Potential action of extract of Acmella oleracea (L.) R.K. Jansen to control Amblyomma cajennense (Fabricius, 1787) (Acari: Ixodidae) ticks

Efficacy of spilanthol and Acmella oleracea (L.) R. K. Jansen (Asteraceae) extract against Schistosoma mansoni infection

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Acmella oleracea (L.) R. K. Jansen, commonly referred to as "Jambu", is a valuable medicinal plant native to the Amazon regions. Inflorescences of A. oleracea is utilized as local anesthetic properties and for its insecticidal, antiparasitic, and anthelmintic attributes.

AIMS OF THIS STUDY

This study aimed to evaluate the in vitro and in vivo antiparasitic properties of A. oleracea extract and spilanthol (SPL) against Schistosoma mansoni.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The ethanolic extract of A. oleracea inflorescences (AoE) was prepared, analyzed by HPLC-DAD, and characterized by UHPLC-HRMS/MS. SPL was isolated from AoE by chromatographic fractionation. The antischistosomal properties of AoE and SPL were evaluated in vitro against adult schistosomes and in preclinical assays using murine models of patent S. mansoni infection.

RESULTS

Through UHPLC-HRMS/MS analysis, 14 alkamides were annotated in AoE. HPLC-DAD analysis of AoE revealed a peak with a substantial relative area of ∼85%, which was isolated and identified as SPL. AoE and SPL caused mortality of adult schistosomes ex vivo, showing EC50 values of 32.6 μg/mL and 27.8 μM, respectively, without affected Vero cells or Caenorhabditis elegans. In preclinical studies, the oral administration (400 mg/kg) of AoE and SPL resulted in significant reductions in worm burden of 28% and ∼42%, respectively. Additionally, SPL exhibits remarkable effects on oogram, decreasing egg burden and the number of immature eggs by over 80%, while also promoting significant reductions in hepato- and splenomegaly.

CONCLUSIONS

The research underscores the antischistosomal activity of A. oleracea highlighting the potential of SPL as a lead for the development of new schistosomicidal drugs and encouraging further studies to validate the traditional anthelmintic use of A. oleracea inflorescences.

Cannabis sativa (Linnaeus, 1753): The use of its extract against Rhipicephalus linnaei (Audouin, 1826) ticks

To minimize the damage caused by synthetic acaricides to non-target organisms, the use of bioactives compounds extracted from plants has been considered. In this study, semi-engorged females of Rhipicephalus linnaei ticks were exposed to Cannabis sativa flower extract (submersion for 5 minutes in different concentrations diluted in ethanol 30 %) evaluated alterations in the integument and salivary glands. The results demonstrated that lower concentrations of the extract caused damage to both the integument and salivary glands, affecting the cuticular epithelial cells responsible for synthesizing all layers of the cuticle. The concentration of 2.5 mg/mL caused more extensive damage than 5.0 mg/mL, and 40 mg/mL completely disrupted the epithelium. Exposure of the salivary glands showed that at 2.5 ug/mL dose the glandular acini was disrupted, leaving only a heterogeneous mass with some nuclei of acinar cells, leading to acinar rupture. These findings indicate that the extract from Cannabis sativa flowers irreversibly alters the morphology and consequently, interferes with the functionality of different vital organs.

Acaricidal activity of synthetic spilanthol derivative against ticks of medical and veterinary importance

The ANESPSAT, a synthetic spilanthol derivative, and its nanoformulation were evaluated against Rhipicephalus microplus and Amblyomma sculptum ticks. ANESPSAT activity was compared with spilanthol and derivatives (ANESPE and others). The compound was synthesized in a gram-scale by a 2-step process, comprising a direct ester amidation and a Horner-Wadsworth- Emmons reaction. The nanoemulsions were produced by coarse homogenization followed by high-energy ultrasonication, in which hydrodynamic diameter, polydispersity index, and zeta potential remained stable. The spilanthol-eugenol hybrid derivatives did not show significant acaricidal activity. ANESPE killed 83% of the R. microplus larvae at 30 mg.mL-1, while ANESPSAT killed 97% at 0.5 mg.mL-1, showing to be the most active compound. Spilanthol and ANESPSAT had similar high mortality rates for tick larvae, with LC50 values of 0.10 and 0.14 mg.mL-1 for R. microplus larvae, and 0.04 and 0.48 mg.mL-1 for A. sculptum larvae, respectively. The efficacy of spilanthol was lower against R. microplus engorged females when compared with ANESPSAT, which was highly effective (>98%) against R. microplus engorged females. The nanoemulsion with ANESPSAT was effective against tick females, preventing egg laying and achieving 100% efficacy at 2.5 mg.mL-1. Spilanthol had only 59% efficacy at 10 mg.mL-1. The results suggest that ANESPSAT, a natural product derivative, could be used in novel formulations for tick management that might be safer and environmentally friendly.

