Recent Advances in Lipid-Based Vesicles and Particulate Carriers for Topical and Transdermal Application

Genistein transfersome-embedded topical delivery system for skin melanoma treatment: in vitro and ex vivo evaluations

Skin melanoma is considered the most dangerous form of skin cancer due to its association with high risk of metastasis, high mortality rate and high resistance to different treatment options. Genistein is a natural isoflavonoid with known chemotherapeutic activity. Unfortunately, it has low bioavailability due to its poor aqueous solubility and excessive metabolism. In the current study, genistein was incorporated into transferosomal hydrogel to improve its bioavailability. The prepared transferosomal formulations were characterized regarding: particle size; polydispersity index; zeta potential; encapsulation efficiency; TEM; FTIR; DSC; XRD; in vitro drug release; viscosity; pH; ex vivo anti-tumor activity on 3D skin melanoma spheroids and 1-year stability study at different storage temperatures. The optimized formulation has high encapsulation efficiency with an excellent particle size that will facilitate its penetration through the skin. The transfersomes have a spherical shape with sustained drug release profile. The anti-tumor activity evaluation of genistein transfersome revealed that genistein is a potent chemotherapeutic agent with enhanced penetration ability through the melanoma spheroids when incorporated into transfersomes. Stability study results demonstrate the high physical and chemical stability of our formulations. All these outcomes provide evidence that our genistein transferosomal hydrogel is a promising treatment option for skin melanoma.

Lipid-based nanosystems for wound healing

INTRODUCTION

Wounds, resulting from traumas, surgery, burns or diabetes, are an important medical problem, especially considering that wound healing is a complex process in term of healing times and high healthcare costs. Nanosystems have emerged as promising candidates in this field due to their properties and versatile applications in drugs delivery.

AREAS COVERED

Vesicular or particulate lipid-based nanosystems are described for wound treatment, highlighting their different behaviors when interacting with the cutaneous tissue. The role of nanosystems in delivering mostly natural compounds on skin as well as the technological and engineering strategies to increase their efficiency in wound healing effect are reviewed. Finally, in vitro, ex-vivo and in vivo studies are reported.

EXPERT OPINION

LBN have shown promise in addressing the challenges of wound healing as they can improve the stability of drugs used in wound therapy, leading to higher efficacy and fewer adverse effects as compared to traditional formulations. LBNs being involved in the inflammatory and proliferation stages of the wound healing process, enable the modification of wound healing through multiple ways. In addition, the use of new technologies, including 3D bioprinting and photobiomodulation, may lead to potential breakthroughs in wound healing. This would provide clinicians with more potent forms of therapy for wound healing.

Beyond Skin Deep: Phospholipid-Based Nanovesicles as Game-Changers in Transdermal Drug Delivery

Transdermal administration techniques have gained popularity due to their advantages over oral and parenteral methods. Noninvasive, self-administered delivery devices improve patient compliance and control drug release. Transdermal delivery devices struggle with the skin's barrier function. Molecules over 500 Dalton (Da) and ionized compounds don't permeate through the skin. Drug encapsulation in phospholipid-based vesicular systems is the most effective skin delivery technique. Vesicular carriers include bi-layered liposomes, ultra-deformable liposomes, ethanolic liposomes, transethosomes, and invasomes. These technologies enhance skin drug permeation by increasing formula solubilization, partitioning into the skin, and fluidizing the lipid barrier. Phospholipid-based delivery systems are safe and efficient, making them a promising pharmaceutical and cosmeceutical drug delivery technique. Still, making delivery systems requires knowledge about the physicochemical properties of the drug and carrier, manufacturing and process variables, skin delivery mechanisms, technological advances, constraints, and regulatory requirements. Consequently, this review covers recent research achievements addressing the mentioned concerns.

Palmitoylethanolamide-Incorporated Elastic Nano-Liposomes for Enhanced Transdermal Delivery and Anti-Inflammation

Palmitoylethanolamide (PEA) exhibits multiple skincare functions such as anti-nociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects. However, its topical application is limited due to its difficulty in bypassing the stratum corneum barrier, relatively low bioavailability, and low stability. Herein, elastic nano-liposomes (ENLs) with excellent deformability and elasticity were utilized as a novel drug delivery system to encapsulate PEA to overcome the abovementioned issues and enhance the biological effects on the skin. ENL was prepared with phosphatidylcholine, cholesterol, and cetyl-PG hydroxyethyl palmitamide with a molar ratio mimicking skin epidermal lipids, and PEA was loaded. The PEA-loaded ENL (PEA-ENL) demonstrated efficient transdermal delivery and enhanced skin retention, with negligible cytotoxicity toward HaCaT cells and no allergic reaction in the human skin patch test. Notably, PEA-ENL treatment increased cell migration and induced significant regulation in the expression of genes associated with anti-nociceptive, anti-inflammatory, and skin barrier repair. The mechanism of the anti-nociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects of PEA was further investigated and explained by molecular docking site analysis. This novel PEA-ENL, with efficient transdermal delivery efficiency and multiple skincare functionalities, is promising for topical application.

