli (E. coli) strains. It was confirmed, that after grafting of polyallyamine, more antibacterial agent is immobilized on the surface. The highest increase of antibacterial activity was observed by the sample containing triclosan. Samples covered by bronopol did not show significant antibacterial activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- František Bílek
- Centre of Polymer Systems, Tomas Bata University in Zlín, Nam. Zlín, Czech Republic
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27
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Ohnuma A, Yoshida T, Horiuchi H, Fukumori J, Tomita M, Kojima S, Takahashi N, Fukuyama T, Hayashi K, Yamaguchi S, Ohtsuka R, Kashimoto Y, Kuwahara M, Takeda M, Kosaka T, Nakashima N, Harada T. Altered pulmonary defense system in lung injury induced by didecyldimethylammonium chloride in mice. Inhal Toxicol 2011; 23:476-85. [DOI: 10.3109/08958378.2011.584080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
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28
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Yoshida T, Ohnuma A, Horiuchi H, Harada T. Pulmonary fibrosis in response to environmental cues and molecular targets involved in its pathogenesis. J Toxicol Pathol 2011; 24:9-24. [PMID: 22272040 PMCID: PMC3234628 DOI: 10.1293/tox.24.9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2010] [Accepted: 11/25/2010] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic lung injury resulting from a variety of different causes is frequently associated with the develop ment of pulmonary fibrosis in humans. Although the etiology of pulmonary fibrosis is generally unknown, several sources of evidence support the hypothesis that a number of environmental and occupational agents play an etiologic role in the pathogenesis of this disease. The agents discussed in this review include beryllium, nylon flock, textile printing aerosols, polyvinyl chloride and didecyldimethylammonium chloride. The authors also describe a variety of animal models, including genetically modified mice, in order to investigate the molecular mechanism of pulmonary fibrosis, focusing on chemokine receptors, regulatory T cells and transforming growth factor-β and bone morphogenetic protein signaling. Overall, we propose the concept of toxicological pulmonary fibrosis as a lung disease induced in response to environmental cues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toshinori Yoshida
- Laboratory of Pathology, Toxicology Division, The Institute
of Environmental Toxicology, 4321 Uchimoriya-machi, Joso, Ibaraki 303-0043, Japan
| | - Aya Ohnuma
- Laboratory of Pathology, Toxicology Division, The Institute
of Environmental Toxicology, 4321 Uchimoriya-machi, Joso, Ibaraki 303-0043, Japan
| | - Haruka Horiuchi
- Laboratory of Pathology, Toxicology Division, The Institute
of Environmental Toxicology, 4321 Uchimoriya-machi, Joso, Ibaraki 303-0043, Japan
| | - Takanori Harada
- The Institute of Environmental Toxicology, 4321
Uchimoriya-machi, Joso, Ibaraki 303-0043, Japan
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Xue Y, Zhang S, Tang M, Zhang T, Wang Y, Hieda Y, Takeshita H. Comparative study on toxic effects induced by oral or intravascular administration of commonly used disinfectants and surfactants in rats. J Appl Toxicol 2011; 32:480-7. [PMID: 21387348 DOI: 10.1002/jat.1662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2010] [Accepted: 12/28/2010] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Accidental ingestion or injection of household products sometimes occurs due to their accessibility, but the toxic manifestations have not been well characterized when they are internally administered. The aim of this study was to investigate the toxic effects induced by ingestion or injection of different ionic surfactants and disinfectants in rats. The test drugs involved benzalkonium and benzethonium (BZK and BZT, both cationic surfactants used as disinfectants), alkyldiaminoethylglycine (AEG, an amphoteric surfactant used as a disinfectant), linear alkylbenzenesulfonate (LAS, an anionic surfactant), polyoxyethylene cetylether (PEC, a nonionic surfactant), chlorhexidine (CHX, not a surfactant but a disinfectant) and saline (control). Male Sprague-Dawley rats were administered one of the test drugs orally (p.o.), intravenously (i.v.) or intraarterially (i.a.). The fatal effects appeared rapidly (<30 min) in i.v.-administered rats, while taking hours (>5 h) in i.a./p.o.-administered rats after a dose of around LD(50) , although the progress and degree of toxic effects varied among the drugs tested. In intravascular administration, BZK and BZT were fatal at doses of 15-20 mg kg(-1) . Higher concentrations in lung and kidney than in blood were determined. CHX showed a high toxic effect compared with cationic surfactants. The rats administered anionic (LAS) or amphoteric (AEG) surfactant died in less than 24 h at doses over 100 mg kg(-1) . In p.o. administration, the toxic effects were concentration/dose-dependent, and all rats administered high doses of surfactants except for PEC died at 5-20 h. The overall toxic ranks could be: cationic surfactant/CHX> anionic/amphoteric surfactant > nonionic surfactant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuying Xue
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine and Engineering, Ministry of Education, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Biomaterials and Devices, School of Public Health, Southeast University, Dingjiaqiao, Nanjing, China.
