Cavitation technology - a greener processing technique for the generation of pharmaceutical nanoemulsions

Kelvin-Helmholtz instability as one of the key features for fast and efficient emulsification by hydrodynamic cavitation

The paper investigates the oil-water emulsification process inside a micro-venturi channel. More specifically, the possible influence of Kelvin-Helmholtz instability on the emulsification process. High-speed visualizations were conducted inside a square venturi constriction with throat dimensions of 450 µm by 450 µm, both under visible light and X-Rays. We show that cavity shedding caused by the instability results in the formation of several cavity vortices. Their rotation causes the deformation of the oil stream into a distinct wave-like shape, combined with fragmentation into larger drops due to cavitation bubble collapse. Later on, the cavity collapse further disperses the larger drops into a finer emulsion. Thus, it turns out that the Kelvin-Helmholtz instability is similarly characteristic for hydrodynamic cavitation emulsification inside a microchannel as is the Rayleigh-Taylor instability for acoustically driven emulsion formation.

Green Synthesis of Blumea balsamifera Oil Nanoemulsions Stabilized by Natural Emulsifiers and Its Effect on Wound Healing

In this study, we developed a green and multifunctional bioactive nanoemulsion (BBG-NEs) of Blumea balsamifera oil using Bletilla striata polysaccharide (BSP) and glycyrrhizic acid (GA) as natural emulsifiers. The process parameters were optimized using particle size, PDI, and zeta potential as evaluation parameters. The physicochemical properties, stability, transdermal properties, and bioactivities of the BBG-NEs under optimal operating conditions were investigated. Finally, network pharmacology and molecular docking were used to elucidate the potential molecular mechanism underlying its wound-healing properties. After parameter optimization, BBG-NEs exhibited excellent stability and demonstrated favorable in vitro transdermal properties. Furthermore, it displayed enhanced antioxidant and wound-healing effects. SD rats wound-healing experiments demonstrated improved scab formation and accelerated healing in the BBG-NE treatment relative to BBO and emulsifier groups. Pharmacological network analyses showed that AKT1, CXCL8, and EGFR may be key targets of BBG-NEs in wound repair. The results of a scratch assay and Western blotting assay also demonstrated that BBG-NEs could effectively promote cell migration and inhibit inflammatory responses. These results indicate the potential of the developed BBG-NEs for antioxidant and skin wound applications, expanding the utility of natural emulsifiers. Meanwhile, this study provided a preliminary explanation of the potential mechanism of BBG-NEs to promote wound healing through network pharmacology and molecular docking, which provided a basis for the mechanistic study of green multifunctional nanoemulsions.

Ultrasound-assisted fabrication and stability evaluation of okra seed protein stabilized nanoemulsion

The structure and functional properties of okra seed protein (OSP) were characterized, the ultrasonic homogenization process of OSP nano-emulsion was optimized by response surface methodology (RSM), and its stability was also evaluated in this study. The results suggested that OSP was a high-quality plant protein, rich in glutamic acid. The molecular weight of its main subunits distributed in the range of 10-55 kDa, and some subunits were connected by disulfide bonds. Although the water and oil holding capacities of OSP were inferior to those of soy protein isolate (SPI), its emulsifying ability was superior to that of SPI. And the OSP concentration, ultrasonic time and ultrasonic power had obvious effects on the droplet size of nanoemulsion. The optimum process of OSP emulsion was determined as follows: OSP concentration 2.4 %, ultrasonic power 600 W, ultrasonic time 340 s. Under these conditions, the median droplet size of the nanoemulsion was 192.03 ± 3.48 nm, close to the predicted value (191.195 nm). And the obtained nano-emulsion exhibited high stability to the changes of pH, temperature and ionic strength in the environment. Our results can provide reference for the application of OSP, and promote the development of plant protein-based nanoemulsions.

Ultrasonics and sonochemistry: Editors' perspective

Ultrasonic waves can induce physical and chemical changes in liquid media via acoustic cavitation. Various applications have benefitted from utilizing these effects, including but not limited to the synthesis of functional materials, emulsification, cleaning, and processing. Several books and review articles in the public domain cover both fundamental and applied aspects of ultrasonics and sonochemistry. The Editors of the Ultrasonics Sonochemistry journal possess diverse expertise in this field, from theoretical and experimental aspects of acoustic cavitation to materials synthesis, environmental remediation, and sonoprocessing. This article provides Editors' perspectives on various aspects of ultrasonics and sonochemistry that may benefit students and early career researchers.

Preparation of Uniform Nano Liposomes Using Focused Ultrasonic Technology

Liposomes are microspheres produced by placing phospholipids in aqueous solutions. Liposomes have the advantage of being able to encapsulate both hydrophilic and hydrophobic functional substances and are thus important mediators used in cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. It is important for liposomes to have small sizes, uniform particle size distribution, and long-term stability. Previously, liposomes have been prepared using a homo mixer, microfluidizer, and horn and bath types of sonicators. However, it is difficult to produce liposomes with small sizes and uniform particle size distribution using these methods. Therefore, we have developed a focused ultrasound method to produce nano-sized liposomes with better size control. In this study, the liposome solutions were prepared using the focused ultrasound method and conventional methods. The liposome solutions were characterized for their size distribution, stability, and morphology. Results showed that the liposome solution prepared using focused ultrasonic equipment had a uniform particle size distribution with an average size of 113.6 nm and a polydispersity index value of 0.124. Furthermore, the solution showed good stability in dynamic light scattering measurements for 4 d and Turbiscan measurements for 1 week.

Development of Phytochemical Delivery Systems by Nano-Suspension and Nano-Emulsion Techniques

The awareness of the existence of plant bioactive compounds, namely, phytochemicals (PHYs), with health properties is progressively expanding. Therefore, their massive introduction in the normal diet and in food supplements and their use as natural therapeutics to treat several diseases are increasingly emphasized by several sectors. In particular, most PHYs possessing antifungal, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antiulcer, anti-cholesterol, hypoglycemic, immunomodulatory, and antioxidant properties have been isolated from plants. Additionally, their secondary modification with new functionalities to further improve their intrinsic beneficial effects has been extensively investigated. Unfortunately, although the idea of exploiting PHYs as therapeutics is amazing, its realization is far from simple, and the possibility of employing them as efficient clinically administrable drugs is almost utopic. Most PHYs are insoluble in water, and, especially when introduced orally, they hardly manage to pass through physiological barriers and scarcely reach the site of action in therapeutic concentrations. Their degradation by enzymatic and microbial digestion, as well as their rapid metabolism and excretion, strongly limits their in vivo activity. To overcome these drawbacks, several nanotechnological approaches have been used, and many nanosized PHY-loaded delivery systems have been developed. This paper, by reporting various case studies, reviews the foremost nanosuspension- and nanoemulsion-based techniques developed for formulating the most relevant PHYs into more bioavailable nanoparticles (NPs) that are suitable or promising for clinical application, mainly by oral administration. In addition, the acute and chronic toxic effects due to exposure to NPs reported so far, the possible nanotoxicity that could result from their massive employment, and ongoing actions to improve knowledge in this field are discussed. The state of the art concerning the actual clinical application of both PHYs and the nanotechnologically engineered PHYs is also reviewed.