In vitro acaricidal activity of essential oils and their binary mixtures against ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae)

Ixodes scapularis ticks are vectors of infectious agents that cause illness in humans, including Lyme disease. Recent years have seen a surge in tick-borne diseases (TBD) resulting in a high demand for tick management products. Plants offer a valuable source of active compounds for the development of novel, eco-friendly tick control products, reducing potential risks to human and animal health. Essential oils (EOs) have emerged as potential acaricides and repellents against ticks providing an alternative to synthetic chemicals and aiding in the prevention of TBD by lowering the risk of tick bites. We investigated the acaricidal activity of EOs from lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus), geranium (Pelargonium x asperum), savory thyme (Thymus saturejoides), and white thyme (Thymus zygis) on I. scapularis. The interactions (i.e., synergistic, antagonistic, or additive) of their binary mixtures were also evaluated. EO samples were analyzed via gas chromatography-mass spectrometry to determine their chemical composition. The adult immersion test was used to determine the lethal concentration (LC50) of each EO alone and in mixtures. Quantitative assessment of synergistic, additive, or antagonistic effect of the binary mixtures was performed by calculating the combination index. Strong acaricidal activity was recorded for savory thyme and white thyme EOs, with LC50 values of 28.0 and 11.0 μg/μL, respectively. The LC50 of lemongrass and geranium EOs were 49.0 and 39.7 μg/μL, respectively. Among the tested EOs, savory thyme and white thyme had a strong acaricidal effect on I. scapularis, which might be linked to the presence of carvacrol (26.05 % ± 0.38) and thymol (53.6 % ± 2.31), main components present in savory thyme and white thyme EOs, respectively. The tick killing efficacy of lemongrass and geranium EOs was lower when mixed than when used separately (LC50 of 65.3 µg/µL). The same happened with savory thyme and white thyme EOs, except at 9.75 µg/µL where they had a synergistic effect (LC50 of 58.3 µg/µL). Lemongrass and savory thyme EOs had a synergistic effect at low concentrations, and an antagonistic effect at higher concentrations (LC50 of 95.4 µg/µL). Lemongrass and white thyme EOs had a synergistic effect against ticks from 15 to 120 µg/µL (LC50 of 18.5 µg/µL) similar to white thyme EO. Geranium and savory thyme EOs had an antagonistic effect at all concentrations, with an LC50 of 66.8 µg/µL. Geranium and white thyme EOs also had an antagonistic effect, except at 12.7 µg/µL where they had a synergistic effect (LC50 of 66.8 µg/µL). The interaction observed when combining selected essential oils suggests promising potential for developing acaricidal formulations aimed at controlling ticks and curbing the transmission of tick-borne disease agents.

Efficacy of essential oils of Egletes viscosa and Lippia schaueriana on the reproductive biology of Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato engorged females

The study analyzed the chemical composition and the acaricide effect of Egletes viscosa Less (macela-da-terra) and Lippia schaueriana Mart. (lipia-da-serra) essential oils (EOs) on Rhipicephalus sanguineus s. l. (Acari: Ixodidae) engorged females. The chemical analysis (GC-MS and GC-FID) identified 27 components in E. viscosa EO and 18 in L. schaueriana EO, which comprise more than 98% of its constituents. The effects of the oils on the reproductive biology of R. sanguineus ticks were assessed by adult immersion test. Both EOs significantly reduced (p < 0.05) the egg production index when the females were exposed to 25 and 50 mg/mL, also affecting the egg viability. During the laying process, the eggs produced by the females exposed to the EO showed several morphological alterations such as dehydrated, darkened, and disaggregated, and these alterations were more severe as the concentrations increased. The mortality percentages were 58.9%, 70.8% and 92.7% when the ticks were exposed to 12.5, 25 and 50 mg/mL of E. viscosa oil, respectively. In the same concentrations, the efficacy of L. schaueriana was 39.3%, 53.4%, and 84.6%. Therefore, it can be concluded that the essential oils of E. viscosa and L. schaueriana have acaricidal effect in females of R. sanguineus s.l ticks.