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Xue Y, Zhang S, Yang Y, Lu M, Wang Y, Zhang T, Tang M, Takeshita H. Acute pulmonary toxic effects of chlorhexidine (CHX) following an intratracheal instillation in rats. Hum Exp Toxicol 2011; 30:1795-803. [PMID: 21339254 DOI: 10.1177/0960327111400104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Chlorhexidine (CHX) is a cationic biguanide compound that has been widely used for disinfection of skin, mucous membranes, and medical instruments. Poisoning has been occurred occasionally due to its easy accessibility. Some fatal cases developed acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) from aspiration of CHX directly into the lung. There is no preclinical information about the pulmonary toxicity of CHX available since the products of CHX are usually developed for disinfection by topical use. In this study, the acute pulmonary toxic effects of CHX following an intratracheal instillation in rats were investigated. Rats were exposed either to CHX at concentrations of 0.02% and 0.2% or to distilled water at a volume of 500 μl/kg b.w. CHX at concentration of 0.2% caused changes in hematological and biochemical values including white blood cell count (WBC), total protein (TP), albumin (ALB), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and creatinine (CRE), and induced inflammatory reactions including intra-alveolar edema and hemorrhages, as well as resulted in the target organ concentration in lungs at the level of about 1.0 μg/g and maintained for more than 1 week, when administered intratracheally in rats. The cytotoxic action of CHX might induce those detrimental reactions in rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuying Xue
- Key Laboratory of Environmental Medicine and Engineering, Ministry of Education, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Biomaterials and Devices, School of Public Health, Southeast University, Nanjing, China.
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31
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Loftsson T, Thorsteinsson T, Másson M. Hydrolysis kinetics and QSAR investigation of soft antimicrobial agents. J Pharm Pharmacol 2010; 57:721-7. [PMID: 15969926 DOI: 10.1211/0022357056226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Quaternary ammonium surfactants, such as benzalkonium chloride and cetylpyridinium chloride, are commonly used as antibacterial agents for disinfectants and for general environmental sanitation, as well as in surfactants, penetration enhancers and preservatives in pharmaceutical and cosmetic formulations. However, these agents are known to cause various side-effects and toxic reactions that are believed to be associated with their chemical stability. Soft analogues of the long-chain quaternary ammonium compounds were synthesized according to the soft drug approach and their physicochemical properties investigated, such as their hydrolytic rate constant, surface activity and lipophilicity. Structure-activity studies showed that the antimicrobial activity of the compounds was strongly influenced by their lipophilicity and chemical stability, the activity increasing with increasing lipophilicity and stability. However, in soft drug design structure-activity relationships are combined with structure-inactivation relationships during the lead optimization. The safety index (SI) of compounds was defined as the hydrolytic rate constant divided by the minimum inhibitory concentration. The SI of the soft antibacterial agents was found to increase with increasing lipophilicity but optimum SI was obtained when their hydrolytic t1/2, at pH 6 and 60°C, was about 11 h. Optimization of the soft antibacterial agents through SI optimization resulted in potent but chemically unstable quaternary ammonium antibacterial agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thorsteinn Loftsson
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Iceland, Hofsvallagata 53, IS-107 Reykjavik, Iceland.
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32
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Ohnuma A, Yoshida T, Tajima H, Fukuyama T, Hayashi K, Yamaguchi S, Ohtsuka R, Sasaki J, Fukumori J, Tomita M, Kojima S, Takahashi N, Takeuchi Y, Kuwahara M, Takeda M, Kosaka T, Nakashima N, Harada T. Didecyldimethylammonium chloride induces pulmonary inflammation and fibrosis in mice. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 62:643-51. [PMID: 19762220 DOI: 10.1016/j.etp.2009.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2009] [Revised: 07/16/2009] [Accepted: 08/24/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Didecyldimethylammonium chloride (DDAC) is used worldwide as a germicide, in antiseptics, and as a wood preservative, and can cause adverse pulmonary disease in humans. However, the pulmonary toxicity of DDAC has not yet been thoroughly investigated. Mice were intratracheally instilled with DDAC to the lung and the bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid and lung tissues were collected to assess dose- and time-related pulmonary injury. Exposure to 1500 μg/kg of DDAC caused severe morbidity with pulmonary congestive oedema. When the BAL fluid from survivors was examined on day 3 after treatment, exposure to 150 μg/kg of DDAC caused weakly induced inflammation, and exposure to 15μg/kg did not cause any visible effects. Next, we observed pulmonary changes that occurred up to day 20 after 150 μg/kg of DDAC exposure. Pulmonary inflammation peaked on day 7 and was confirmed by expression of interleukin-6, monocyte chemotactic protein-1, macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-1α, MIP-1β, and regulated upon activation, normal T-cell expressed and secreted in the BAL fluid; these changes were accompanied by altered gene expression of their chemokine (C-C motif) receptor (Ccr) 1, Ccr2, Ccr3, and Ccr5. Cytotoxicity evoked by DDAC was related to the inflammatory changes and was confirmed by an in vitro study using isolated mouse lung fibroblasts. The inflammatory phase was accompanied or followed by pulmonary remodeling, i.e., fibrosis, which was evident in the mRNA expression of type I procollagen. These results suggest that administering DDAC by intratracheal instillation causes pulmonary injury in mice, and occupational exposure to DDAC might be a potential hazard to human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aya Ohnuma