Nanoemulsification of soybean oil using ultrasonic microreactor: Process optimization, scale-up and numbering-up in series

Ultrasonically-induced nanoemulsions have been widely investigated for the development of functional food, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals due to ideal droplet sizes (DS), low polydispersity index (PDI), and superior physical stability. However, a series of frequently-used ultrasonic set-ups mainly suffered from a low ultrasonic energy efficiency caused by the large acoustic impedance and energy consumption, subordinately confronted with a low throughput, complicated fabrication with complex structure and weak ultrasonic cavitation. Herein, we employed a typical ultrasonic microreactor (USMR) that ensured the high-efficient energy input and generated intense cavitation behavior for efficient breakage of droplets and continuous production of unified oil-in-water (O/W) nanoemulsions in a single cycle and without any pre-emulsification treatment. The emulsification was optimized by tuning the formula indexes, technological parameters, and numerical analysis using Response Surface Methodology (RSM), followed by a comparison with the emulsification by a traditional ultrasonic probe. The USMR exhibited superior emulsification efficiency and easy scale-up with remarkable uniformity by series mode. In addition, concurrent and uniform nanoemulsions with high throughput could also be achieved by a larger USMR with high ultrasonic power. Based on RSM analysis, uniform DS and PDI of 96.4 nm and 0.195 were observed under the optimal conditions, respectively, well consistent with the predicted values. Impressively, the optimal nanoemulsions have a uniform spherical morphology and exhibited superior stability, which held well in 45 days at 4℃ and 25℃. The results in the present work may provide a typical paradigm for the preparation of functional nanomaterials based on the novel and efficient emulsification tools.

Bioactive Lavandula angustifolia essential oil-loaded nanoemulsion dressing for burn wound healing. In vitro and in vivo studies

The aim of this study was to develop a dressing with bioactive lavender in a new form of nanoemulsion, and to verify its biosafety and effectiveness in burn wound healing. As part of this research, the composition of the bioactive carrier of lavender oil in the form of a nanoemulsion obtained using ultrasound was optimised. The mean particle size of the internal phase and polydispersity were determined using the dynamic light scattering method using a Zestasizer NanoZS by Malvern and using cryo-transmission electron microscopy (TEM). These studies confirmed that the selected formulation had a particle size of approximately 180 nm and remained stable over time. The preparation was also subjected to rheological analysis (viscosity approximately 480 mPa·s) and a pH test (approximately 6). A macroemulsion (ME) with the same qualitative composition was developed as a reference. Nanoformulations and MEs were tested for skin penetration using Raman spectroscopy in an in vitro model. Research has shown that both formulations deliver oil to living layers of the skin. Subsequently, studies were conducted to confirm the effect of lavender oil in emulsion systems on the mitigation of the inflammatory reaction and its pro-regenerative effect on the wound healing process in an in vitro cell culture model. The safe concentration of the oil in the emulsion preparation was also determined based on preliminary in vivo tests of skin sensitisation and irritation as well as an hemocompatibility test of the preparation.

Emulsification mechanism in an ultrasonic microreactor: Influence of surface roughness and ultrasound frequency

An ultrasonic microreactor with rough microchannels is presented in this study for oil-in-water (O/W) emulsion generation. Previous accounts have shown that surface pits or imperfections localize and enhance cavitation activity. In this study cavitation bubbles are localized on the rough microchannels of a borosilicate glass microreactor. The cavitation bubbles in the microchannel are primarily responsible for emulsification in the ultrasonic microreactor. We investigate the emulsification mechanism in the rough microchannels employing high-speed imaging to reveal the different emulsification modes influenced by the size and oscillation intensity of the cavitation bubbles. The effect of emulsification modes on the O/W emulsion droplet size distribution for different surface roughness and frequency is demonstrated. The positive effect of the frequency on minimizing the droplet size utilizing a reactor with large pits is presented. We also demonstrate microreactor systems for a successful generation of miniemulsions with high dispersed phase volume fractions up to 20%. The observed emulsification mechanism in the rough microchannel offers new insights into the utility and scale-up of ultrasonic microreactors for emulsification.

Development of Nanoemulsions for Topical Application of Mupirocin

Mupirocin (MUP) is a topical antibacterial agent used to treat superficial skin infections but has limited application due to in vivo inactivation and plasma protein binding. A nanoemulsion formulation has the potential to enhance the delivery of mupirocin into the skin. MUP-loaded nanoemulsions were prepared using eucalyptus oil (EO) or eucalyptol (EU), Tween^® 80 (T80) and Span^® 80 (S80) as oil phase (O), surfactant (S) and cosurfactant (CoS). The nanoemulsions were characterised and their potential to enhance delivery was assessed using an in vitro skin model. Optimised nanoemulsion formulations were prepared based on EO (MUP-NE EO) and EU (MUP-NE EU) separately. MUP-NE EO had a smaller size with mean droplet diameter of 35.89 ± 0.68 nm and narrower particle size index (PDI) 0.10 ± 0.02 nm compared to MUP-NE EU. Both nanoemulsion formulations were stable at 25 °C for three months with the ability to enhance the transdermal permeation of MUP as compared to the control, Bactroban^® cream. Inclusion of EU led to a two-fold increase in permeation of MUP compared to the control, while EO increased the percentage by 48% compared to the control. Additionally, more MUP was detected in the skin after 8 h following MUP-NE EU application, although MUP deposition from MUP-NE EO was higher after 24 h. It may be possible, through choice of essential oil to design nanoformulations for both acute and prophylactic management of topical infections.

Sonochemistry: An emerging approach to fabricate biopolymer cross-linked emulsions for the delivery of bioactive compounds

Sonochemistry shows remarkable potential in the synthesis or modification of new micro/nanomaterials, particularly the cross-linked emulsions for drug delivery. However, the trend of utilizing sonochemical emulsions for delivery of food-derived bioactive compounds has been just started. The extension of sonochemistry as a tool for engineering bioactive delivery systems will make the approach more universal and greatly increase its applications in the food industry. This review summarizes different types of biopolymeric cross-linked emulsions (CLEs) synthesized via sonochemical approach, including CLEs, surface-modified CLEs, cross-linked high internal phase emulsions, and some novel systems templated on CLEs. Special emphasis is directed toward the cross-linking mechanisms of biopolymers at the oil-water interfaces under acoustic cavitation and the physicochemical principles underlying sonochemical fabrication. We also highlight the advantages and challenges associated with the delivery performance of each system for bioactive compounds. The potential in delivering bioactives using sonochemical emulsions has not been fully reached. There are still a number of issues that need to be overcome, including low cross-linking degree of biopolymers, degradation of bioactives in sonochemical process, and unclear biological fate of encapsulated bioactive compounds. This review may guide future trends in exploring efficient sonochemical strategies and multifunctional delivery systems for food applications.