Phytochemical Analysis, Antioxidant and Bone Anabolic Effects of Blainvillea acmella (L.) Philipson

Blainvillea acmella (L.) Philipson [Asteraceae] (B. acmella) is an important medicinal plant native to Brazil, and it is widely known as a toothache plant. A plethora of studies have demonstrated the antioxidant activities of B. acmella and few studies on the stimulatory effects on alkaline phosphatase (ALP) secretion from bone cells; however, there is no study on its antioxidant and anabolic activity on bone cells. The study aimed to evaluate the phytochemical contents of aqueous and ethanol extracts of B. acmella using gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GCMS) and liquid chromatography time of flight mass spectrometry (LCTOFMS) along with the total phenolic (TPC) and flavonoid (TFC) contents using Folin-Ciocalteu and aluminum colorimetric methods. The extracts of B. acmella leaves were used to scavenge synthetic-free radicals such as 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 2,2'-azino-bis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS), and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assays. The bone anabolic effects of B. acmella extracts on MC3T3-E1 cells were measured with 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2, 5-diphenyltetrazoium bromide (MTT) at 1, 3, 5, and 7 days, Sirius-red and ALP at 7 and 14 days, and Alizarin Red S at 14 and 21 days. Comparatively, ethanol extract of B. acmella (BaE) contributed higher antioxidant activities (IC₅₀ of 476.71 µg/ml and 56.01 ± 6.46 mg L-ascorbic acid/g against DPPH and FRAP, respectively). Anabolic activities in bone proliferation, differentiation, and mineralization were also higher in B. acmella of ethanol (BaE) than aqueous (BaA) extracts. Positive correlations were observed between phenolic content (TPC and TFC) to antioxidant (ABTS and FRAP) and anabolic activities. Conversely, negative correlations were present between phenolic content to antioxidant (DPPH) activity. These potential antioxidant and bone anabolic activities in BaE might be due to the phytochemicals confirmed through GCMS and LCTOFMS, revealed that terpenoids of α-cubebene, cryophyllene, cryophyllene oxide, phytol and flavonoids of pinostrobin and apigenin were the compounds contributing to both antioxidant and anabolic effects in BaE. Thus, B. acmella may be a valuable antioxidant and anti-osteoporosis agent. Further study is needed to isolate, characterize and elucidate the underlying mechanisms responsible for the antioxidant and bone anabolic effects.

The bioactive compound carvacrol as a potential acaricide: An assessment of its effects on the integument of female Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato ticks

Studies seeking control methods for infestation of Riphicephalus sanguineus sensu lato (s.l.) ticks (dog ticks) have been carried out in order to minimize damage to both the tick's hosts and the environment, the latter due to the misuse of acaricide products. In this regard, carvacrol has been used as a natural alternative against ticks as it displays several properties including acaricidal. In this context, the present study aimed to evaluate the ultramorphology and morphohistochemistry of the integument of semi-engorged R. sanguineus s.l. females exposed to different carvacrol concentrations. The findings indicate that the integument surface of females exposed to the highest carvacrol concentration (25 μl/ml) became wrinkled, suggesting dehydration or the result of integument cuticular and epithelial layer disorganization in response to the toxic product. Morphohistochemical integument layer alterations were more significant and intense in females exposed to the highest carvacrol concentration (25 μl/ml), confirming dose-dependent carvacrol action. Among other cell and tissue alterations, changes in epithelial cell shape, size, and arrangement (epidermal layer) were noted, alongside altered and pyknotic-shaped nuclei, suggesting a death process for these cells. This epithelium changed from simple cubic to stratified, also in response to the presence of the evaluated bioactive compound. Thus, the findings reported herein demonstrate that carvacrol may be an alternative for an efficient and more sustainable tick control in the near future.

Exposure of Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato Latreille, 1806 (Acari: Ixodidae) to hexane extract of Acmella oleracea (Jambu): semi-engorged and engorged ticks

The present study analyzed the efficacy of hexane extract of Acmella oleracea against Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato. After exposure of R. sanguineus s. l. female ticks to 14 different concentrations of the hexane extract of A. oleracea, the LC₅₀ was established as 18.135 mg/mL (limits: 16.251-22.675). The effects of the extract were more significant in the ovary of the semi-engorged females, that presented damages in most oocytes. Since such changes would not be repaired, the oocytes could not advance to further stages of development (I-V), thereby causing the inhibition of ovary development, interruption of vitellogenesis, oocyte death and, consequently, infertility. The semi-engorged females also presented extensive damages in the midgut cells, which would prevent (totally or partially) these cells from functioning properly (blood intake and release of nutrients), impairing the ectoparasite nutrition and the viability of the individual. Thus, the hexane extract of A. oleracea can be considered as a promising alternative to chemical control of pests of medical and veterinary importance, due to its efficient acaricidal activity and lesser environmental impact, when used against female ticks in the middle feeding stage.