Nanostructure-Mediated Transport of Therapeutics through Epithelial Barriers

The ability to precisely treat human disease is facilitated by the sophisticated design of pharmacologic agents. Nanotechnology has emerged as a valuable approach to creating vehicles that can specifically target organ systems, effectively traverse epithelial barriers, and protect agents from premature degradation. In this review, we discuss the molecular basis for epithelial barrier function, focusing on tight junctions, and describe different pathways that drugs can use to cross barrier-forming tissue, including the paracellular route and transcytosis. Unique features of drug delivery applied to different organ systems are addressed: transdermal, ocular, pulmonary, and oral delivery. We also discuss how design elements of different nanoscale systems, such as composition and nanostructured architecture, can be used to specifically enhance transepithelial delivery. The ability to tailor nanoscale drug delivery vehicles to leverage epithelial barrier biology is an emerging theme in the pursuit of facilitating the efficacious delivery of pharmacologic agents.

Revolutionizing transdermal drug delivery: unveiling the potential of cubosomes and ethosomes

The area of drug delivery systems has witnessed significant advancements in recent years, with a particular focus on improving efficacy, stability, and patient compliance. Transdermal drug delivery offers numerous benefits compared to conventional methods of drug administration through the skin. It helps in avoiding gastric irritation, hepatic first-pass metabolism, and gastric degradation of the drug. It bypasses the gastrointestinal tract, eliminating the risk of first-pass metabolism and allowing drugs to be administered without being affected by pH, enzymes, or intestinal bacteria. Additionally, it allows for sustained release of the drug, is noninvasive, and enhances patient adherence to the treatment regimen. The transdermal drug delivery system (TDDS) can serve as an alternative route for drug administration in individuals who cannot tolerate oral medications, experience nausea, or are unconscious. When compared to intravenous, hypodermic, and other parenteral routes, TDDS stands out due to its ability to eliminate pain, reduce the risk of infection, and prevent disease transmission associated with needle reuse. Consequently, the overall patient compliance is significantly improved with the utilization of TDDS. Among the noteworthy developments are cubosomes and ethosomes, two distinct yet promising carriers that have garnered attention for their unique properties. In conclusion, this review synthesizes the current knowledge on cubosomes and ethosomes, shedding light on their individual strengths and potential synergies. The exploration of their application in various therapeutic areas underscores their versatility and establishes them as key players in the evolving landscape of drug delivery systems.

Ethosomes: a potential nanovesicular carrier to enhancing the drug delivery against skin barriers

Ethosomes, which are liposomes like structures, mainly composed primarily of ethanol, have attracted considerable attention due to their potential to enhance the drug permeation via skin. The article discusses the formulation and preparation methods of ethosomes, offering insights into the various factors that influence their size, shape, and stability. Moreover, it explores the techniques used to assess the physicochemical properties of ethosomes and their impact on drug delivery effectiveness. The article also elucidates the mechanism by which ethosomes enhance skin permeation, emphasising their ability to modify the lipid structure and fluidity of the stratum corneum. Additionally, the review investigates the applications of ethosomes in diverse drug delivery scenarios, including the delivery of small molecules, peptides, and phytoconstituents. It highlights the potential of ethosomes to improve drug bioavailability, extend drug release, and achieve targeted delivery to specific skin layers or underlying tissues.

Transferosomes as a transdermal drug delivery system: Dermal kinetics and recent developments

The development of innovative approaches to deliver medications has been growing now for the last few decades and generates a growing interest in the dermatopharmaceutical field. Transdermal drug delivery in particular, remains an attractive alternative route for many therapeutics. However, due to the limitations posed by the barrier properties of the stratum corneum, the delivery of many pharmaceutical dosage forms remains a challenge. Most successful therapies using the transdermal route have been ones containing smaller lipophilic molecules with molecular weights of a few hundred Daltons. To overcome these limitations of size and lipophilicity of the drugs, transferosomes have emerged as a successful tool for transdermal delivery of a variety of therapeutics including hydrophilic actives, larger molecules, peptides, proteins, and nucleic acids. Transferosomes exhibit a flexible structure and higher surface hydrophilicity which both play a critical role in the transport of drugs and other solutes using hydration gradients as a driving force to deliver the molecules into and across the skin. This results in enhanced overall permeation as well as controlled release of the drug in the skin layers. Additionally, the physical-chemical properties of the transferosomes provide increased stability by preventing degradation of the actives by oxidation, light, and temperature. Here, we present the history of transferosomes from solid lipid nanoparticles and liposomes, their physical-chemical properties, dermal kinetics, and their recent advances as marketed dosage forms. This article is categorized under: Biology-Inspired Nanomaterials > Lipid-Based Structures Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies.

Nanoformulations Insights: A Novel Paradigm for Antifungal Therapies and Future Perspectives

Currently, fungal infections are becoming more prevalent worldwide. Subsequently, many antifungal agents are available to cure diseases like pemphigus, athlete's foot, acne, psoriasis, hyperpigmentation, albinism, and skin cancer. Still, they fall short due to pitfalls in physiochemical properties. Conventional medications like lotion, creams, ointments, poultices, and gels are available for antifungal therapy but present many shortcomings. They are associated with drug retention and poor penetration problems, resulting in drug resistance, hypersensitivity, and diminished efficacy. On the contrary, nanoformulations have gained tremendous potential in overcoming the drawbacks of conventional delivery. Furthermore, the potential breakthroughs of nanoformulations are site-specific targeting. It has improved bioavailability, patient-tailored approach, reduced drug retention and hypersensitivity, and improved skin penetration. Nowadays, nanoformulations are gaining popularity for antifungal therapy against superficial skin infections. Nanoformulations-based liposomes, niosomes, nanosponges, solid lipid nanoparticles, and potential applications have been explored for antifungal therapy due to enhanced activity and reduced toxicity. Researchers are now more focused on developing patient-oriented target-based nano delivery to cover the lacunas of conventional treatment with higher immune stimulatory effects. Future direction involves the construction of novel nanotherapeutic devices, nanorobotics, and robust methods. In addition, for the preparations of nanoformulations for clinical studies, animal modeling solves the problems of antifungal therapy. This review describes insights into various superficial fungal skin infections and their potential applications, nanocarrier-based drug delivery, and mechanism of action. In addition, it focuses on regulatory considerations, pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic studies, clinical trials, patents, challenges, and future inputs for researchers to improve antifungal therapy.