Microfluidics in drug delivery: review of methods and applications

Microfluidics technology has emerged as a promising methodology for the fabrication of a wide variety of advanced drug delivery systems. Owing to its ability for accurate handling and processing of small quantities of fluidics as well as immense control over physicochemical properties of fabricated micro and nanoparticles (NPs), microfluidic technology has significantly improved the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of drugs. This emerging technology has offered numerous advantages over the conventional drug delivery methods for fabricating of a variety of micro and nanocarriers for poorly soluble drugs. In addition, a microfluidic system can be designed for targeted drug delivery aiming to increase the local bioavailability of drugs. This review spots the light on the recent advances made in the area of microfluidics including various methods of fabrication of drug carriers, their characterization, and unique features. Furthermore, applications of microfluidic technology for the robust fabrication and development of drug delivery systems, the existing challenges associated with conventional fabrication methodologies as well as the proposed solutions offered by microfluidic technology have been discussed in details.HighlightsMicrofluidic technology has revolutionized fabrication of tunable micro and nanocarriers.Microfluidic platforms offer several advantages over the conventional fabrication methods.Microfluidic devices hold great promise in controlling the physicochemical features of fabricated drug carriers.Micro and nanocarriers with controllable release kinetics and site-targeting efficiency can be fabricated.Drug carriers fabricated by microfluidic technology exhibited improved pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profiles.

The Trend of Organic Based Nanoparticles in the Treatment of Diabetes and Its Perspectives

Diabetes is an untreatable metabolic disorder characterized by alteration in blood sugar homeostasis, with submucosal insulin therapy being the primary treatment option. This route of drug administration is attributed to low patient comfort due to the risk of pain, distress, and local inflammation/infections. Nanoparticles have indeed been suggested as insulin carriers to allow the drug to be administered via less invasive routes other than injection, such as orally or nasally. The organic-based nanoparticles can be derived from various organic materials (for instance, polysaccharides, lipids, and so on) and thus are prevalently used to enhance the physical and chemical consistency of loaded bioactive compounds (drug) and thus their bioavailability. This review presents various forms of organic nanoparticles (for example, chitosan, dextron, gums, nanoemulsion, alginate, and so on) for enhanced hypoglycemic drug delivery relative to traditional therapies.

Effect of Mucilage Extracted from Corchorus olitorius Leaves on Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA)-Stabilized Oil-in-Water Emulsions

The present study examined the effect of mucilage extracted from Corchorus olitorius L. leaves on the emulsifying stability of bovine serum albumin (BSA)-stabilized oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions during the storage for seven days. O/W emulsions were prepared with a 90% aqueous phase containing C. olitorius mucilage (0-1.00% w/v) together with 0.5% (w/v) BSA and 10% oil phase. Emulsion properties were analyzed by measuring droplet size, zeta potential, spectroturbidity, backscattering profiles (%BS), and visual observations. The mean droplet size of emulsions prepared with 0.75 and 1.00% mucilage did not show significant changes during storage. The zeta potential of all the emulsions exhibited a negative charge of approximately -40 mV, but electrical repulsion was not the dominant stabilization mechanism in the emulsion. C. olitorius mucilage was able to increase the viscosity of the aqueous phase of the O/W emulsion system, which prevented droplet flocculation and enhanced the emulsion stability against phase separation at higher concentrations. The most stable emulsions during the storage period were those with 1.00% C. olitorius mucilage. In conclusion, C. olitorius mucilage has good potential for the preparation of stable O/W emulsions and can be used as a plant-based natural emulsifying and thickening agent in the food industry.

Boosting Tadalafil Bioavailability via Sono-Assisted Nano-Emulsion-Based Oral Jellies: Box-Behnken Optimization and Assessment

Tadalafil (TAD) is a poorly soluble, phosphodiesterase inhibitor used to treat erectile dysfunction. The primary goal of this project was to prepare nano-emulsions using ultrasonic technology to address TAD bioavailability concerns. The Box−Behnken design was employed to find prominent correlations between factors impacting the sono-emulsification process. The emulsifier concentration, amplitude level, and ultrasonication time were the independent factors, whereas the average droplet size (ADS) and polydispersity index (PDI) were designated as the response variables. TAD-loaded nano-emulsions (93−289 nm) were generated and the emulsifier concentration showed a crucial role in directing emulsion droplet size. The model desirability function was utilized to optimize a nano-emulsion with a small ADS (99.67 ± 7.55 nm) and PDI (0.45 ± 0.04) by adjusting the emulsifiers concentration, amplitude level, and ultrasonication time at 9.85%, 33%, 49 s, respectively. The optimized nano-emulsions did not demonstrate any precipitation or phase separation after stability stress tests. TAD jellies were formulated based on the optimized nano-emulsion and subjected to in vitro evaluation for physical characteristics; TAD content, pH, spreadability, viscosity, syneresis, and taste-masking ability. An optimized nano-emulsion-based jelly (NEJ) formulation showed more than 96% drug dissolution in 30 min relative to 14% for the unprocessed TAD. In vivo assessment of NEJ in experimental rats demonstrated a significant enhancement (p < 0.05) of TAD bioavailability with an AUC0−24h of 2045 ± 70.2 vs. 259.9 ± 17.7 ng·h·mL−1 for the unprocessed TAD. Storage stability results revealed that NEJ remained stable with unremarkable changes in properties for 3 months. Overall, NEJ can be regarded as a successful therapeutic option for TAD administration with immediate-release properties and improved bioavailability.

A Pharmaco-Technical Investigation of Thymoquinone and Peat-Sourced Fulvic Acid Nanoemulgel: A Combination Therapy

Thymoquinone has a multitude of pharmacological effects and has been researched for a wide variety of indications, but with limited clinical success. It is associated with pharmaco-technical caveats such as hydrophobicity, high degradation, and a low oral bioavailability. A prudent approach warrants its usage through an alternative dermal route in combination with functional excipients to harness its potential for treating dermal afflictions, such as psoriasis. Henceforth, the present study explores a nanoformulation approach for designing a fulvic acid (peat-sourced)-based thymoquinone nanoemulsion gel (FTQ-NEG) for an enhanced solubility and improved absorption. The excipients, surfactant/co-surfactant, and oil selected for the o/w nanoemulsion (FTQ-NE) are Tween 80/Transcutol-P and kalonji oil. The formulation methodology includes high-energy ultrasonication complemented with a three-dimensional/factorial Box-Behnken design for guided optimization. The surface morphology assessment through scanning/transmission electron microscopy and fluorescence microscopy revealed a 100 nm spherical, globule-like structure of the prepared nanoemulsion. Furthermore, the optimized FTQ-NE had a zeta potential of -2.83 ± 0.14 Mv, refractive index of 1.415 ± 0.036, viscosity of 138.5 ± 3.08 mp, and pH of 5.8 ± 0.16, respectively. The optimized FTQ-NE was then formulated as a gel using Carbopol 971^® (1%). The in vitro release analysis of the optimized FTQ-NEG showed a diffusion-dominant drug release (Higuchi model) for 48 h. The drug permeation flux observed for FTQ-NEG (3.64 μg/cm²/h) was much higher compared to that of the pure drug (1.77 mg/cm²/h). The results were further confirmed by confocal microscopy studies, which proved the improved penetration of thymoquinone through mice skin. Long-term stability studies of the purported formulation were also conducted and yielded satisfactory results.

