Arsenic removal from geothermal waters with zero-valent iron--effect of temperature, phosphate and nitrate

Leveraging the One Health concept for arsenic sustainability

Arsenic (As) is a naturally occurring chemical element widely distributed in the Earth's crust. Human activities have significantly altered As presence in the environment, posing significant threats to the biota as well as human health. The environmental fates and adverse outcomes of As of various species have been extensively studied in the past few decades. It is imperative to summarize these advances as a whole to provide more profound insights into the As cycle for sustainable development. Embracing the One Health concept, we systematically reviewed previous studies in this work and explored the following three fundamental questions, i.e., what the trends and associated changes are in As contamination, how living organisms interact and cope with As contamination, and most importantly what to do to achieve a sustainable future with As. By focusing on one critical question in each section, this review aims to provide a full picture of the complexity of environmental As. To tackle the significant research challenges and gaps in As pollution and mitigation, we further proposed a One Health framework with potential coping strategies, guiding a coordinated agenda on dealing with legacy As in the environment and ensuring a sustainable As future.

Effects of thiolation and methylation on arsenic sorption to geothermal sediments

Arsenic (As) from deep crust is transported by geothermal waters to the earth surface and retained by sediment through adsorption, which depends significantly on the occurring As species. Adsorption of oxyarsenic species (i.e. arsenite [iAs(III)] and arsenate [iAs(V)]) on pure minerals was intensively investigated, yet studies with natural sediments and less known As species are scarce. To fill this gap, we investigated adsorption kinetics of nine different As species onto three typical geothermal sediments with different sedimentary organic matter (SOM) and iron (Fe) levels under anaerobic, sulfidic conditions (pH = 6). A multispecies pseudo-second-order (MPSO) model was applied to extract the adsorption rates of individual As species. Results showed that only the sediment with both high SOM and high Fe exhibited considerable As adsorption capacity. Air exposure or rise of either SOM or Fe levels in sediment favoured de-thiolation of aqueous thioarsenates, except for dimethylated thioarsenates. The overall adsorbed amount of the spiked As was affected by concurrent (de-)thiolation of the initial species, and the rates of their adsorption to the high SOM and high Fe sediment decreased in the order of tetrathioarsenate (TetraTA) > monothioarsenate (MTA) > iAs(V) > monomethyl arsenate (MMA) > dimethyl arsenate (DMA) > iAs(III) > monomethyl monothioarsenate (MMMTA) > dimethyl monothioarsenate (DMMTA) > dimethyl dithioarsenate (DMDTA). The fastest and slowest adsorption were suggested for inorganic thioarsenates and methylated thioarsenates, respectively. Therefore, under typical geothermal scenarios, thiolation of inorganic As would not necessarily increase its mobility, but the formation of methylated oxyarsenates and their further thiolation would endow geothermal As with strong migration ability.

The origin of Uranium in groundwater of the eastern Halkidiki region, northern Greece

Uranium (U) pollution in groundwater has become a serious problem worldwide. Even in low concentrations, U has both radiological and toxicological impacts on human health. In this study an integrated hydrogeological approach was applied to conceptualize an aquifer system, and determine the origin of U detected in the aquifer of the eastern Halkidiki region in northern Greece. Data from measurements of groundwater level and hydrochemical and stable isotope analyses of groundwater samples were applied to perform geochemical modeling and multivariate statistical analysis. The modeling and statistical analysis identified three hydrogeochemical groups within the studied hydro-system, and U(VI) as the dominant U species. The first group is linked to the deeper aquifer which is characterized by water-rock interactions with weathering products of granodiorite. In this group the dominant U species is uranyl phosphate and U concentration is 3.7 μg/L. The upper aquifer corresponds to the second hydrogeochemical group where U concentrations are mainly influenced by high concentrations of nitrogen species (NO₃^- and NO₂^-). Factor analysis further discriminated the upper aquifer into a saline coastal zone and an inland zone impacted by agricultural activities. The third hydrogeochemical group presents the highest concentration of U (up to 15 μg/L) in groundwater and corresponds to the internal aquifer system. The U within this system is triggered by the presence of Mn²⁺, while the long residence time of the groundwater contributes synergistically to the hydrogeochemical process. Manganese triggers U oxidation in parallel with Fe²⁺ precipitation that acts as a regulator of U concentration. Groundwater depletion of the upper aquifers promotes the up-coning of geothermal fluids from fault zones leading to increased concentrations of U in the mid-depth aquifers.

Advances in metal(loid) oxyanion removal by zerovalent iron: Kinetics, pathways, and mechanisms

Metal(loid) oxyanions in groundwater, surface water, and wastewater can have harmful effects on human or ecological health due to their high toxicity, mobility, and lack of degradation. In recent years, the removal of metal(loid) oxyanions using zerovalent iron (ZVI) has been the subject of many studies, but the full scope of this literature has not been systematically reviewed. The main elements that form metal(loid) oxyanions under environmental conditions are Cr(VI), As(V and III), Sb(V and III), Tc(VII), Re(VII), Mo(VI), V(V), etc. The removal mechanisms of metal(loid) oxyanions by ZVI may involve redox reactions, adsorption, precipitation, and coprecipitation, usually with one of these mechanisms being the main reaction pathway and the other playing auxiliary roles. However, the removal mechanisms are coupled to the reactions involved in corrosion of Fe(0) and reaction conditions. The layer of iron oxyhydroxides that forms on ZVI during corrosion mediates the sequestration of metal(loid) oxyanions. This review summarizes most of the currently available data on mechanisms and performance (e.g., kinetics) of removal of the most widely studies metal(loid) oxyanion contaminants (Cr, As, Sb) by different types of ZVI typically used in wastewater treatment, as well as ZVI that has been sulfidated or combination with catalytic bimetals.