- Laboratory of Pathology, Toxicology Division, Institute of Environmental Toxicology, Uchimoriya-machi 4321, Joso, Ibaraki, Japan
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Pulmonary irritation after inhalation exposure to benzalkonium chloride in rats. Int J Occup Med Environ Health 2008; 21:157-63. [PMID: 18715840 DOI: 10.2478/v10001-008-0020-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Benzalkonium chloride (BAC) is a quaternary ammonium compound (QAC) with a C8 to C18 chain length of alkyl groups. Since BAC exerts toxic effects on microorganisms, it has been used as an effective germicide and preservative, mostly in cosmetic industry and medicine. However, the toxic potential of BAC may be hazardous to humans, due to the common use of preparations containing BAC as a preservative. MATERIAL AND METHODS To assess the possible toxic effects of BAC, two-stage experiments were performed on female Wistar rats. At first, LC50 after a single exposure to BAC aerosol was determined. Then, the animals were exposed to BAC aerosol at 30 mg/m3 for 6 h, and for 3 days (6 h/day). The controls were unexposed rats. Directly after BAC exposure and 18 h afterwards, BALF concentrations were measured of total protein, Clara cell protein, matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9), hyaluronic acid (HA), immunoglobulin E (IgE) and cytokines (TF-alpha, IL-6 and MIP-20), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and GSH-S-transferase (GST). RESULTS The LC50 value for exposed rats was ca. 53 mg BAC in m3 air for 4 h. All the rats survived single and repeated inhalation exposure to 30 mg/m3 BAC. After single and repeated exposure, lung weight, total protein, HA and LDH activity in BALF of exposed rats were higher than in controls while CC16 levels were decreased. A significantly higher BALF concentration of IL-6 and IgE was noted in animals exposed to single and repeated doses. BALF concentrations of MMP-9, TNF-alpha, and MIP-2 in exposed rats were similar to those in control animals. CONCLUSION BAC may be classified to class I acute inhalation toxicity. It showed a strong inflammatory and irritant activity on the lungs after 6h inhalation and stimulated dynamic patterns of IL-6 and IgE production and protein infiltration from blood vessels to BALF. Continued exposure resulted in cellular destruction, a statistically significant increase in LDH activity and a continuous decrease in CC16 concentration in BALF.
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Intorre L, Meucci V, Di Bello D, Monni G, Soldani G, Pretti C. Tolerance of benzalkonium chloride, formalin, malachite green, and potassium permanganate in goldfish and zebrafish. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2007; 231:590-5. [PMID: 17696862 DOI: 10.2460/javma.231.4.590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine tolerance of goldfish and zebrafish to benzalkonium chloride, formalin, malachite green, and potassium permanganate. DESIGN Tolerance study. ANIMALS Adult goldfish (Carassius auratus) and zebrafish (Danio rerio). PROCEDURES Groups of fish (n = 10/group) were exposed to each disinfectant at the therapeutic dosage; at 0.25, 0.5, 3, and 5 times the concentration used for the therapeutic dosage; and at the concentration used for the therapeutic dosage but for 3 or 5 times the recommended exposure time. RESULTS In both species, exposure to malachite green at the therapeutic dosage resulted in toxic effects, including death. Exposure to formalin at the therapeutic dosage resulted in toxic effects in goldfish, but not zebrafish, and exposure to potassium permanganate resulted in toxic effects in zebrafish, but not goldfish. On the basis of the ratio of therapeutic dosage to median lethal dosage, in goldfish, formalin was more toxic than benzalkonium chloride, which was more toxic than malachite green, which was more toxic than potassium permanganate. In zebrafish, potassium permanganate was more toxic than formalin and benzalkonium chloride, which were approximately equally toxic and more toxic than malachite green. Extending treatment time increased the toxicity of potassium permanganate in zebrafish and the toxicity of formalin and malachite green in goldfish, but did not alter the toxicity of the other disinfectants. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Results indicated that there was no consistency between zebrafish and goldfish in their tolerance to disinfectants, and that therapeutic dosages reported in the literature for these disinfectants were not always safe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luigi Intorre
- Section of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Veterinary Clinics, University of Pisa, 56124 Pisa, Italy
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Dermatokinetics of didecyldimethylammonium chloride and the influence of some commercial biocidal formulations on its dermal absorption in vitro. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2007; 48:87-92. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2007.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2006] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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