Simultaneous pulmonary administration of celecoxib and naringin using a nebulization-friendly nanoemulsion: A device-targeted delivery for treatment of lung cancer

BACKGROUND

Lung cancer is a principal cause of death worldwide, and its treatment is very challenging. Nebulization offers a promising means of targeting drugs to their site of action in the lung.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

In the present study, nebulizable oil in water nanoemulsion formulations were co-loaded with naringin/celecoxib, and tested for pulmonary administration by different nebulizer types.

RESULTS

: The translucent appearance of nanoemulsion formulations was revealed, with particle size (75-106 nm), zeta potential (-3.42 to -4.86 mV), and controlled in-vitro release profiles for both drugs. The nanoemulsions showed favourable stability profiles, and superior cytotoxicity on A549 lung cancer cells. Aerosolization studies on the selected nanoemulsion formulation revealed its high stability during nebulization, with the generation of an aerosol of small volume median diameter, and mass median aerodynamic diameter lower than 5 µm. Moreover, it demonstrated considerable safety and bioaccumulation in lung tissues, in addition to accumulation in the brain, liver and bones which are the main organs to which lung cancer metastasizes.

CONCLUSIONS

Nanoemulsion proved to be a promising nebulizable system, which paves the way for treatment of pulmonary diseases other than lung cancer.

Combined suppression effects on hydrodynamic cavitation performance in Venturi-type reactor for process intensification

Hydrodynamic cavitation is an emerging intensification technology in water treatment or chemical processing, and Venturi-type cavitation reactors exhibit advantages for industrial-scale production. The effects of temperature on hydrodynamic cavitating flows are investigated to find the optimum reaction conditions enhancing cavitating treatment intensity. Results show that the cavitation performance, including the cavitation intensity and cavitation unsteady behavior, is influenced by (1) cavitation number σ (the pressure difference affecting the vaporization process), (2) Reynolds number Re (the inertial/viscous ratio affecting the bubble size and liquid-vapor interface area), and (3) thermodynamic parameter Σ (the thermal effect affecting the temperature drop). With increasing temperature, the cavitation length first increases and then decreases, with a cavitation intensity peak at the transition temperature of 58 °C. With the growth of cavitation extent, the cavity-shedding regimes tend to transition from the attached sheet cavity to the periodic cloud cavity, and the vapor volume fluctuating frequency decreases accordingly. A combined suppression parameter (CSP) is provided to predict that, with increasing CSP value, the cavitation intensity can be decreased. Recommendations are given that working under the low-CSP range (55-60 °C) could enhance the intensification of the cavitation process.

Insights into the release mechanisms of antioxidants from nanoemulsion droplets

The therapeutic effects of antioxidant-loaded nanoemulsion can be often optimized by controlling the release rate in human body. Release kinetic models can be used to predict the release profile of antioxidant compounds and allow identification of key parameters that affect the release rate. It is known that one of the critical aspects in establishing a reliable release kinetic model is to understand the underlying release mechanisms. Presently, the underlying release mechanisms of antioxidants from nanoemulsion droplets are not yet fully understood. In this context, this review scrutinized the current formulation strategies to encapsulate antioxidant compounds and provide an outlook into the future of this research area by elucidating possible release mechanisms of antioxidant compounds from nanoemulsion system.

The Role of in silico Research in Developing Nanoparticle-Based Therapeutics

Nanoparticles (NPs) hold great potential as therapeutics, particularly in the realm of drug delivery. They are effective at functional cargo delivery and offer a great degree of amenability that can be used to offset toxic side effects or to target drugs to specific regions in the body. However, there are many challenges associated with the development of NP-based drug formulations that hamper their successful clinical translation. Arguably, the most significant barrier in the way of efficacious NP-based drug delivery systems is the tedious and time-consuming nature of NP formulation—a process that needs to account for downstream effects, such as the onset of potential toxicity or immunogenicity, in vivo biodistribution and overall pharmacokinetic profiles, all while maintaining desirable therapeutic outcomes. Computational and AI-based approaches have shown promise in alleviating some of these restrictions. Via predictive modeling and deep learning, in silico approaches have shown the ability to accurately model NP-membrane interactions and cellular uptake based on minimal data, such as the physicochemical characteristics of a given NP. More importantly, machine learning allows computational models to predict how specific changes could be made to the physicochemical characteristics of a NP to improve functional aspects, such as drug retention or endocytosis. On a larger scale, they are also able to predict the in vivo pharmacokinetics of NP-encapsulated drugs, predicting aspects such as circulatory half-life, toxicity, and biodistribution. However, the convergence of nanomedicine and computational approaches is still in its infancy and limited in its applicability. The interactions between NPs, the encapsulated drug and the body form an intricate network of interactions that cannot be modeled with absolute certainty. Despite this, rapid advancements in the area promise to deliver increasingly powerful tools capable of accelerating the development of advanced nanoscale therapeutics. Here, we describe computational approaches that have been utilized in the field of nanomedicine, focusing on approaches for NP design and engineering.

Cavitation water treatment with GE USM cleaner device

Cavitation treatment of surface and natural waters is a method for their microbiological purification. The aim of the present paper was to investigate the possibilities for the disinfection of natural waters by cavitation treatment with a Ge USM Cleaner device. A full factorial experiment of type 22 was performed. The factors influencing the water purification process were studied. Based on the obtained experimental results, the activation energy, the thermal effect due to the disinfection of the water and the rate constant of the process were calculated. The thermodynamic parameters of the transition state -Gibbs energy, enthalpy and entropy were also calculated. The analysis of the experimental results proveеd the effectiveness of the method used for natural water treatment.