Contamination of the Soil–Groundwater–Crop System: Environmental Risk and Opportunities

The increasing development of industries, resulting in a large volume of mining, smelting, and combustion wastes, and intense agricultural activities, due to demand for food and energy, have caused environmental hazards for food quality and ecosystems. This is a review on the contamination of the soil–groundwater–crop system and a potential reduction of the contamination by a gradual shift towards green economy within the European Union and on a worldwide scale. Available mineralogical and geochemical features from contaminated Neogene basins have shown a diversity in the contamination sources for soil and groundwater, and highlighted the need to define the contamination sources, hot spots, degree/extent of contamination, and provide ways to restrict the transfer of heavy metals/metalloids into the food chain, without the reduction of the agricultural and industrial production. Among harmful elements for human health and ecosystems, the contamination of groundwater (thousands of μg/L Cr(VI)) by industrial activities in many European countries is of particular attention. Although Cr(VI) can be reduced to Cr(III) and be completely attenuated in nature under appropriate pH and Eh conditions, the contamination by Cr(VI) of coastal groundwater affected by the intrusion of seawater often remains at the hundreds μg/L level. A positive trend between B and Cr(VI) may provide insights on the role of the borate [B(OH)4]− ions, a potential buffer, on the stability of Cr(VI) in coastal groundwater. Efforts are needed towards reducing toxic metal(loids) from the industrial wastewaters prior to their discharge into receptors, as well as the transformation of hazardous mining/industrial wastes to new products and applications to the optimization of agricultural management strategies.

The Status of Arsenic Pollution in the Greek and Cyprus Environment: An Overview

This study presents an overview about the arsenic (As) contamination and its sources in two European countries. Arsenic is a highly toxic element in its inorganic form and it is carcinogenic to human seven in low concentrations. The occurrence of As in surface water, stream and marine waters, groundwater, bottled water, sediment, soil, mines, and seafood, its environmental origin, and its impacts on human health are discussed. The classes of Geoaccumulation Index for As in Greece ranges from practically uncontaminated to extremely contaminated, and in Cyprus varies between practically uncontaminated and heavily contaminated. In many cases, the As contamination reaches very high concentrations and the impacts may be crucial for the human health and ecosystems. Physicochemical properties, regional climate and geological setting are controlling the occurrence and transport of As. In Greece and Cyprus, the geology, lithology, and ore-deposits are the most important factors for the variation of As contents in water, soil, and sediment. The dominant As species are also determined by the location and the redox conditions. The findings of this paper may be useful for scientists and stakeholders monitoring the studied areas and applying measures for protection of the human and terrestrial ecological receptors (plants, avian, mammals).

Kanchan arsenic filters in the lowlands of Nepal: mode of operation, arsenic removal, and future improvements

In the lowlands of Nepal (Terai), the WHO drinking water guideline concentration of 10 μg/L for arsenic (As) is frequently exceeded. Since their introduction in 2006, iron-assisted bio-sand filters (Kanchan filters) are widely used to treat well water in Nepal. The filters are constructed on the basis of As-removal with corroding zero-valent iron (ZVI), with water flowing through a filter bed of iron nails placed above a sand filter. According to several studies, the performance of Kanchan filters varies greatly and depends on the size of the iron nails, filter design, water composition, and operating conditions, leading to concerns about their actual efficiency. This study examined 38 Kanchan household filters for which insufficient As-removal was reported, to evaluate the reasons for limited removal efficiency and to define measures for improved performance. The measured arsenic removal ranged from 6.3% to 98.5%. The most relevant factors were the concentrations of As and Fe in the raw water, with the best removal efficiency observed for water with low As (123 µg/L) and high Fe (5.0 mg/L). Although the concentrations of other elements, pH, flow rates, and contact time with ZVI also played a role, the combined evidence indicated that the reactivity of the frequently drying nail beds between filtrations was insufficient for efficient As-removal. Optimized filters with added top layers of sand and raised water outlets with flow restrictions to keep nails permanently immersed and to increase contact times, should be able to achieve higher and more consistent arsenic removal efficiencies.

Arsenic removal with zero-valent iron filters in Burkina Faso: Field and laboratory insights

Groundwater contaminated with geogenic arsenic (As) is frequently used as drinking water in Burkina Faso, despite adverse health effects. This study focused on testing low-cost filter systems based on zero-valent iron (ZVI), which have not yet been explored in West Africa for As removal. The active ZVI bed was constructed using small-sized iron nails, embedded between sand layers. Household filters were tested for nine months in a remote village relying on tube well water with As concentrations of 400-1350 μg/L. Daily filtered volumes were 40-60 L, with flow rates of ~10 L/h. In parallel, downscaled laboratory filter columns were run to find the best set-up for optimal As removal, with special attention given to the influence of input pH, flow rate and water/nail contact time. Arsenic removal efficiencies in the field were 60-80% in the first six months of operation. The laboratory experiments revealed that trapped air in the nail layer greatly lowered As removal due to preferential flow and decreased water/nail contact time. Measures taken to avoid trapped air led to a partial improvement in the field filters, but effluent As remained >50 μg/L. Similar structural modifications were however very successful in the laboratory columns, where As removal efficiencies were consistently >95% and effluent concentrations frequently <10 μg/L, despite inflow As >1000 μg/L. A constantly saturated nail bed and careful flow control is necessary for optimal As removal. Slow flow and longer pauses between filtrations are important for sufficient contact times and for transformation of brown amorphous Fe-hydroxides to dense magnetite with incorporated As(V). This preliminary study has shown that nail-based filters have the potential to achieve As removal >90% in a field context if conditions (filter bed saturation, flow rate, pauses between filtrations) are well controlled.

Effects of non-reducible dissolved solutes on reductive dechlorination of trichloroethylene by ball milled zero valent irons

Non-reducible solution anions have been well recognized to affect reactivity of ZVI in dechlorinating chlorinated hydrocarbons. However, their effects and corresponding functional mechanisms on electron efficiency (ε_e) of ZVI remain unclear. In this study, mechanochemically modified microscale sulfidated and unsulfidated ZVI particles (i.e., S-mZVI^bm and mZVI^bm) and trichloroethylene (TCE) were used as model particles and contaminant to explore such effects. PO₄^3- as a corrosion promoter enhanced initial dechlorination rate by both particles. However, its passivating role as a surface complex agent became significant at the later stage of dechlorination by mZVI^bm, while sulfidation alleviated this effect without inhibition of dechlorination. Compared with enhancing dechlorination, PO₄^3- promoted hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) to a higher extent, decreasing ε_e for both particles by 17-73 %. HCO₃- negligibly affected dechlorination by both particles, while elevated HER. Thus, HCO₃- [5 mM] decreased ε_e for S-mZVI^bm and mZVI^bm by 1.9 % and 22 %. Different from PO₄^3- and HCO₃-, Cl- and SO₄^2- showed no significant effects on dechlorination, HER, and therefore ε_e for both particles. These results imply that even though some co-existing anions (i.e., PO₄^3- and HCO₃-) acting as corrosion promoters could improve the dechlorination by ZVIs, they would lead to decreased ε_e and shortened particle reactive lifetime.