Enhanced stability and skin permeation of ibuprofen-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles based binary solid lipid matrix: Effect of surfactant and lipid compositions

Hypothesis

The type of emulsifier selected has an impact on the physicochemical properties of solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs). This study was designed to compare the effects of emulsifiers on the physicochemical properties and in vitro skin performance of SLNs prepared from a binary mixture of Softisan® 378 (S378) and cetyl palmitate (CP) to those of SLNs prepared from only CP and S378.

Experiments

SLNs were prepared from CP, S378, or a binary mixture of CP and S378 (1:1 w/w) as the lipid phase and stabilized with Tego®Care 450 (TG450) or poloxamer 188 (P188) containing 1.0% w/w ibuprofen loading. The physicochemical properties including the particle size, polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential (ZP), encapsulation efficiency (E.E.), crystallinity (%CI), and polymorphism were determined after production and after storage for 180 days under different conditions. In addition, in vitro drug release and permeation through human skin was studied after production and storage at room temperature for 180 days.

Finding

The particle sizes of ibuprofen-loaded SLNs (IBSLNs) stabilized with P188 (IBSLN-P188) were smaller than those of SLNs stabilized with TG450 (IBSLN-TG450) (p < 0.05). After 180 days, the particle sizes of the IBSLNs were slightly increased compared to those at the initial time but were <250 nm. The IBSLN-TG450 sample showed a higher %CI than IBSLN-P188 prepared with similar propotions of CP and S378, and ibuprofen crystals were observed in the IBSLN1-TG450 sample after storage at 4 °C for 180 days. Based on the result of the in vitro release study and the in vitro skin permeation test, the addition of S378 into the CP-matrix modified ibuprofen release and skin permeation both permeated ibuprofen through the epidermis and retained ibuprofen in the epidermis. In addition, the storage time affected the release and skin permeation of ibuprofen from the SLNs, which depended on the composition of the IBSLNs.

Applications and recent advances in transdermal drug delivery systems for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis is a chronic, systemic autoimmune disease predominantly based on joint lesions with an extremely high disability and deformity rate. Several drugs have been used for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, but their use is limited by suboptimal bioavailability, serious adverse effects, and nonnegligible first-pass effects. In contrast, transdermal drug delivery systems (TDDSs) can avoid these drawbacks and improve patient compliance, making them a promising option for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Of course, TDDSs also face unique challenges, as the physiological barrier of the skin makes drug delivery somewhat limited. To overcome this barrier and maximize drug delivery efficiency, TDDSs have evolved in terms of the principle of transdermal facilitation and transdermal facilitation technology, and different generations of TDDSs have been derived, which have significantly improved transdermal efficiency and even achieved individualized controlled drug delivery. In this review, we summarize the different generations of transdermal drug delivery systems, the corresponding transdermal strategies, and their applications in the treatment of RA.

A green-based approach for noninvasive skin rejuvenation: Potential application of hyaluronic acid

Gradually, loss of skin elasticity and elastic properties occurs after 30 years of age and will be associated with several changes, including creating wrinkles, skin laxity (sagging skin), and skin blemishes. In general, people all over the world are looking for ways to keep their facial skin young over time. There are several strategies to skin rejuvenate, including invasive and non-invasive methods. However, invasive methods have less popularity than non-invasive methods due to their need for specialist physicians (medical expertise), localized neuropathic pains for patients, the prevalence and incidence of skin infections, and high-cost clinical services. In the meantime, skin hydration is one of the simplest non-invasive methods for skin rejuvenation, and HA, with anti-aging and skin collagen-stimulating properties, has been introduced as a natural skin moisturizing agent. Therefore, since this composition maintains facial skin moisture and radiance, and improves its elasticity, it has always been considered by experts and specialist physicians. On the other hand, due to its lipophilic properties, hydrophilic macromolecules containing HA cannot pass through the stratum corneum. However, they have temporary and superficial softening effects on the skin. Hence, some nanocarriers have been suggested to overcome this problem and develop the properties and positive influences of HA on skin rejuvenation. Therefore, the present study aimed to introduce some new non-invasive approaches in facial skin rejuvenation, including applying liposomes, niosomes, ethosomes, and ionic liquids, to transport HA into the inner and deeper layers of the skin, including Dermis. In this review article, we examine non-invasive methods using nanoparticles to deliver HA to the epidermis and dermis of the skin for skin rejuvenation.