Continuous production of nanoemulsion for skincare product using a 3D-printed rotor-stator hydrodynamic cavitation reactor

In this study, nanoemulsions for skincare products were continuously produced using a hydrodynamic cavitation reactor (HCR) designed with a rotor and stator. The key component of this research is the utilization of a 3D-printed rotor in a HCR for the production of an oil-in-water nanoemulsion. Response surface methodology was used to determine the process conditions, such as speed of the rotor, flow rate, as well as, Span60, Tween60, and mineral oil concentrations, for generating the optimal droplet size in the nanoemulsion. The results showed that a droplet size of 366.4 nm was achieved under the recommended conditions of rotor speed of 3500 rpm, flow rate of 3.3 L/h, Span60 concentration of 2.36 wt%, Tween60 concentration of 3.00 wt%, and mineral oil concentration of 1.76 wt%. Moreover, the important characteristics for consideration in skincare products, such as polydispersity index, pH, zeta potential, viscosity, stability, and niacin released from formulations, were also assessed. For the niacin release profile of emulsion and nanoemulsion formulations, different methods, such as magnetic stirring, ultrasound, and hydrodynamic cavitation, were compared. The nanoemulsion formulations provided a greater cumulative release from the formulation than the emulsion. Particularly, the nanoemulsion generated using the HCR provided the largest cumulative release from the formulation after 12 h. Therefore, the present study suggests that nanoemulsions can be created by means of hydrodynamic cavitation, which reduces the droplet size, as compared to that generated using other techniques. The satisfactory results of this study indicate that the rotor-stator-type HCR is a potentially cost-effective technology for nanoemulsion production.

Mimic Nature Using Chemotaxis of Ionic Liquid Microdroplets for Drug Delivery Purposes

Due to the growing prevalence of incurable diseases, such as cancer, worldwide, nowadays, the development of smart drug delivery systems is an inevitable necessity. Chemotaxis-driven movement of ionic liquid microdroplets containing therapeutic compounds is a well-known example of a smart drug delivery system. This review aims to classify, summarize, and compare ionic liquid-based chemotaxis systems in an easily understandable article. Chemotaxis is the basis of the movement of cells and microorganisms in biological environments, which is the cause of many vital biochemical and biological processes. This review attempts to summarize the available literature on single-component biomimetic and self-propelling microdroplet systems based on ionic liquids, which exhibit chemotaxis and spontaneously move in a determined direction by an external gradient, particularly a chemical change. It also aims to review artificial ionic liquid-based chemotaxis systems that can be used as drug carriers for medical purposes. The various ionic liquids used for this purpose are discussed, and different forms of chemical gradients and mechanisms that cause movement in microfluidic channels will be reviewed.

Sonoproduction of nanobiomaterials - A critical review

Ultrasound (US) demonstrates remarkable potential in synthesising nanomaterials, particularly nanobiomaterials targeted towards biomedical applications. This review briefly introduces existing top-down and bottom-up approaches for nanomaterials synthesis and their corresponding synthesis mechanisms, followed by the expounding of US-driven nanomaterials synthesis. Subsequently, the pros and cons of sono-nanotechnology and its advances in the synthesis of nanobiomaterials are drawn based on recent works. US-synthesised nanobiomaterials have improved properties and performance over conventional synthesis methods and most essentially eliminate the need for harsh and expensive chemicals. The sonoproduction of different classes and types of nanobiomaterials such as metal and superparamagnetic nanoparticles (NPs), lipid- and carbohydrate-based NPs, protein microspheres, microgels and other nanocomposites are broadly categorised based on the physical and/or chemical effects induced by US. This review ends on a good note and recognises US-driven synthesis as a pragmatic solution to satisfy the growing demand for nanobiomaterials, nonetheless some technical challenges are highlighted.

Preparation of black cumin seed oil Pickering nanoemulsion with enhanced stability and antioxidant potential using nanocrystalline cellulose from oil palm empty fruit bunch

The groundbreaking innovation and industrialization are ushering in a new era where technology development is integrated with the sustainability of materials. Over the decade, nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC) obtained from lignocellulosic biomass had created a great value in various aspects. The abundantly available empty fruit bunch (EFB) in the palm oil industry has motivated us to utilize it as a sustainable alternative for the isolation of NCC, which is a worthwhile opportunity to the waste management of EFB. Taking advantage of the shape anisotropy and amphiphilic character, NCC has been demonstrated as a natural stabilizer for oil-in-water emulsion. In this work, preparation of highly stable Pickering nanoemulsion using black cumin seed oil and NCC was attempted. Black cumin seed oil is a class of plant oil with various nutritional and pharmaceutical benefits. However, its poor solubility could substantially lower the therapeutic effect, and thus, requires a delivery system to overcome this limitation. The role of NCC in the formation of stable Pickering nanoemulsion was investigated. The emulsification process was found crucial to the resulting droplet size, whereas NCC contributed critically to its stabilization. The droplet size obtained from ultrasonication and microfluidization was approximately 400 nm, as examined using transmission electron microscopy. The droplet (oil-to-water = 2:8) has long-term stability against creaming and coalescence for more than six months. The nanoemulsion stabilized by NCC could allow a better absorption by the human body, thereby maximizing the potential of black cumin seed oil in the personal care and food industries.

Ineffectiveness of ultrasound at low frequency for treating per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in sewage sludge

Concerns have been raised about per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in sewage sludge given the urgent need of finding suitable disposal methods for sludge. In this study, we evaluated the effect of ultrasonication on PFAS changes in sewage sludge. It was revealed that although ultrasonication at 20 kHz increased the soluble chemical oxygen demand (SCOD) of treated sewage sludge, this technique was ineffective for degrading perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) and their precursors. Ultrasonic treatment for longer time (>15 min) led to concentration increase of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), perfluoroheptanoic acid (PFHpA), and perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA) in the liquid phase, possibly due to their release from disrupted sludge flocs during cavitation. Adding permanganate (10 mM) to the ultrasonic system could also enhance the disruption of sludge particles, resulting in higher concentrations of PFOA and PFHxA in the solid phase and PFOA, PFHpA, PFHxA, and perfluorobutanesulfonic acid (PFBS) in the liquid phase. Overall, ultrasonic pretreatment at 20 kHz and 0.7 W/mL is unlikely to remove PFAS from sewage sludge. Instead, it could increase the risk of PFAS pollution upon final sludge disposal. Effective treatment technologies are thus demanded if PFAS in sludge are regulated.