Arsenic Removal from Mining Effluents Using Plant-Mediated, Green-Synthesized Iron Nanoparticles

Arsenic contamination in industrial and mining effluents has always been a serious concern. Recently, nano-sized iron particles have been proven effective in sorptive removal of arsenic, because of their unique surface characteristics. In this study, green synthesis of iron nanoparticles was performed using a mixed extract of two plant species, namely Prangos ferulacea and Teucrium polium, for the specific purpose of arsenic (III) removal from the aqueous environment. Results of UV-visible spectrometry, X-ray powder diffraction (XRD), and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analyses confirmed the formation of iron nanoparticles from Prangos ferulacea (Pf) and Teucrium polium (Tp) extracts. The synthesized Fe nanoparticles morphology was studied via microscopy imaging. The particle size was 42 nm, as assessed by dynamic light scattering (DLS) analysis. Adsorption experiments were also designed and performed, which indicated 93.8% arsenic removal from the aqueous solution at 200 rpm agitation rate, 20 min agitation time, pH 6, initial concentration of 0.1 g/L, and adsorbent dosage of 2 g/L. Adsorption isotherm models were investigated, and the maximum uptake capacity was determined to be about 61.7 mg/g. The kinetic data were best represented by the pseudo-second kinetic model (R2 = 0.99). The negative value of Gibbs free energy, the enthalpy (−7.20 kJ/mol), and the entropy (−57 J/mol.K) revealed the spontaneous and exothermic nature of the adsorption process. Moreover, the small quantity of the activation energy confirmed the physical mechanism of arsenic adsorption onto iron nanoparticles and that the process is not temperature sensitive.

Removal of heavy metals by aged zero-valent iron from flue-gas-desulfurization brine under high salt and temperature conditions

To achieve zero liquid discharge, the flue-gas-desulfurization (FGD) wastewater at coal-fired power plants can be concentrated into brine through thermal evaporation to maximize water reuse; however, the hot brine generated requires further treatment prior to disposal. To address this need, this study investigates the performance of aged, micron-sized zero-valent iron (ZVI) for heavy metal removal in simulated and real FGD hot brines, which was scarcely studied previously. The effects of temperature, pH, total dissolved solids, ZVI dosage, major cations, nitrate and sulfate on the reactivity of ZVI in the brines were evaluated. Among many factors, higher temperature and Mg²⁺ exert the dominant influence. At 80 °C, almost 100% of arsenate (1 mg/L) and chromate (1 mg/L) can be removed in <5 min using 4.17 g/L of ZVI in simulated brines, while selenate (25 mg/L) and cadmium (5 mg/L) can be completely removed within 30 min. Mg²⁺ ions naturally present in FGD brines account for the depassivation of aged ZVI. X-ray diffraction results suggest that green rust is the reactive intermediate for selenate and cadmium removal. Overall, this study demonstrates that ZVI is an effective material for removing heavy metals in hot FGD brines generated through thermal evaporation at power plants.

Comparison of sand-based water filters for point-of-use arsenic removal in China

Contamination of groundwater wells by arsenic is a major problem in China. This study compared arsenic removal efficiency of five sand-based point-of-use filters with the aim of selecting the most effective filter for use in a village in Shanxi province, where the main groundwater source had arsenic concentration >200 μg/L. A biosand filter, two arsenic biosand filters, a SONO-style filter and a version of the biosand filter with nails embedded in the sand were tested. The biosand filter with embedded nails was the most consistent and effective under the study conditions, likely due to increased contact time between water and nails and sustained corrosion. Effluent arsenic was below China's standard of 50 μg/L for more than six months after construction. The removal rate averaged 92% and was never below 86%. In comparison, arsenic removal for the nail-free biosand filter was never higher than 53% and declined with time. The arsenic biosand filter, in which nails sit in a diffuser basin above the sand, performed better but effluent arsenic almost always exceeded the standard. This highlights the positive impact on arsenic removal of embedding nails within the top layer of biosand filter sand and the promise of this low-cost filtration method for rural areas affected by arsenic contamination.

Arsenic removal by discontinuous ZVI two steps system for drinking water production at household scale

Different countries in Europe still suffer of elevated arsenic (As) concentration in groundwaters used for human consumption. In the case of households not connected to the distribution system, decentralized water supply systems, such as Point of Use (POU) and Point of Entry (POE), offer a direct benefit for the consumers. Field scale ex-situ treatment systems based on metallic iron (ZVI) are already available for the production of reduced volumes of drinking water in remote areas (village scale). To address drinking water needs at larger scale, we designed a pilot unit able to produce an elevated daily volume of water for human consumption. We tested the long-term As removal efficiency of a two steps ZVI treatment unit for the production of 400 L/day clean water based on the combination of ZVI corrosion process with sedimentation and retention of freshly formed Fe precipitates. The system treated 100 μg/L As(V)-contaminated oxic groundwater in a discontinuous operation mode at a flow rate of 1 L/min for 31 days. Final removal was 77-96% and the most performing step was aeration/sedimentation (A/S) tank with a 60-94% efficiency. Arsenic in the outflow slightly exceeded the drinking water limit of 10 μg/L only after 6000 L treated and Fe concentration was always below 0.2 mg/L. Under proposed operating conditions ZVI passivation readily occurred and, as a consequence, Fe production sharply decreased. Arsenic mobility attached to particulate was 13-60% after ZVI column and 37-100% after A/S tank. Uniform amorphous cluster of Fe nanoparticles (100 nm) formed during aeration drove As removal process with an adsorption capacity corresponding to 20.5 mg_As/g_Fe. Research studies often focus only on chemico-physical aspects disregarding the importance of biological processes that may co-occur and interfere with ZVI corrosion, As removal and safe water production. We explored the microbial transport dynamics by flow cytometry, proved as a suitable tool to monitor the fate of both single cells and bioactive particles along the treatment train of the pilot unit. A net release of bioactive particles, representing on average 26.5% of flow cytometric events, was promoted by the ZVI filter, with densities 10 times higher than those found in the inflow. In conclusion, the proposed system was efficient to treat large daily volumes of As contaminated groundwater. However, filter design and operating conditions should be carefully adapted to specific situation, since several key factors affect As removal efficiency. An effort in the optimization of ZVI filter design should be made to reduce fast observed ZVI passivation and low As adsorption capacity of the whole filter. More attention to biomass retention and bioactive particles travelling within the unit should be given in order to elucidate bacteria influences on As removal efficiency and related sanitary risks on long term basis.