Advancement in nanotechnology for treatment of rheumatoid arthritis: scope and potential applications

Rheumatoid arthritis is a hyperactive immune disorder that results in severe inflammation in synovial joints, cartilage, and bone deterioration, resulting in immobilization of joints. Traditional approaches for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis are associated with some limiting factors such as suboptimal patient compliance, inability to control the progression of disorder, and safety concerns. Therefore, innovative drug delivery carriers for efficient therapeutic delivery at inflamed synovial sites with better safety assessment are urgently needed to address these issues. From this perspective, nanotechnology is an outstanding alternative to traditional drug delivery approaches, and it has shown great promise in developing novel carriers to treat rheumatoid arthritis. Considering the current research and future application of nanocarriers, it is believed that nanocarriers can be a crucial element in rheumatoid arthritis treatment. This paper covers all currently available pathophysiological aspects of rheumatoid arthritis and treatment options. Future research for the reduction of synovial inflammation should focus on developing multifunction nanoparticles capable of delivering therapeutic agents with improved safety, efficacy, and cost-effectiveness to be commercialized.

Transdermal delivery of brucine-encapsulated liposomes significantly enhances anti-tumor outcomes in treating triple-negative breast cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is always the most challenging breast cancer subtype. Herein, brucine, encapsulated in peptide-modified liposomes, was proposed for treating TNBC by transdermal delivery. For the TD peptide-modified brucine-loaded liposome (Bru-TD-Lip) we developed, it presents high encapsulation efficiency of brucine and stability. In vitro, Bru-TD-Lip shows the enhanced percutaneous permeability of brucine, is able to readily enter TNBC cells, and significantly inhibits the proliferation, migration, and invasion of these cells. In vivo, through transdermal delivery, Bru-TD-Lip presents good biosafety and anti-tumor efficacy. The transdermal delivery of Bru-TD-Lip effectively targets and inhibits subcutaneous mammary carcinogenesis in female nude mice. Compared with oral administration, the transdermal delivery significantly reduces the damage of brucine to major organs and enhances the antitumor outcomes of brucine in treating TNBC. This study provides a new therapeutic strategy for treating triple-negative breast cancer by brucine.

Preparation and Characterization of Transethosome Formulation for the Enhanced Delivery of Sinapic Acid

Sinapic acid (SA) is a bioactive phenolic acid; its diverse properties are its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anticancer, and antibacterial activities. The bioactive compound SA is poorly soluble in water. Our goal was to formulate SA-transethosomes using thin-film hydration. The prepared formulations were examined for various parameters. In addition, the optimized formulation was evaluated for surface morphology, in-vitro penetration studies across the Strat M®, and its antioxidant activity. The optimized formulation (F5) exhibited 74.36% entrapment efficacy. The vesicle size, zeta potential, and polydispersity index were found to be 111.67 nm, -7.253 mV, and 0.240, respectively. The surface morphology showed smooth and spherical vesicles of SA-transethosomes. In addition, the prepared SA-transethosomes exhibited enhanced antioxidant activity. The SA-transethosomes demonstrated considerably greater penetration across the Strat M® membrane during the study. The flux of SA and SA-transethosomes through the Strat M® membrane was 1.03 ± 0.07 µg/cm2/h and 2.93 ± 0.16 µg/cm2/h. The enhancement ratio of SA-transethosomes was 2.86 ± 0.35 compared to the control. The SA-transethosomes are flexible nano-sized vesicles and are able to penetrate the entrapped drug in a higher concentration. Hence, it was concluded that SA-transethosome-based approaches have the potential to be useful for accentuating the penetrability of SA across the skin.

Enhancing Skin Delivery and Stability of Vanillic and Ferulic Acids in Aqueous Enzymatically Extracted Glutinous Rice Husk by Nanostructured Lipid Carriers

The present study aimed to develop nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) and evaluate their effectiveness in enhancing the delivery and stability of vanillic and ferulic acid in the aqueous enzymatic extract of glutinous rice husk using a 0.5% w/w cellulase solution (CE0.5). NLCs were developed using a high-pressure homogenization technique and characterized for their particle size, polydispersity index, and zeta potential. The entrapment efficiency, physical and chemical stability, release profile, skin permeation, and skin retention of the NLCs loaded with CE0.5 were evaluated. It was observed that NLCs with high entrapment efficiencies efficiently encapsulate and protect both vanillic and ferulic acid, in contrast to a solution. The controlled and sustained release profile of vanillic acid and ferulic acid from NLCs suggests their potential for prolonged and targeted delivery. The findings also demonstrate the superior skin retention capabilities of NLCs without permeation compared to the solution. Notably, NLC2 exhibited the highest delivery into the skin layer, which can be attributed to its smaller particle size (107.3 ± 1.3 nm), enabling enhanced skin penetration. This research highlights the promising application of NLCs in enhancing the delivery and stability of bioactive compounds in cosmetic formulations and related fields.

An Overview of Nanostructured Lipid Carriers and its Application in Drug Delivery through Different Routes

Nanostructured Lipid Carriers (NLC) are nano-sized colloidal drug delivery system that contains a lipid mixture consisting of both solid and liquid lipids in their core. This Lipid-Based Nanosystem is introduced as a biocompatible, non-toxic, and safe nano-drug delivery system as compared to polymeric or metallic nanoparticles. Due to its safety, stability, and high drug loading capacity compared to other lipid-based nanocarriers, NLC gained the attention of researchers to formulate safe and effective drug carriers. The ability to increase drug solubility and permeability while encapsulating the drug in a lipidic shell makes them an ideal carrier for drug delivery through difficult-to-achieve routes. Surface modification of NLC and the use of various additives result in drug targeting and increased residence time. With such qualities, NLCs can be used to treat a variety of diseases such as cancer, infections, neurodegenerative diseases, hypertension, diabetes, and pain management. This review focuses on the recent developments being made to deliver the drugs and genes through different routes via these nanocarriers. Here, we also discuss about historical background, structure, types of NLC and commonly employed techniques for manufacturing lipid-based nanocarriers.