Hypericin-loaded oil-in-water nanoemulsion synthesized by ultrasonication process enhances photodynamic therapy efficiency

Hypericin (Hy) is a hydrophobic photosensitizer used in photodynamic therapy for cancer therapeutic. In this study, Hy-loaded oil-in-water (O/W) nanoemulsions (NEs) were produced by the ultrasonication method combing different biocompatible oils and surfactants to enhance Hy aqueous solubility and bioavailability. Experimental parameters were optimized by the characterization of droplet size, zeta potential, and physicochemical properties. In vitro studies based on the release profile, cytotoxicity, cell morphology, and Hy intracellular accumulation were assayed. Hy at 100 mg L^-1 was incorporated into the low viscosity (~0.005 Pa s) NEs with spherical droplets averaging 20-40 nm in size and polydispersity index <0.02. Hy release from the NE was significantly higher (4-fold) than its suspension (p < 0.001). The NEs demonstrated good physical stability during storage at 5 °C for at least six months. The Hy-loaded NEs exhibited an IC50 value 6-fold lower than Hy suspension during PDT against breast cancer cell lines (MCF-7). Cell microscopy imaging confirmed the increased cytotoxic effects of Hy-loaded NEs, showing damaged and apoptotic cells. Confocal laser scanning microscopy evidenced greater Hy delivery through NE into MCF-7 cells followed by improved intracellular ROS generation. Our results suggest that the Hy-loaded NEs can improve hypericin efficacy and assist Hy-PDT's preclinical development as a cancer treatment.

Anti-aging properties of phytoconstituents and phyto-nanoemulsions and their application in managing aging-related diseases

Aging is spontaneous and inevitable process in all living beings. It is a complex natural phenomenon that manifests as a gradual decline of physiological functions and homeostasis. Aging inevitably leads to age-associated injuries, diseases, and eventually death. The research on aging-associated diseases aimed at delaying, preventing or even reversing the aging process are of great significance for healthy aging and also for scientific progress. Numerous plant-derived compounds have anti-aging effects, but their therapeutic potential is limited due to their short shelf-life and low bioavailability. As the novel delivery system, nanoemulsion can effectively improve this defect. Nanoemulsions enhance the delivery of drugs to the target site, maintain the plasma concentration for a longer period, and minimize adverse reaction and side effects. This review describes the importance of nanoemulsions for the delivery of phyto-derived compounds and highlights the importance of nanoemulsions in the treatment of aging-related diseases. It also covers the methods of preparation, fate and safety of nanoemulsions, which will provide valuable information for the development of new strategies in treatment of aging-related diseases.

Toward a Greener World-Cyclodextrin Derivatization by Mechanochemistry

Cyclodextrin (CD) derivatives are a challenge, mainly due to solubility problems. In many cases, the synthesis of CD derivatives requires high-boiling solvents, whereas the product isolation from the aqueous methods often requires energy-intensive processes. Complex formation faces similar challenges in that it involves interacting materials with conflicting properties. However, many authors also refer to the formation of non-covalent bonds, such as the formation of inclusion complexes or metal–organic networks, as reactions or synthesis, which makes it difficult to classify the technical papers. In many cases, the solubility of both the starting material and the product in the same solvent differs significantly. The sweetest point of mechanochemistry is the reduced demand or complete elimination of solvents from the synthesis. The lack of solvents can make syntheses more economical and greener. The limited molecular movements in solid-state allow the preparation of CD derivatives, which are difficult to produce under solvent reaction conditions. A mechanochemical reaction generally has a higher reagent utilization rate. When the reaction yields a good guest co-product, solvent-free conditions can be slower than in solution conditions. Regioselective syntheses of per-6-amino and alkylthio-CD derivatives or insoluble cyclodextrin polymers and nanosponges are good examples of what a greener technology can offer through solvent-free reaction conditions. In the case of thiolated CD derivatives, the absence of solvents results in significant suppression of the thiol group oxidation, too. The insoluble polymer synthesis is also more efficient when using the same molar ratio of the reagents as the solution reaction. Solid reactants not only reduce the chance of hydrolysis of multifunctional reactants or side reactions, but the spatial proximity of macrocycles also reduces the length of the spacing formed by the crosslinker. The structure of insoluble polymers of the mechanochemical reactions generally is more compact, with fewer and shorter hydrophilic arms than the products of the solution reactions.

Nanotechnological Manipulation of Nutraceuticals and Phytochemicals for Healthy Purposes: Established Advantages vs. Still Undefined Risks

Numerous foods, plants, and their bioactive constituents (BACs), named nutraceuticals and phytochemicals by experts, have shown many beneficial effects including antifungal, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antiulcer, anti-cholesterol, hypoglycemic, immunomodulatory, and antioxidant activities. Producers, consumers, and the market of food- and plant-related compounds are increasingly attracted by health-promoting foods and plants, thus requiring a wider and more fruitful exploitation of the healthy properties of their BACs. The demand for new BACs and for the development of novel functional foods and BACs-based food additives is pressing from various sectors. Unfortunately, low stability, poor water solubility, opsonization, and fast metabolism in vivo hinder the effective exploitation of the potential of BACs. To overcome these issues, researchers have engineered nanomaterials, obtaining food-grade delivery systems, and edible food- and plant-related nanoparticles (NPs) acting as color, flavor, and preservative additives and natural therapeutics. Here, we have reviewed the nanotechnological transformations of several BACs implemented to increase their bioavailability, to mask any unpleasant taste and flavors, to be included as active ingredients in food or food packaging, to improve food appearance, quality, and resistance to deterioration due to storage. The pending issue regarding the possible toxic effect of NPs, whose knowledge is still limited, has also been discussed.

Facile Synthesis of Natural Anise-Based Nanoemulsions and Their Antimicrobial Activity

Anise oil was prepared in its nanoemulsion form to facilitate the penetration of microbial walls, causing microbe mortality. The penetration occurred easily owing to the reduction in its size (nm). Nanoemulsions with different concentrations of anise oil were prepared using lecithin as an emulsifying agent with the aid of an ultra-sonification process. Their morphological and chemical properties were then characterized. The promising constituents were l-Menthone (11.22%), Gurjunene (6.78%), Geranyl acetate (4.03%), Elemene (3.93%), Geranyl tiglate (3.53%), geraniol (3.48%), linalool (0.17%) as well as camphene (0.12%). Different concentrations of prepared anise oil in micro and nanoemulsions were tested as antimicrobial agents against Gram-positive bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus), Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli), yeast (Candida albicans) and fungi (Asperigillus niger). The findings illustrated that the anise oil-based nanoemulsion exhibited better results. Different biochemical and biological evaluations of anise oil nanoemulsions were conducted, including determining killing times, antioxidant activities (using three different methods), and total phenolics. A trial to estimate the mode of action of anise oil-based nanoemulsion as an antimicrobial agent against S. aureus and C. albicans was performed via studying the release of reducing sugars and protein and conducting scanning electron microscopy.