The influences of iron characteristics, operating conditions and solution chemistry on contaminants removal by zero-valent iron: A review

For successful application of a zero-valent iron (ZVI) system, of particular interest is the performance of ZVI under various conditions. The current review comprehensively summarizes the potential effects of the major influencing factors, such as iron intrinsic characteristics (e.g., surface area, iron impurities and oxide films), operating conditions (e.g., pH, dissolved oxygen, iron dosage, iron pretreatment, mixing conditions and temperature) and solution chemistry (e.g., anions, cations and natural organic matter) on the performance of ZVI reported in literature. It was demonstrated that all of the factors could exert significant effects on the ZVI performance toward contaminants removal, negatively or positively. Depending on the removal mechanisms of the respective contaminants and other environmental conditions, an individual variable may exhibit different effects. On the other hand, many of these influences have not been well understood or cannot be individually isolated in experimental or natural systems. Thus, more research is required in order to elucidate the exact roles and mechanisms of each factor in affecting the performance of ZVI. Furthermore, based on these understandings, future research may attempt to establish some feasible strategies to minimize the deteriorating effects and utilize the positive effects so as to improve the performance of ZVI.

Solar oxidation and removal of arsenic--Key parameters for continuous flow applications

Solar oxidation to remove arsenic from water has previously been investigated as a batch process. This research has investigated the kinetic parameters for the design of a continuous flow solar reactor to remove arsenic from contaminated groundwater supplies. Continuous flow recirculated batch experiments were carried out under artificial UV light to investigate the effect of different parameters on arsenic removal efficiency. Inlet water arsenic concentrations of up to 1000 μg/L were reduced to below 10 μg/L requiring 12 mg/L iron after receiving 12 kJUV/L radiation. Citrate however was somewhat surprisingly found to promote a detrimental effect on the removal process in the continuous flow reactor studies which is contrary to results found in batch scale tests. The impact of other typical water groundwater quality parameters (phosphate and silica) on the process due to their competition with arsenic for photooxidation products revealed a much higher sensitivity to phosphate ions compared to silicate. Other results showed no benefit from the addition of TiO2 photocatalyst but enhanced arsenic removal at higher temperatures up to 40 °C. Overall, these results have indicated the kinetic envelope from which a continuous flow SORAS single pass system could be more confidently designed for a full-scale community groundwater application at a village level.

Removal of arsenic from aqueous solutions using waste iron columns inoculated with iron bacteria

Arsenic contamination of water resources is one of the serious risks threatening natural ecosystems and human health. This study investigates arsenic removal using a waste iron column with and without iron bacteria in continuous and batch phases. In batch experiments, the effects of pH, contact time, initial concentration of arsenic and adsorbent dose were investigated. Results indicated that the highest arsenate removal efficiency occurred at pH 7 (96.76%). On increasing the amount of waste iron from 0.25 to 1 g, the removal rate changed from about 42.37%-96.70%. The results of continuous experiments on the column containing waste iron showed that as the empty bed contact time increased from 5 to 60 min, the secondary arsenate concentration changed from 23 to 6 µg/l. In experiments involving a waste iron column with iron bacteria, an increase in residence time from 5 to 60 min decreased the secondary arsenate concentration from 14.97 to 4.86 µg/l. The results of this study showed that waste iron containing iron bacteria is a good adsorbent for removal of arsenic from contaminated water.

Trace elements and nutrients adsorption onto nano-maghemite in a contaminated-soil solution: A geochemical/statistical approach

Two experiments were carried out to study the competition for adsorption between trace elements (TEs) and nutrients following the application of nano-maghemite (NM) (iron nano-oxide; Fe2O3) to a soil solution (the 0.01molL(-1) CaCl2 extract of a TEs-contaminated soil). In the first, the nutrients K, N, and P were added to create a set of combinations: potential availability of TEs during their interaction with NM and nutrients were studied. In the second, response surface methodology was used to develop predictive models by central composite design (CCD) for competition between TEs and the nutrients K and N for adsorption onto NM. The addition of NM to the soil solution reduced specifically the concentrations of available As and Cd, but the TE-adsorption capacity of NM decreased as the P concentration increased. The CCD provided more concise and valuable information, appropriate to estimate the behavior of NM sequestering TEs: according to the suggested models, K(+) and NH4(+) were important factors for Ca, Fe, Mg, Mn, Na, and Zn adsorption (Radj(2)=95%, except for Zn with Radj(2)=87%). The obtained information and models can be used to predict the effectiveness of NM for the stabilization of TEs, crucial during the phytoremediation of contaminated soils.

Arsenite oxidation and removal driven by a bio-electro-Fenton process under neutral pH conditions

The iron-catalyzed oxidation of arsenite (As(III)) associated with Fenton or Fenton-like reactions is one of the most efficient arsenic removal methods. However, the conventional chemical or electro-Fenton systems for the oxidation of As(III) are only efficient under acid conditions. In the present study, a cost-effective and efficient bio-electro-Fenton process was performed for As(III) oxidation in a dual-chamber microbial fuel cell (MFC) under neutral pH conditions. In such a system, the Fenton reagents, including H2O2 and Fe(II), were generated in situ by microbial-driven electro-reduction of O2 and γ-FeOOH, respectively, without an electricity supply. The results indicated that the process was capable of inducing As(III) oxidation with an apparent As(III) depletion first-order rate constant of 0.208 h(-1). The apparent oxidation current efficiency was calculated to be as high as 73.1%. The γ-FeOOH dosage in the cathode was an important factor in determining the system performance. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) analysis indicated that As(V) was bound to the solid surface as a surface complex but not as a precipitated solid phase. The mechanism of bio-E-Fenton reaction for As(III) oxidation was also proposed. The bio-electro-Fenton system makes it potentially attractive method for the detoxification of As(III) from aqueous solution.