Effect of cyclosporine A - Tempol topical gel for the treatment of alopecia and anti-inflammatory disorders

Over the years, extensive research has been carried out to develop new chemical entities for hair loss treatment. Despite these efforts, the newly developed topical and oral treatments have not proven to be curative. Hair loss can result from underlying mechanisms, such as inflammation and apoptosis around hair follicles. We have developed a nanoemulsion based on Pemulen gel for topical application, tentatively addressing both mechanisms. The novel formulation contains two well-known molecules: Cyclosporin A (CsA), an immunosuppressant calcineurin inhibitor, and Tempol, a potent antioxidant. The in vitro permeation study on human skin revealed that the CsA-Tempol gel formulation effectively delivered CsA into the skin's inner target layer, the dermis. The effects of the CsA-Tempol gel on hair regrowth were further demonstrated in the in vivo well-established androgenetic model induced in female C57BL/6 mice. The beneficial outcome was statistically confirmed by quantitative analysis of hair regrowth, weasured by color density. The results were further supported by histology analysis. Our findings revealed a topical synergy effect, resulting in lower therapeutic concentrations of both actives unlikely to cause systemic side effects. Overall, our research suggests that the CsA-Tempol gel is a highly promising platform for treating alopecia.

Emulgels: Promising Carrier Systems for Food Ingredients and Drugs

Novel delivery systems for cosmetics, drugs, and food ingredients are of great scientific and industrial interest due to their ability to incorporate and protect active substances, thus improving their selectivity, bioavailability, and efficacy. Emulgels are emerging carrier systems that represent a mixture of emulsion and gel, which are particularly significant for the delivery of hydrophobic substances. However, the proper selection of main constituents determines the stability and efficacy of emulgels. Emulgels are dual-controlled release systems, where the oil phase is utilized as a carrier for hydrophobic substances and it determines the occlusive and sensory properties of the product. The emulsifiers are used to promote emulsification during production and to ensure emulsion stability. The choice of emulsifying agents is based on their capacity to emulsify, their toxicity, and their route of administration. Generally, gelling agents are used to increase the consistency of formulation and improve sensory properties by making these systems thixotropic. The gelling agents also impact the release of active substances from the formulation and stability of the system. Therefore, the aim of this review is to gain new insights into emulgel formulations, including the components selection, methods of preparation, and characterization, which are based on recent advances in research studies.

Functional nano-systems for transdermal drug delivery and skin therapy

Transdermal drug delivery is one of the least intrusive and patient-friendly ways for therapeutic agent administration. Recently, functional nano-systems have been demonstrated as one of the most promising strategies to treat skin diseases by improving drug penetration across the skin barrier and achieving therapeutically effective drug concentrations in the target cutaneous tissues. Here, a brief review of functional nano-systems for promoting transdermal drug delivery is presented. The fundamentals of transdermal delivery, including skin biology and penetration routes, are introduced. The characteristics of functional nano-systems for facilitating transdermal drug delivery are elucidated. Moreover, the fabrication of various types of functional transdermal nano-systems is systematically presented. Multiple techniques for evaluating the transdermal capacities of nano-systems are illustrated. Finally, the advances in the applications of functional transdermal nano-systems for treating different skin diseases are summarized.

Enhanced intradermal delivery of Dragon's blood in biocompatible nanosuspensions hydrogel patch for skin photoprotective effect

Dragon's Blood is a member of the Chinese medicinal herb, having anti-oxygen and anti-inflammatory activity for the photoprotective effect. However, the poor water solubility of raw Dragon's Blood powder has limited its intradermal delivery process. In this study, we evaluated nanosuspensions to enhance intradermal delivery of Dragon's Blood exerting a photoprotective effect. The prepared nanosuspension was added to a composite hydrogel patch matrix for better skin application. In the present research, we used biocompatible materials hyaluronic acid and amino acid surfactants as nanosuspension stabilizers and agar/gelatin/sodium polyacrylate as hydrogel patch matrix. The prepared Dragon's Blood nanosuspension had a particle size of 447.0 ± 48.6 nm. The micro-structures morphology and viscoelasticity characteristics by SEM and rheological testing confirmed a sufficient crosslinked hydrogel network. The skin retention amount of Dragon's Blood nanosuspension was 1.48 times of raw Dragon's Blood powder water suspension, and the skin penetration amount of Dragon's Blood nanosuspension was only about 1/3 of Dragon's Blood DMSO solution. In the UVB-irradiated HaCaT cell phototoxicity model, Dragon's Blood nanosuspension also significantly increased cell viability by about 1 time of the model group and decreased the production of reactive oxygen species about 1/2 times of model group. In vivo safety and efficiency evaluation experiment illustrated that DB-NS hydrogel patch processes have favorable safety and photoprotective effect with no skin irritancy and phototoxicity. Furthermore, DB-NS and DB-NS hydrogel patches could protect skin from UVA and UVB irritating skin reactions. Overall, our study of the combined use of biocompatible and biodegradable materials as excipients of nanosuspension and hydrogel patch could be used as an effective additive of Intradermal delivery and skin photoprotection.