Identification and photostability of N-alkylamides from Acmella oleracea extract

The identification of N-alkylamides from commercial Acmella oleracea extract, their UV-B photostability in different solvents, and identification of degradation products were the main goals of this study. By UHPLC-DAD-ESI-MS/MS method the presence of nine N-alkylamides was identified. Investigation of UV-B irradiation effect on identified N-alkylamides from Acmella oleracea extract was monitored in various the most commonly used solvents (methanol, ethanol, saline solution, and water) during 120 min. The results obtained indicated that spilanthol and homospilanthol were the most stable N-alkylamides presented in Acmella oleracea extract, while the photostability of identified N-alkylamides in whole in tested extract solutions decreased as follows: methanol>ethanol>saline solution>water. As the main degradation products in all investigated solutions 6,9-dihydroxy-deca-2,7-dienoic acid isobutyl-amide and 8,9-dihydroxy-deca-2,6-dienoic acid isobutyl-amide were identified.

Acaricidal activity of Acmella oleracea (Asteraceae) extract against Rhipicephalus microplus: What is the influence of spilanthol?

The present study was carried out to evaluate and compare the acaricidal activity of different fractions of Acmella oleracea methanolic extract, containing 0.0 % (F1), 24.5 % (F2), 48.0 % (F3) and 100 % (F4) of spilanthol, on unfed larvae and engorged females from the same Rhipicephalus microplus population. To obtain these fractions, the crude extract was subjected to different extraction procedures using increasingly polarized solvents to isolate the spilanthol compound. The Larval Packet Test was used to evaluate acaricidal activity in unfed larvae at concentrations ranging from 0.2 to 25.0 mg/mL, while for engorged females, the Adult Immersion Test was performed at concentrations from 3.1 to 25.0 mg/mL. The F1 fraction showed no activity on unfed larvae, while a control percentage of 44.6 % was observed at a concentration of 25.0 mg/mL for engorged females. For unfed larvae, the F2 fraction resulted in 95.7 % mortality at a concentration of 1.6 mg/mL, with a control percentage of 92.7 % for engorged females at a concentration of 12.5 mg/mL. Fractions F3 and F4 had similar activity against unfed larvae, with mortality >84.0 % from the concentration of 0.8 mg/mL. This similarity between the fractions was also observed for engorged females from a concentration of 12.5 mg/mL, resulting a control percentage >94.0 %. These results demonstrate that the presence of spilanthol is an important factor for the acaricidal activity of A. oleracea extract. Fraction extracts with 24.5, 48 and 100 % of spilanthol have similar acaricidal activity on R. microplus.

Reproductive toxicity of the hydroethanolic extract of the flowers ofAcmella oleraceaand spilanthol in zebrafish: In vivo and in silico evaluation

Hydroethanolic preparations of Acmella oleracea is used in the north of Brazil as a female aphrodisiac. Thus, the objective of this study was to evaluate the action of the hydroethanolic extract of Acmella oleracea (EHFAo) flowers (21.873 and 44.457 mg/kg) and spilanthol (3 mg/kg) administered orally on reproductive performance and effects on the embryonic development of zebrafish F1 generation. It was observed that in the groups in which males and females received EHFAo and spilanthol, the spawning was interrupted, whereas in the groups in which only the females were treated, spawning occurred during the 21 days. Thus, in the histopathological evaluation of the gonads, it was possible to observe that the percentage of mature cells in the spermatozoa and females was significantly reduced. Only the embryo groups in which parental generation was treated with EHFAo showed lethal and teratogenic effects. On the other hand, the parental groups treated with the spilanthol presented only the lethality. Spilanthol and some metabolites showed good oral availability and important toxicological properties. Thus, it is suggested that the treatment of parental generation of zebrafish with EHFAo and spilanthol caused severe changes in the gonads and on fertility. However, on the embryo, the most striking effects in the development were recorded in the groups in which the parental generation was treated with the EHFAo, while the spilanthol influenced the lethality of the embryos.