Temperature effects on arsenate adsorption onto goethite and its preliminary application to arsenate removal from simulative geothermal water

Laboratory batch experiments were conducted in order to assess the impacts of temperature on the performance of goethite in removing arsenate from water.

Naturally occurring arsenic in terrestrial geothermal systems of western Anatolia, Turkey: potential role in contamination of freshwater resources

Arsenic (As) contamination in terrestrial geothermal systems has been identified in many countries worldwide. Concentrations higher than 0.01 mg/L are detrimental to human health. We examined potential consequences for As contamination of freshwater resources based on hydrogeochemical investigations of geothermal waters in deep wells and hot springs collected from western Anatolia, Turkey. We analyzed samples for major ions and trace element concentrations. Temperature of geothermal waters in deep wells showed extreme ranges (40 and 230 °C), while, temperature of hot spring fluids was up to 90 °C. The Piper plot illustrated two dominant water types: Na-HCO3(-) type for geothermal waters in deep wells and Ca-HCO3(-) type for hot spring fluids. Arsenic concentration ranged from 0.03 to 1.5mg/L. Dominance of reduced As species, i.e., As(III), was observed in our samples. The Eh value ranged between -250 and 119 mV, which suggests diverse geochemical conditions. Some of the measured trace elements were found above the World Health Organization guidelines and Turkish national safe drinking water limits. The variation in pH (range: 6.4-9.3) and As in geothermal waters suggest mixing with groundwater. Mixing of geothermal waters is primarily responsible for contamination of freshwater resources and making them unsuitable for drinking or irrigation.

Arsenic removal with composite iron matrix filters in Bangladesh: a field and laboratory study

The main arsenic mitigation measures in Bangladesh, well-switching and deep tube wells, have reduced As exposure, but water treatment is important where As-free water is not available. Zero-valent iron (ZVI) based SONO household filters, developed in Bangladesh, remove As by corrosion of locally available inexpensive surplus iron and sand filtration in two buckets. We investigated As removal in SONO filters in the field and laboratory, covering a range of typical groundwater concentrations (in mg/L) of As (0.14-0.96), Fe (0-17), P (0-4.4), Ca (45-162), and Mn (0-2.8). Depending on influent Fe(II) concentrations, 20-80% As was removed in the top sand layer, but As removal to safe levels occurred in the ZVI-layer of the first bucket. Residual As, Fe, and Mn were removed after re-aeration in the sand of the second bucket. New and over 8-year-old filters removed As to <50 μg/L and mostly to <10 μg/L and Mn to <0.2 mg/L. Vertical concentration profiles revealed formation of Fe(II) by corrosion of Fe(0) with O2 and incorporation of As into forming amorphous Fe phases in the composite iron matrix (CIM) of newer filters and predominantly magnetite in older filters. As mass balances indicated that users filtered less than reported volumes of water, pointing to the need for more educational efforts. All tested SONO filters provided safe drinking water without replacement for up to over 8 years of use.

Ambient iron-mediated aeration (IMA) for water reuse

Global water shortages caused by rapidly expanding population, escalating water consumption, and dwindling water reserves have rendered water reuse a strategically significant approach to meet current and future water demand. This study is the first to our knowledge to evaluate the technical feasibility of iron-mediated aeration (IMA), an innovative, potentially economical, holistic, oxidizing co-precipitation process operating at room temperature, atmospheric pressure, and neutral pH, for water reuse. In the IMA process, dissolved oxygen (O₂) was continuously activated by zero-valent iron (Fe⁰) to produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) at ambient pH, temperature, and pressure. Concurrently, iron sludge was generated as a result of iron corrosion. Bench-scale tests were conducted to study the performance of IMA for treatment of secondary effluent, natural surface water, and simulated contaminated water. The following removal efficiencies were achieved: 82.2% glyoxylic acid, ~100% formaldehyde as an oxidation product of glyoxylic acid, 94% of Ca²⁺ and associated alkalinity, 44% of chemical oxygen demand (COD), 26% of electrical conductivity (EC), 98% of di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP), 80% of 17β-estradiol (E2), 45% of total nitrogen (TN), 96% of total phosphorus (TP), 99.8% of total Cr, >90% of total Ni, 99% of color, 3.2 log removal of total coliform, and 2.4 log removal of E. Coli. Removal was attributed principally to chemical oxidation, precipitation, co-precipitation, coagulation, adsorption, and air stripping concurrently occurring during the IMA treatment. Results suggest that IMA is a promising treatment technology for water reuse.

Removal of arsenate and arsenite from aqueous solution by waste cast iron

The removal of As(III) and As(V) from aqueous solution was investigated using waste cast iron, which is a byproduct of the iron casting process in foundries. Two types of waste cast iron were used in the experiment: grind precipitate dust (GPD) and cast iron shot (CIS). The X-ray diffraction analysis indicated the presence of Feo on GPD and CIS. Batch experiments were performed under different concentrations of As(III) and As(V) and at various initial pH levels. Results showed that waste cast iron was effective in the removal of arsenic. The adsorption isotherm study indicated that the Langmuir isotherm was better than the Freundlich isotherm at describing the experimental result. In the adsorption of both As(IH) and As(V), the adsorption capacity of GPD was greater than CIS, mainly due to the fact that GPD had higher surface area and weight percent of Fe than CIS. Results also indicated the removal of As(III) and As(V) by GPD and CIS was influenced by the initial solution pH, generally decreasing with increasing pH from 3.0 to 10.5. In addition, both GPD and CIS were more effective at the removal of As(III) than As(V) under given experimental conditions. This study demonstrates that waste cast iron has potential as a reactive material to treat wastewater and groundwater containing arsenic.