Current Advances in Lipid Nanosystems Intended for Topical and Transdermal Drug Delivery Applications

Skin delivery is an exciting and challenging field. It is a promising approach for effective drug delivery due to its ease of administration, ease of handling, high flexibility, controlled release, prolonged therapeutic effect, adaptability, and many other advantages. The main associated challenge, however, is low skin permeability. The skin is a healthy barrier that serves as the body's primary defence mechanism against foreign particles. New advances in skin delivery (both topical and transdermal) depend on overcoming the challenges associated with drug molecule permeation and skin irritation. These limitations can be overcome by employing new approaches such as lipid nanosystems. Due to their advantages (such as easy scaling, low cost, and remarkable stability) these systems have attracted interest from the scientific community. However, for a successful formulation, several factors including particle size, surface charge, components, etc. have to be understood and controlled. This review provided a brief overview of the structure of the skin as well as the different pathways of nanoparticle penetration. In addition, the main factors influencing the penetration of nanoparticles have been highlighted. Applications of lipid nanosystems for dermal and transdermal delivery, as well as regulatory aspects, were critically discussed.

Biocompatible phospholipid-based nanovesicular drug delivery system of ketoprofen: Systematic development, optimization, and preclinical evaluation

The present work involved development of phospholipid-based permeation enhancing nanovesicles (PENVs) for topical delivery of ketoprofen. Screening of phospholipids and process parameters was performed. Central composite design was used for optimization of factors, that is, amount (%, w/w) of phospholipid and ethanol at three levels. The optimized nanovesicles (NVs) were loaded with different terpenes and then incorporated into a gel base. Optimized NVs exhibited 69% entrapment efficiency, 51% transmittance, 328 nm mean vesicle size, and polydispersity index of 0.25. In vitro release kinetics evaluation indicated best fitting as per Korsemeyer-Peppa's model and drug release via Fickian-diffusion mechanism. The optimized NVs loaded with mint terpene showed minimal degree of deformability and maximal elasticity as compared with the conventional NVs and liposomes. Rheology and texture analysis indicated pseudoplastic flow and smooth texture of the vesicle gel formulation. Ex vivo permeation studies across Wistar rat skin indicated low penetration (0.43-fold decrease) and high skin retention (4.26-fold increase) of ketoprofen from the optimized PENVs gel vis-à-vis the conventional gel. Skin irritancy study indicated lower scores for PENVs gel construing its biocompatible nature. Stability studies confirmed cold storage is best suitable for vesicle gel, and optimized PENVs were found to be suitable for topical delivery of ketoprofen.

Ethosomes and their monotonous effects on Skin cancer disruption

Skin cancer is one of the most prominent diseases, affecting all continents worldwide, and has shown a significant rise in mortality and prevalence. Conventional therapy, including chemotherapy and surgery, has a few drawbacks. The ethosomal systems would be thoroughly reviewed in this compilation, and they would be classified based on constituents: classical ethosomes, binary ethosomes, and transethosomes. Ethosomes systems are model lipid vesicular carriers with a substantial portion of ethanol. The impacts of ethosomal system components, preparation techniques, and their major roles in selecting the final characteristics of these nanocarriers are comprehensively reviewed in this chapter. The special techniques for ethosomes, including the cold approach, hot approach, injection method, mechanical dispersion method, and conventional method, are explained in this chapter. Various evaluation parameters of ethosomes were also explained. Furthermore, ethosomal gels, patches, and creams can be emphasised as innovative pharmaceutical drug formulations. Some hybrid ethosomal vesicles possessing combinatorial cancer therapy using nanomedicine could overcome the current drug resistance of specific cancer cells. Through the use of repurpose therapy, phytoconstituents may be delivered more effectively. A wide range of in vivo models are employed to assess their effectiveness. Ethosomes have provided numerous potential skin cancer therapeutic approaches in the future.

Allylamines, Benzylamines, and Fungal Cell Permeability: A Review of Mechanistic Effects and Usefulness against Fungal Pathogens

Allylamines, naftifine and terbinafine, and the benzylamine, butenafine, are antifungal agents with activity on the fungal cell membrane. These synthetic compounds specifically inhibit squalene epoxidase, a key enzyme in fungal sterol biosynthesis. This results in a deficiency in ergosterol, a major fungal membrane sterol that regulates membrane fluidity, biogenesis, and functions, and whose damage results in increased membrane permeability and leakage of cellular components, ultimately leading to fungal cell death. With the fungal cell membrane being predominantly made up of lipids including sterols, these lipids have a vital role in the pathogenesis of fungal infections and the identification of improved therapies. This review will focus on the fungal cell membrane structure, activity of allylamines and benzylamines, and the mechanistic damage they cause to the membrane. Furthermore, pharmaceutical preparations and clinical uses of these drugs, mainly in dermatophyte infections, will be reviewed.