Activity of the extract of Acmella oleracea on immature stages of Amblyomma sculptum (Acari: Ixodidae)

This study evaluated the acaricidal activity of the methanol extract of Acmella oleracea with 0.187% of spilanthol against immature stages of Amblyomma sculptum. The packet test was used to evaluate the extract's activity on unengorged larvae and nymphs, testing concentrations of 0.4 to 50 mg/mL for larvae and 12.5 to 200.0 mg/mL for nymphs. For the engorged stages, the immersion test was used, at concentrations of 0.4 to 50 mg/mL for larvae and 12.5 to 200.0 mg/mL for nymphs. The methanol extract caused 100% mortality of the unengorged larvae and nymphs starting at concentrations of 12.5 and 200.0 mg/mL, respectively. For engorged larvae and nymphs, the mortality was 100% starting from concentrations of 12.5 and 150.0 mg/mL, respectively. The LC₅₀ for unengorged larvae was 3.2 mg/mL, while for engorged larvae it was 6.6 mg/mL. For unengorged nymphs, the LC₅₀ was 38.5 mg/mL, but it was not possible to calculate the corresponding value for engorged nymphs because the data did not fit the probit model. These results demonstrate that the methanol extract of A. oleracea has acaricidal activity against different immature stages of A. sculptum.

Action of the hydroethanolic extract of the flowers of Acmella oleracea (L.) R.K. Jansen on the reproductive performance of Wistar females rats: A popular female aphrodisiac from the Amazon

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The species Acmella oleracea (L.) R.K. Jansen (Asteraceae), popularly known as jambú, is marketed in fairs as a female aphrodisiac and has several pharmacological activities already confirmed, among them the sexual stimulant action. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of the oral administration of the hydroethanolic extract of A. oleracea flowers (EHAo) on wistar rats during the pre-mating, mating, and pre-implantation period.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

During the treatment period, measurements of feed intake, water intake, weight, estrous cycle, behavior, reproductive parameters, biochemical parameters, hematological parameters, and histopathology of ovaries were performed daily.

RESULTS

In the gas chromatography analysis - mass spectrometry characterization, the compound (2E, 6Z, 8E) -N-isobutyldeca-2,6,8-trienamide (spilanthol) was detected as the majority compound at the 84% concentration. In the conditions of this study, EHAo did not cause maternal toxicity. However, in the estrous cycle, the frequency of the Proestrous (P) and Estrous (E) phase was significantly increased with the doses of 88.91 and 444.57mg/kg of the EHAo in relation to the control. On the other hand, the metaestrous (M) and diestrous (D) phases showed a significant reduction in their frequency in the groups treated with EHAo. Water intake increased significantly (p < 0.01), as well as the triglyceride levels, the total cholesterol and fractions (p < 0.05), and the percentage of neutrophils (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

It is concluded, therefore, that the treatment with EHAo, which is one of the forms popularly used, is safe in the concentrations and time of treatment studied as it is able to influence the estrous cycle without altering folliculogenesis and fertility.

Toxic action of Acmella oleracea extract on the male reproductive system of Amblyomma cajennense ticks

The present study evaluated through morphohistological and histochemical techniques the effects of different concentrations of crude ethanolic extract of A. oleracea (EEAO) (Jambu) on the male reproductive system of Amblyomma cajennense sensu stricto (s.s.) ticks. The toxicity of this natural chemical was stablished, signalizing the promising potential of the compound as a strategy to control ectoparasites in the near future. For the experiment, 100 males fed on host rabbits with homogeneous weight (p>0.05) were used. The ticks were divided into five groups (10 animals each): Control 1-exposed to distilled water; Control 2-exposed to ethanol 50% and DMSO 1%; Treatment 1-3-exposed to the concentrations of 6.2, 12.5 and 25mg/mL of the EEAO, respectively, diluted in ethanol 50% and DMSO 1%, with exposure by immersion. After exposure, the males were dissected for the removal of the reproductive system and subjected to routine histological analysis with HE staining and histochemical techniques (PAS for the detection of neutral polysaccharides and Bromophenol blue to detect total proteins). The exposed individuals showed alterations in the glandular complex cells; however, the testes remained intact. The secretory cells of the multilobulated accessory glands presented intense cytoplasmic vacuolation. Additionally, the synthesis and secretion were reduced in the secretion granules, mainly concerning the polysaccharides, glyco- and lipoprotein elements, substances that will constitute the seminal fluid and enable the capacitation of spermatozoa in the female genital tract and also necessary for the formation of the spermatophore, which will encapsulate the mature spermatids. The alterations were dose-dependent, i.e., more intense and severe as the concentration of the product increased. .This experiment confirmed the cytotoxic potential of A. oleracea ethanolic extract in the concentrations of 6.2, 12.5 and 25mg/mL on the reproductive system of A. cajennense s.s. male ticks.