Arsenic accumulation in irrigated agricultural soils in Northern Greece

The accumulation of arsenic in soils and food crops due to the use of arsenic contaminated groundwater for irrigation has created worldwide concern. In the Chalkidiki prefecture in Northern Greece, groundwater As reach levels above 1000μg/L within the Nea Triglia geothermal area. While this groundwater is no longer used for drinking, it represents the sole source for irrigation. This paper provides a first assessment of the spatial extent of As accumulation and of As mobility during rainfall and irrigation periods. Arsenic content in sampled soils ranged from 20 to 513mg/kg inside to 5-66mg/kg outside the geothermal area. Around irrigation sprinklers, high As concentrations extended horizontally to distances of at least 1.5m, and to 50cm in depth. During simulated rain events in soil columns (pH=5, 0μg As/L), accumulated As was quite mobile, resulting in porewater As concentrations of 500-1500μg/L and exposing plant roots to high As(V) concentrations. In experiments with irrigation water (pH=7.5, 1500μg As/L), As was strongly retained (50.5-99.5%) by the majority of the soils. Uncontaminated soils (<30mg As/kg) kept soil porewater As concentrations to below 50μg/L. An estimated retardation factor R(f)=434 for weakly contaminated soil (<100mg/kg) indicates good ability to reduce As mobility. Highly contaminated soils (>500mg/kg) could not retain any of the added As. Invoked mechanisms affecting As mobility in those soils were adsorption on solid phases such as Fe/Mn-phases and As co-precipitation with Ca. Low As accumulation was found in collected olives (0.3-25μg/kg in flesh and 0.3-5.6μg/kg in pits). However, soil arsenic concentrations are frequently elevated to far above recommended levels and arsenic uptake in faster growing plants has to be assessed.

Arsenate removal from aqueous solution by cellulose-carbonated hydroxyapatite nanocomposites

Microwave-assisted synthesis of the cellulose-carbonated hydroxyapatite nanocomposites (CCHA) with CHA nanostructures dispersed in the cellulose matrix was carried out by using cellulose solution, CaCl(2), and NaH(2)PO(4). The cellulose solution was previously prepared by the dissolution of microcrystalline cellulose in NaOH-urea aqueous solution. Study was carried out to evaluate the feasibility of synthetic CCHA for As(V) removal from aqueous solution. Batch experiments were performed to investigate effects of various experimental parameters such as contact time (5 min - 8h), initial As(V) concentration (1-50mg/L), temperature (25, 35 and 45°C), pH (2-10) and the presence of competing anions on As(V) adsorption on the synthetic CCHA. Kinetic data reveal that the uptake rate of As(V) was rapid at the beginning and equilibrium was achieved within 1h. The adsorption process was well described by pseudo-first-order kinetics model. The adsorption data better fitted Langmuir isotherm. The maximum adsorption capacity calculated from Langmuir isotherm model was up to 12.72 mg/g. Thermodynamic study indicates an endothermic nature of adsorption and a spontaneous and favorable process. The optimum pH for As(V) removal was broad, ranging from 4 to 8. The As(V) adsorption was impeded by the presence of SiO(3)(2-), followed by PO(4)(3-) and NO(3)(-). The adsorption process appeared to be controlled by the chemical process.

Zero-valent iron and iron oxide-coated sand as a combination for removal of co-present chromate and arsenate from groundwater with humic acid

The combination of zero-valent iron (Fe(0)) and iron oxide-coated sand (IOCS) was used to remove Cr(VI) and As(V) from groundwater in this study. The efficiency and the removal mechanism of Cr(VI) and As(V) by using this combination, with the influence of humic acid (HA), were investigated using batch experiments. Results showed that, compared to using Fe(0) or IOCS alone, the Fe(0)-IOCS can perform better on the removal of both Cr(VI) and As(V). Metal extraction studies showed that As(V) was mainly removed by IOCS and iron corrosion products while Cr(VI) was mainly removed by Fe(0) and its corrosion products. Competition was found between Cr(VI) and As(V) for the adsorption sites on the iron corrosion products. HA had shown insignificant effects on Cr(VI) removal but some effects on As(V) removal kinetics. As(V) was adsorbed on IOCS at the earlier stage, but adsorbed/coprecipitated with the iron corrosion products at the later stage.

Arsenic remediation of drinking water using iron-oxide coated coal bottom ash

We describe laboratory and field results of a novel arsenic removal adsorbent called 'Arsenic Removal Using Bottom Ash' (ARUBA). ARUBA is prepared by coating particles of coal bottom ash, a waste material from coal fired power plants, with iron (hydr)oxide. The coating process is simple and conducted at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. Material costs for ARUBA are estimated to be low (approximately $0.08 per kg) and arsenic remediation with ARUBA has the potential to be affordable to resource-constrained communities. ARUBA is used for removing arsenic via a dispersal-and-removal process, and we envision that ARUBA would be used in community-scale water treatment centers. We show that ARUBA is able to reduce arsenic concentrations in contaminated Bangladesh groundwater to below the Bangladesh standard of 50 ppb. Using the Langmuir isotherm (R(2) = 0.77) ARUBA's adsorption capacity in treating real groundwater is 2.6 x 10(- 6)mol/g (0.20 mg/g). Time-to-90% (defined as the time interval for ARUBA to remove 90% of the total amount of arsenic that is removed at equilibrium) is less than 1 hour. Reaction rates (pseudo-second-order kinetic model, R(2) > or = 0.99) increase from 2.4 x 10(5) to 7.2 x 10(5) g mol(- 1)min(- 1) as the groundwater arsenic concentration decreases from 560 to 170 ppb. We show that ARUBA's arsenic adsorption density (AAD), defined as the milligrams of arsenic removed at equilibrium per gram of ARUBA added, is linearly dependent on the initial arsenic concentration of the groundwater sample, for initial arsenic concentrations of up to 1600 ppb and an ARUBA dose of 4.0 g/L. This makes it easy to determine the amount of ARUBA required to treat a groundwater source when its arsenic concentration is known and less than 1600 ppb. Storing contaminated groundwater for two to three days before treatment is seen to significantly increase ARUBA's AAD. ARUBA can be separated from treated water by coagulation and clarification, which is expected to be less expensive than filtration of micron-scale particles, further contributing to the affordability of a community-scale water treatment center.