Stability characterization for pharmaceutical liposome product development with focus on regulatory considerations: An update

Liposomes have several advantages, such as the ability to be employed as a carrier/vehicle for a variety of drug molecules and at the same time they are safe and biodegradable. In the recent times, compared to other delivery systems, liposomes have been one of the most well-established and commercializing drug products of new drug delivery methods for majority of therapeutic applications. On the other hand, it has several limitations, particularly in terms of stability, which impedes product development and performance. In this review, we reviewed all the potential instabilities (physical, chemical, and biological) that a formulation development scientist confronts throughout the development of liposomal formulations as along with the ways to overcome these challenges. We have also discussed the effect of microbiological contamination on liposomal formulations with a focus on the use of sterilization methods used to improve the stability. Finally, we have reviewed quality control techniques and regulatory considerations recommended by the agencies (USFDA and MHLW) for liposome drug product development.

Preparation and Optimization of an Ultraflexible Liposomal Gel for Lidocaine Transdermal Delivery

The pain caused by lidocaine injections into the face prior to facial plastic surgeries intended to remove growths or tumorous lesions has been reported by many patients to be the worst part of these procedures. However, the lidocaine gels and creams currently on the market do not deliver an equal or better local anesthetic effect to replace these injections. To develop an alternative to the painful local anesthetic injection, we prepared ultraflexible liposomes using soy phosphatidylcholine, lidocaine, and different amounts of sodium cholate, a surfactant. The prepared ultraflexible liposomes (UFLs) were examined for particle size, zeta potential, cytotoxicity, and in vitro release. By using a carbomer as a gelling agent, the prepared UFL lidocaine gels were evaluated for their penetration ability in a Franz diffusion cell, using Strat-M membranes. The formulation achieving the highest amount of penetrated lidocaine was chosen for further pH, viscosity, and stability tests. The local anesthetic efficacy of the formulation was investigated by an in vivo tail-flick test in rats. Our findings suggested that this topical gel formulated with ultraflexible liposomal lidocaine has enhanced skin permeation ability, as well as an improved local analgesic effect from the lidocaine.

Self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system of aqueous leaf extracts of Justicia adhatoda and Psidium guajava to enhance platelet count

Self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (SNEDDS) containing aqueous leaf extracts of Justicia adhatoda (JA) and Psidium guajava (PG), was designed to evaluate their ability to enhance platelet count. The ternary phase diagram was constructed to identify the self-emulsifying regions and nanoemulsion prepared using clove oil, tween 80 and transcutol. The globule size of the prepared SNEDDS formulation at different folds of dilution in buffers of various pH was evaluated. The average globule size of the optimized JA2- and PG2-loaded SNEDDS at different folds of dilutions was in the range of 103.4 ± 7.1 to 238.3 ± 5.4 nm and 240.2 ± 7.9 to161.7 ± 3.7 nm, respectively. The viscosity of JA2 and PG2 loaded SNEDDS formulations were found to be 621 and 642 centipoise, respectively with no observed signs of phase separation, turbidity or precipitation during the freeze-thaw process. Oral administration of combined JA2 and PG2 loaded SNEDDS formulation to Wistar rats depleted with platelets showed a significant increase in platelet count when compared to a marketed tablet Caripill. Pharmacodynamic studies in platelet-depleted Wistar rats enhanced the platelet count after administration of SNEDDS containing lyophilized aqueous extracts JA2 and PG2.

A Mini-Review on Solid Lipid Nanoparticles and Nanostructured Lipid Carriers: Topical Delivery of Phytochemicals for the Treatment of Acne Vulgaris

Acne vulgaris (acne) is one of the most common dermatological problems affecting adolescents and young adults. Although acne may not lead to serious medical complications, its psychosocial effects are tremendous and scientifically proven. The first-line treatment for acne is topical medications composed of synthetic compounds, which usually cause skin irritation, dryness and itch. Therefore, naturally occurring constituents from plants (phytochemicals), which are generally regarded as safe, have received much attention as an alternative source of treatment. However, the degradation of phytochemicals under high temperature, light and oxygen, and their poor penetration across the skin barrier limit their application in dermatology. Encapsulation in lipid nanoparticles is one of the strategies commonly used to deliver drugs and phytochemicals because it allows appropriate concentrations of these substances to be delivered to the site of action with minimal side effects. Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) are promising delivery systems developed from the combination of lipid and emulsifier. They have numerous advantages that include biocompatibility and biodegradability of lipid materials, enhancement of drug solubility and stability, ease of modulation of drug release, ease of scale-up, feasibility of incorporation of both hydrophilic and lipophilic drugs and occlusive moisturization, which make them very attractive carriers for delivery of bioactive compounds for treating skin ailments such as acne. In this review, the concepts of SLNs and NLCs, methods of preparation, characterization, and their application in the encapsulation of anti-acne phytochemicals will be discussed.

Superiority of Microemulsion-based Hydrogel for Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drug Transdermal Delivery: A Comparative Safety and Anti-nociceptive Efficacy Study

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) represent the foundation of pain management caused by inflammatory disorders. Nevertheless, their oral administration induces several side effects exemplified by gastric ulceration, thus, delivering NSAIDs via the skin has become an attractive alternative. Herein, microemulsion-based hydrogel (MBH), proliposomal, and cubosomal gels were fabricated, loaded with diclofenac, and physicochemically characterized. The sizes, charges, surface morphologies, and the state of diclofenac within the reconstituted gels were also addressed. The release pattern and ex-vivo permeation studies using Franz cells were performed via the rat abdominal skin. The formulations were assessed in-vivo on mice skin for their irritation effect and their anti-nociceptive efficacy through the tail-flick test. Biosafety study of the optimal gel was also pointed out. The gels and their dispersion forms displayed accepted physicochemical properties. Diclofenac released in a prolonged manner from the prepared gels. MBH revealed a significantly higher skin permeation and the foremost results regarding in-vivo assessment where no skin irritation or altered histopathological features were observed. MBH further induced a significant anti-nociceptive effect during the tail-flick test with a lower tendency to evoke systemic toxicity. Therefore, limonene-containing microemulsion hydrogel is a promising lipid-based vehicle to treat pain with superior safety and therapeutic efficacy.