Hydrodynamic cavitation: A feasible approach to intensify the emulsion cross-linking process for chitosan nanoparticle synthesis

Chitosan nanoparticles (NPs) exhibit great potential in drug-controlled release systems. A controlled hydrodynamic cavitation (HC) technique was developed to intensify the emulsion crosslinking process for the synthesis of chitosan NPs. Experiments were performed using a circular venturi and under varying operating conditions, i.e., types of oil, addition mode of glutaraldehyde (Glu) solution, inlet pressure (P_in), and rheological properties of chitosan solution. Palm oil was more appropriate for use as the oil phase for the HC-intensified process than the other oil types. The addition mode of water-in-oil (W/O) emulsion containing Glu (with Span 80) was more favorable than the other modes for obtaining a narrow distribution of chitosan NPs. The minimum size of NPs with polydispersity index of 0.342 was 286.5 nm, and the maximum production yield (P_y) could reach 47.26%. A positive correlation was found between the size of NPs and the droplet size of W/O emulsion containing chitosan at increasing P_in. Particle size, size distribution, and the formation of NPs were greatly dependent on the rheological properties of the chitosan solution. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis indicated that the molecular structure of palm oil was unaffected by HC-induced effects. Compared with ultrasonic horn, stirring-based, and conventional drop-by-drop processes, the application of HC to intensify the emulsion crosslinking process allowed the preparation of a finer and a narrower distribution of chitosan NPs in a more energy-efficient manner. The novel route developed in this work is a viable option for chitosan NP synthesis.

Ultrasound-assisted production and optimization of mini-emulsions in a microfluidic chip in continuous-flow

The use of ultrasound to generate mini-emulsions (50 nm to 1 μm in diameter) and nanoemulsions (mean droplet diameter < 200 nm) is of great relevance in drug delivery, particle synthesis and cosmetic and food industries. Therefore, it is desirable to develop new strategies to obtain new formulations faster and with less reagent consumption. Here, we present a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)-based microfluidic device that generates oil-in-water or water-in-oil mini-emulsions in continuous flow employing ultrasound as the driving force. A Langevin piezoelectric attached to the same glass slide as the microdevice provides enough power to create mini-emulsions in a single cycle and without reagents pre-homogenization. By introducing independently four different fluids into the microfluidic platform, it is possible to gradually modify the composition of oil, water and two different surfactants, to determine the most favorable formulation for minimizing droplet diameter and polydispersity, employing less than 500 µL of reagents. It was found that cavitation bubbles are the most important mechanism underlying emulsions formation in the microchannels and that degassing of the aqueous phase before its introduction to the device can be an important factor for reduction of droplet polydispersity. This idea is demonstrated by synthetizing solid polymeric particles with a narrow size distribution starting from a mini-emulsion produced by the device.

Micro-Bio-Chemo-Mechanical-Systems: Micromotors, Microfluidics, and Nanozymes for Biomedical Applications

Wireless nano-/micromotors powered by chemical reactions and/or external fields generate motive forces, perform tasks, and significantly extend short-range dynamic responses of passive biomedical microcarriers. However, before micromotors can be translated into clinical use, several major problems, including the biocompatibility of materials, the toxicity of chemical fuels, and deep tissue imaging methods, must be solved. Nanomaterials with enzyme-like characteristics (e.g., catalase, oxidase, peroxidase, superoxide dismutase), that is, nanozymes, can significantly expand the scope of micromotors' chemical fuels. A convergence of nanozymes, micromotors, and microfluidics can lead to a paradigm shift in the fabrication of multifunctional micromotors in reasonable quantities, encapsulation of desired subsystems, and engineering of FDA-approved core-shell structures with tuneable biological, physical, chemical, and mechanical properties. Microfluidic methods are used to prepare stable bubbles/microbubbles and capsules integrating ultrasound, optoacoustic, fluorescent, and magnetic resonance imaging modalities. The aim here is to discuss an interdisciplinary approach of three independent emerging topics: micromotors, nanozymes, and microfluidics to creatively: 1) embrace new ideas, 2) think across boundaries, and 3) solve problems whose solutions are beyond the scope of a single discipline toward the development of micro-bio-chemo-mechanical-systems for diverse bioapplications.

Nanoemulgel for Improved Topical Delivery of Desonide: Formulation Design and Characterization

This research aimed to develop a novel drug delivery system to improve treatment of skin disorders. The system is comprised of a Carbopol 980-based nanoemulgel (NE-gel) containing a desonide (DES; 0.05%, w/w) nanoemulsion (NE), which has a small particle size, high encapsulation efficiency, good thermodynamic stability, good permeation ability, and high skin retention. DES-loaded NE (DES-NE) was prepared by high-pressure homogenization. The developed formulation was characterized by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), X-ray diffraction, drug release, skin permeation, and drug retention. DES in vitro release and skin permeation studies with different formulations of artificial membrane and rat abdominal skin were performed with the Franz diffusion cell system. Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) was used to detect the localization and permeation pathways of drugs in the skin. Compared with commercially available gel (CA-gel) and NE, the NE-gel release process conformed to the Higuchi release model (R² = 0.9813). NE-gel prolonged the drug release time and allowed for reduced administration dose and frequency. The unit cumulative permeation of NE and NE-gel through the skin for 12 h was 63.13 ± 2.78 and 42.53 ± 2.06 μg/cm², respectively, values significantly higher (p < 0.01) than that of the CA-gel (30.65 ± 1.25 μg/cm²) and CA-cream (15.21 ± 0.97 μg/cm²). The DES-NE and DES NE-gel skin drug retention was significantly higher than commercially available formulations (p < 0.01). Hence, the prepared NE-gel is a potential vehicle for improved topical DES delivery for better treatment of skin disorders.

Gene Expression, Biochemical Characterization of a sn-1, 3 Extracellular Lipase From Aspergillus niger GZUF36 and Its Model-Structure Analysis

In this study, a sn-1, 3 extracellular lipases from Aspergillus niger GZUF36 (PEXANL1) was expressed in Pichia pastoris, characterized, and the predicted structural model was analyzed. The optimized culture conditions of P. pastoris showed that the highest lipase activity of 66.5 ± 1.4 U/mL (P < 0.05) could be attained with 1% methanol and 96 h induction time. The purified PEXANL1 exhibited the highest activity at pH 4.0 and 40°C temperature, and its original activity remained unaltered in the majority of the organic solvents (20% v/v concentration). Triton X-100, Tween 20, Tween 80, and SDS at a concentration of 0.01% (w/v) enhanced, and all the metal ions tested inhibited activity of purified PEXANL. The results of ultrasound-assisted PEXANL1 catalyzed synthesis of 1,3-diaglycerides showed that the content of 1,3-diglycerides was rapidly increased to 36.90% with 25 min of ultrasound duration (P < 0.05) and later decreased to 19.93% with 35 min of ultrasound duration. The modeled structure of PEXANL1 by comparative modeling showed α/β hydrolase fold. Structural superposition and molecular docking results validated that Ser162, His274, and Asp217 residues of PEXANL1 were involved in the catalysis. Small-angle X-ray scattering analysis indicated the monomer properties of PEXANL1 in solution. The ab initio model of PEXANL1 overlapped with its modeling structure. This work presents a reliable structural model of A. niger lipase based on homology modeling and small-angle X-ray scattering. Besides, the data from this study will benefit the rational design of suitable crystalline lipase variants in the future.