Analytical survey of arsenic in geothermal waters from sites in Kyushu, Japan, and a method for removing arsenic using magnetite

The objective of this study was to survey the cation and anion contents of geothermal waters to gather fundamental information on geographical variations. Sixteen sites in hot spring areas on the island of Kyushu in Japan were studied. The study focused on the arsenic content of the samples. Very high arsenic concentrations (more than 0.1 mg/l) were detected in most of the geothermal waters sampled. High contents of boron and fluoride (more than 1.0 mg/l) were also detected in some samples. Arsenic removal was performed on a laboratory scale using columns packed with a magnetite-type adsorbent. The reduction of arsenic contamination to a concentration of less than 0.01 mg/l could be achieved in the early stages of adsorption (bed volume = 200).

Arsenate removal from aqueous solution using synthetic siderite

The study was carried out to evaluate the feasibility of synthetic siderite for As(V) removal from aqueous solution. Batch experiments were performed to investigate effects of various experimental parameters such as contact time (10 min-8 h), initial As(V) concentration (0.5-60.0 mg/L), temperature (15, 25, 35 and 45 degrees C), pH (2.0-10.0) and the presence of competing anions on As(V) adsorption on the synthetic siderite. Kinetic data reveal that the uptake rate of As(V) was rapid at the beginning and 90% adsorption was completed within 10 min at 45 degrees C and equilibrium was achieved within 3 h. The adsorption process was well described by pseudo-second-order kinetics model. The adsorption data better fitted Langmuir isotherm at low temperatures (i.e., 15 and 25 degrees C), while Freundlich isotherm at relatively high temperatures (35-45 degrees C). The maximum adsorption capacity calculated from Langmuir isotherm model was up to 31 mg/g. Thermodynamic study indicates an exothermic nature of adsorption and a spontaneous and favorable process. The optimum pH for As(V) removal was broad, ranging from 3.0 to 10.0. The As(V) adsorption was impeded by the presence of SiO(3)(2-), followed by PO(4)(3-) and NO(3)(-). The adsorption process appeared to be controlled by the chemical process. The high As uptake may attribute to both coprecipitation of As with goethite and lepidocrocite forming during the reaction and subsequent adsorption of As on these minerals.

Arsenite removal from waters by zero valent iron: batch and column tests

This study investigates the efficiency of zero valent iron (ZVI) to remove arsenite from water. Batch experiments were carried out to study the removal rates of arsenite under different pH values and in the presence of low and high concentrations of various ions (chloride, carbonate, nitrate, phosphate, sulfate and borate), manganese and dissolved organic matter. Most of these parameters affect negatively the removal of arsenite. Particularly, borate and organic matter at high concentrations significantly inhibited the efficiency of ZVI. Column tests were carried out to investigate the removal of arsenic under dynamic conditions and breakthrough curves were found for arsenate, arsenite and a mixture of both. ZVI treatment was also applied to natural groundwaters with elevated arsenic concentrations under the geochemical conditions usually found in Greece. The method was efficient for groundwater containing As(V). However, in anoxic-reducing groundwaters with prevalence of As(III), treated water did not fulfill the guideline of 10 microg L(-1) for drinking water. Chlorination enhanced the ZVI efficiency producing concentrations below the proposed limit.

Simultaneous photocatalytic oxidation of As(III) and humic acid in aqueous TiO2 suspensions

The simultaneous photocatalytic oxidation of As(III) and humic acid (HA) in aqueous Degussa P25 TiO(2) suspensions was investigated. Preliminary photocatalytic studies of the binary As(III)/TiO(2) and HA/TiO(2) systems showed that As(III) was oxidized more rapidly than HA and the extent of photocatalytic oxidation of each individual component (i.e. As(III) or HA) increased with decreasing its initial concentration and/or increasing catalyst loading. The simultaneous photocatalytic oxidation of As(III) and HA in the ternary As(III)/HA/TiO(2) system showed that both As(III) and HA oxidation was reduced in the ternary system compared to the corresponding binary systems. The effect of operating conditions in the ternary system, such as initial As(III), HA and TiO(2) concentrations (in the range 3-20mg/L, 10-100mg/L and 50-250 mg/L respectively), initial solution pH (3.6-6.7) and reaction time (10-30 min), on photocatalytic As(III) and HA oxidation was assessed implementing a two-level factorial experimental design methodology. Seven and ten factors were found statistically important in the case of photocatalytic As(III) and HA oxidation respectively. Based on these statistically significant factors, a first order polynomial model describing As(III) and HA photocatalytic oxidation was constructed and a very good agreement was obtained between the experimental values and those predicted by the model, while the observed differences may be readily explained as random noise.

Effects of hardness and alkalinity on the removal of arsenic(V) from humic acid-deficient and humic acid-rich groundwater by zero-valent iron

The effects of hardness (Ca(2+)) and alkalinity (HCO(3)(-)) on arsenic(V) removal from humic acid (HA)-deficient and HA-rich groundwater by zero-valent iron (Fe(0)) were investigated using batch experiments. Arsenic, in general, is removed from groundwater possibly by adsorption and co-precipitation with the iron corrosion products. However, in the co-presence of HCO(3)(-) and Ca(2+), the removal rate of arsenic increased with increasing concentrations of either Ca(2+) or HCO(3)(-). It was observed that the removal of arsenic was significantly enhanced by the formation of CaCO(3) as a nucleation seed for the growth of large iron (hydr)oxide particles. In the co-existence of Ca(2+), HCO(3)(-) and HA, the presence of HA diminished the positive role of Ca(2+) due to the formation of Fe-humate complexes in solution and delaying of the formation of CaCO(3). As a result, the formation of the large iron (hydr)oxide particles was inhibited in the earlier stage which, in turn, affected the removal of arsenic. However, after the formation of CaCO(3) and the subsequent growth of such particles, the presence of large iron (hydr)oxide particles resulted in the rapid removing of arsenic and Fe-humate by adsorption and/or co-precipitation.

Effect of groundwater iron and phosphate on the efficacy of arsenic removal by iron-amended BioSand filters

Naturally occurring arsenic in groundwater in Cambodia is a serious health concern. This study tested the efficacy of a BioSand filter amended with iron nails, Kanchan filter, as a household water treatment option with three natural arsenic-bearing groundwater sources of varying compositions and spiked with lab cultured E. coli and MS2. The effectiveness of arsenic and pathogen removal was not constant over time and was highly dependent on the influent composition. The filter was relatively ineffective in treating arsenic contaminated groundwater and effluent arsenic concentrations were between 74 and 2206 microg L(-1), which is higher than accepted drinkng water standards. The overall average arsenic removal was 39.4, 74.9, and 45.4%, respectively, and the extent of arsenic removal was not related to the influent arsenic concentration. The main reasons for poor arsenic removal was due to the combination of high influent P (> 0.5 mg L(-1)) and low Fe (< 5 mg L(-1)) concentrations and that the added iron nails were largely ineffective due to insufficient contact time withthe water. The findings suggest that such amended filters should not be widely deployed until improvements are made to address the consistency and efficacy of treatment In addition, the filter poses some potential health risk associated with the production of elevated nitrate levels in the effluent within the filter, possibly due to nitrification and high levels of ammonia in the groundwater.

Removal of co-present chromate and arsenate by zero-valent iron in groundwater with humic acid and bicarbonate

The interactions of co-present Cr(VI) and As(V), and the influences of humic acid and bicarbonate in the process of Cr(VI) and As(V) removal by Fe(0) were investigated in a batch setting using simulated groundwater with 5 mM NaCl, 1 mM Na(2)SO(4), and 0.8 mM CaCl(2) as background electrolytes at an initial pH value of 7. Cr(VI) and As(V) were observed to be subject to different impacts induced by co-existing As(V) or Cr(VI), humic acid and bicarbonate, originating from their distinct removal mechanisms by Fe(0). Cr(VI) removal is a reduction-dominated process, whereas As(V) removal principally involves adsorption onto iron corrosion products. Experimental results showed that Cr(VI) removal was not affected by the presence of As(V) and humic acid. However, As(V) removal appeared to be inhibited by co-present Cr(VI). When the Cr(VI) concentration was 2, 5, and 10 mg/L, in the absence of humic acid and bicarbonate, As(V) removal rate constants were decreased by 27.9%, 49.0%, and 61.2%, respectively, which probably resulted from competition between Cr(VI) and As(V) for adsorption sites of the iron corrosion products. Furthermore, the presence of humic acid significantly varied As(V) removal kinetics by delaying the formation and aggregation of iron hydroxides due to the formation of soluble Fe-humate complexes and stably dispersed fine iron hydroxides colloids. In the presence of bicarbonate, both Cr(VI) and As(V) removal was increased and the inhibitory effect of Cr(VI) on As(V) removal was suppressed, resulting from the buffering effects and the promoted iron corrosion induced by bicarbonate, and the formation of CaCO(3) in solution, which enhanced As(V) adsorption.

Influence of geology on arsenic concentrations in ground and surface water in central Lesvos, Greece

The occurrence of As was studied in groundwater used for human consumption and irrigation, in stream water and sediments and in water from thermal springs in the drainage basin of Kalloni Gulf, island of Lesvos, Greece, in order to investigate the potential influence of the geothermal field of Polichnitos-Lisvori on the ground and surface water systems of the area. Total dissolved As varied in the range <0.7-88.3 microg L(-1) in groundwater, 41.1-90.7 microg L(-1) in thermal spring water and 0.4-13.2 microg L(-1) in stream water, whereas As concentrations in stream sediments varied between 2.0-21.9 mg kg(-1). Four out of 31 groundwater samples exceeded the EC standard of 10 microg L(-1). The survey revealed an enrichment in both surface and groundwater hydrological systems in the northern part of the area (average concentrations of As in groundwater, stream water and stream sediment: 8.0 microg L(-1), 8.8 microg L(-1) and 15.0 mg kg(-1) respectively), in association with the volcanic bedrocks, while lower As concentrations were found in the eastern part (average concentrations in groundwater, stream water and stream sediment: 2.9 microg L(-1), 1.7 microg L(-1) and 5.9 mg kg(-1) respectively), which is dominated by ophiolitic ultramafic formations. The variation of As levels between the different parts of the study area suggests that local geology exerts a determinant influence on As geochemical behaviour. On the other hand, the geothermal activity manifested in the area of Polichnitos-Lisvori does not affect the presence of As in groundwater and streams.

Effects of humic acid on arsenic(V) removal by zero-valent iron from groundwater with special references to corrosion products analyses

The effects of humic acid (HA) on As(V) removal by zero-valent iron (Fe(0)) from groundwater, associated with corrosion products analyses, were investigated using batch experiments. It was found that arsenic was rapidly removed from groundwater possibly due to its adsorption and co-precipitation with the corrosion products of Fe(0). The removal rate of arsenic by Fe(0) was inhibited in the presence of HA probably because of the formation of soluble Fe-humate in groundwater which hindered the production of iron precipitates. A longer reaction time was then required for arsenic removal. Such an influence of HA on arsenic removal increased with increasing HA concentration from 5 to 25mgL(-1). The binding capacity of HA for dissolved Fe was estimated to be about 0.75mg Femg(-1) HA. When the complexation of HA with dissolved Fe was saturated, further corrosion of Fe(0) would produce precipitates, which significantly accelerated the removal of arsenic from groundwater via adsorption and co-precipitation with the corrosion products. Iron (hydr)oxides such as maghemite, lepidocrocite, and magnetite were characterized by XRD analyses as the corrosion products, while As(V) was found on the surface of these corrosion products as detected by fourier transform infrared spectrometry and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.

Arsenic mobility and stabilization in topsoils

Agricultural topsoil can be polluted with arsenic due to irrigation with contaminated water from geothermal sources. This work evaluates the mobility of arsenic in topsoils and stabilization of arsenic with zero valent iron (ZVI), in short term experiments. The objective of this study was the development of a simplified empirical model that can predict the concentration of iron released from ZVI and the concentration of arsenic remaining in the solution during short term stabilization experiments. The empirical model correlates the release of arsenic from soil with dissolved iron concentration during stabilization experiments, in different pH and ZVI/solution ratios. Reaction time and the ratio of ZVI/soil affect the efficiency of arsenic stabilization in topsoils with ZVI. In addition, the release/desorption experiments and adsorption experiments, under different conditions, showed that the concentration of arsenate desorbed from soil depends on the temperature. Higher concentrations of arsenate were reported, as the temperature increased.