Luminescence intensity of vortex cavitation in a Venturi tube changing with cavitation number

Hydrodynamic cavitation in a Venturi tube produces luminescence, and the luminescence intensity reaches a maximum at a certain cavitation number, which is defined by upstream pressure, downstream pressure, and vapor pressure. The luminescence intensity of hydrodynamic cavitation can be enhanced by optimizing the downstream pressure at a constant upstream pressure condition. However, the reason why the luminescence intensity increases and then decreases with an increase in the downstream pressure remains unclear. In the present study, to clarify the mechanism of the change in the luminescence intensity with cavitation number, the luminescence produced by the hydrodynamic cavitation in a Venturi tube was measured, and the hydrodynamic cavitation was precisely observed using high-speed photography. The sound velocity in the cavitating flow field, which affects the aggressive intensity of the cavitation, was evaluated. The collapse of vortex cavitation was found to be closely related to the luminescence intensity of the hydrodynamic cavitation. A method to estimate the luminescence intensity of the hydrodynamic cavitation considering the sound velocity was developed, and it was demonstrated that the estimated luminescence intensity agrees well with the measured luminescence intensity.

Critical Review of Lipid-Based Nanoparticles as Carriers of Neuroprotective Drugs and Extracts

The biggest obstacle to the treatment of diseases that affect the central nervous system (CNS) is the passage of drugs across the blood-brain barrier (BBB), a physical barrier that regulates the entry of substances into the brain and ensures the homeostasis of the CNS. This review summarizes current research on lipid-based nanoparticles for the nanoencapsulation of neuroprotective compounds. A survey of studies on nanoemulsions (NEs), nanoliposomes/nanophytosomes and solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs)/nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) was carried out and is discussed herein, with particular emphasis upon their unique characteristics, the most important parameters influencing the formulation of each one, and examples of neuroprotective compounds/extracts nanoencapsulated using these nanoparticles. Gastrointestinal absorption is also discussed, as it may pose some obstacles for the absorption of free and nanoencapsulated neuroprotective compounds into the bloodstream, consequently hampering drug concentration in the brain. The transport mechanisms through which compounds or nanoparticles may cross BBB into the brain parenchyma, and the potential to increase drug bioavailability, are also discussed. Additionally, factors contributing to BBB disruption and neurodegeneration are described. Finally, the advantages of, and obstacles to, conventional and unconventional routes of administration to deliver nanoencapsulated neuroprotective drugs to the brain are also discussed, taking into account the avoidance of first-pass metabolism, onset of action, ability to bypass the BBB and concentration of the drug in the brain.

CCRD based development of bromocriptine and glutathione nanoemulsion tailored ultrasonically for the combined anti-parkinson effect

Bromocriptine Mesylate (BRM) acts as a dopamine receptor agonist along with antioxidant effect and is utilized in the treatment of Parkinson's disease (PD). Glutathione (GSH) is a thiol- reducing agent having antioxidant properties in the brain. Replenishment of GSH inside the brain can play a major role in the management of PD. Both BRM and GSH suffer from low oral bioavailability and poor absorption. The objective of the present study was to develop BRM and GSH loaded nanoemulsion for the combined and synergistic effect delivered through the intranasal route for the better and effective management of PD. After extensive screening experiments, Capmul PG-8 NF was selected as oil, polyethylene glycol (PEG) 400 as a surfactant and propylene glycol as co-surfactant. Ultrasonication technique was employed for the fabrication of nanoemulsion. Central composite rotatable design (CCRD) was used to obtain the best formulation by optimization. Oil (%), S_mix (%), and sonication time (second) were chosen as independent variables for the optimization. Particle size, PDI, zeta potential, % transmittance, pH, refractive index, viscosity and conductivity of the optimized nanoemulsion were found to be 80.71 ± 2.75 nm, 0.217 ± 0.009, -12.60 ± 0.10 mV, 96.00 ± 3.05 %, 6.48 ± 0.28, 1.36 ± 0.03, 30.12 ± 0.10 mPas and 214.28 ± 2.79 μS/cm respectively. Surface morphology demonstrated that nanoemulsion possessed spherical and globular nature of the particle which showed 3.4 times and 1.5 times enhancement in drug permeation in the case of BRM and GSH respectively as compared to suspension. MTT assay done on neuro-2a cell lines revealed that nanoemulsion was safe for intranasal delivery. Behavioural studies were carried out to prove the efficacy of optimized nanoemulsion in PD using forced swimming test, locomotor activity test, catalepsy test, rota-rod test, and akinesia test in Wistar rats. The outcomes of the behavioural studies revealed that BRM and GSH loaded nanoemulsion treatment showed significant improvement in behavioural activities of PD (haloperidol-induced) rats after intranasal administration. This study concluded that BRM and GSH loaded nanoemulsion could be promising for the combined and synergistic anti-parkinson effect for the effective management of PD.

Investigations on the generation of oil-in-water (O/W) nanoemulsions through the combination of ultrasound and microchannel

O/W nanoemulsions are isotropic colloidal systems constituted of oil droplets dispersed in continuous aqueous media and stabilised by surfactant molecules. Nanoemulsions hold applications in more widespread technological domains, more crucially in the pharmaceutical industry. Innovative nanoemulsion-based drug delivery system has been suggested as a powerful alternative strategy through the useful means of encapsulating, protecting, and delivering the poorly water-soluble bioactive components. Consequently, there is a need to generate an emulsion with small and consistent droplets. Diverse studies acknowledged that ultrasonic cavitation is a feasible and energy-efficient method in making pharmaceutical-grade nanoemulsions. This method offers more notable improvements in terms of stability with a lower Ostwald ripening rate. Meanwhile, a microstructured reactor, for instance, microchannel, has further been realised as an innovative technology that facilitates combinatorial approaches with the acceleration of reaction, analysis, and measurement. The recent breakthrough that has been achieved is the controlled generation of fine and monodispersed multiple emulsions through microstructured reactors. The small inner dimensions of microchannel display properties such as short diffusion paths and high specific interfacial areas, which increase the mass and heat transfer rates. Hence, the combination of ultrasonic cavitation with microstructures (microchannel) provides process intensification of creating a smaller monodispersed nanoemulsion system. This investigation is vital as it will then facilitate the creation of new nanoemulsion based drug delivery system continuously. Following this, the fabrication of microchannel and setup of its combination with ultrasound was conducted in the generation of O/W nanoemulsion, as well as optimisation to analyse the effect of varied operating parameters on the mean droplet diameter and dispersity of the nanoemulsion generated, besides monitoring the stability of the nanoemulsion. Scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) images were also carried out for the droplet size measurements. In short, the outcomes of this study are encouraging, which necessitates further investigations to be carried out to advance a better understanding of coupling microchannel with ultrasound to produce pharmaceutical-grade nanoemulsions.