Rationale utilization of phospholipid excipients: a distinctive tool for progressing state of the art in research of emerging drug carriers

Phospholipids have a high degree of biocompatibility and are deemed ideal pharmaceutical excipients in the development of lipid-based drug delivery systems, because of their unique features (permeation, solubility enhancer, emulsion stabilizer, micelle forming agent, and the key excipients in solid dispersions) they can be used in a variety of pharmaceutical drug delivery systems, such as liposomes, phytosomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, etc. The primary usage of phospholipids in a colloidal pharmaceutical formulation is to enhance the drug's bioavailability with low aqueous solubility [i.e. Biopharmaceutical Classification System (BCS) Class II drugs], Membrane penetration (i.e. BCS Class III drugs), drug uptake and release enhancement or modification, protection of sensitive active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) from gastrointestinal degradation, a decrease of gastrointestinal adverse effects, and even masking of the bitter taste of orally delivered drugs are other uses. Phospholipid-based colloidal drug products can be tailored to address a wide variety of product requirements, including administration methods, cost, product stability, toxicity, and efficacy. Such formulations that are also a cost-effective method for developing medications for topical, oral, pulmonary, or parenteral administration. The originality of this review work is that we comprehensively evaluated the unique properties and special aspects of phospholipids and summarized how the individual phospholipids can be utilized in various types of lipid-based drug delivery systems, as well as listing newly marketed lipid-based products, patents, and continuing clinical trials of phospholipid-based therapeutic products. This review would be helpful for researchers responsible for formulation development and research into novel colloidal phospholipid-based drug delivery systems.

Fundamental Aspects of Lipid-Based Excipients in Lipid-Based Product Development

Poor aqueous solubility of drugs is still a foremost challenge in pharmaceutical product development. The use of lipids in designing formulations provides an opportunity to enhance the aqueous solubility and consequently bioavailability of drugs. Pre-dissolution of drugs in lipids, surfactants, or mixtures of lipid excipients and surfactants eliminate the dissolution/dissolving step, which is likely to be the rate-limiting factor for oral absorption of poorly water-soluble drugs. In this review, we exhaustively summarize the lipids excipients in relation to their classification, absorption mechanisms, and lipid-based product development. Methodologies utilized for the preparation of solid and semi-solid lipid formulations, applications, phase behaviour, and regulatory perspective of lipid excipients are discussed.

Transdermal Delivery of Indirubin-Loaded Microemulsion Gel: Preparation, Characterization and Anti-Psoriatic Activity

Psoriasis is an immune disease caused by rapid and incomplete differentiation of skin basal cells. Natural products such as indirubin have historically served as excellent sources for the treatments of psoriasis. However, the poor solubility and bioavailability due to its plane and rigid crystal structure, which limits its efficacy. Herein, to improve the efficacy of indirubin, a hydrogel-based microemulsion drug delivery system was developed for transdermal delivery. The mean droplet size of the optimized microemulsion was 84.37 nm, with a polydispersity index (PDI) less than 0.2 and zeta potential value of 0~−20 mV. The transdermal flux and skin retention of indirubin at 24 h were 47.34 ± 3.59 μg/cm² and 8.77 ± 1.26 μg/cm², respectively. The optimized microemulsion was dispersed in carbomer 934 hydrogel to increase the consistency. The indirubin-loaded microemulsion gel was tested on an imiquimod-induced psoriasis mouse model. Results showed that this preparation can improve psoriasis symptoms by down-regulating the expression of IL-17A, Ki67, and CD4⁺T. This experiment provides great scalability for researchers to treat psoriasis, avoid first-pass effects, and increase the concentration of targeted drugs.

Formulation and In Vitro Efficacy Assessment of Teucrium marum Extract Loading Hyalurosomes Enriched with Tween 80 and Glycerol

The extract of Teucrium marum L. (Lamiaceae) was obtained using the aerial parts of the plant, by means of a maceration process. Verbascoside, caffeic acids derivatives and flavonols were the main components contained in the extract as detected using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with diode array detector (HPLC–DAD) as an analytical method. The extract was successfully incorporated into hyalurosomes, which were further enriched by adding a water cosolvent (glycerol) and a surfactant (Tween 80), thus obtaining glycerohyalurosomes. Liposomes, transfersomes and glycerosomes were prepared as well and used as comparisons. All vesicles were small, as the mean diameter was never higher than ~115 nm, thus ideal for topical application and stable on storage, probably thanks to the highly negative surface charge of the vesicles (~−33 mV). The cryo-TEM images confirmed the formation of close-packed, oligolamellar and multicompartment hyalurosomes and glycerohyalurosomes in which around 95% of the used extract was retained, confirming their ability to simultaneously load a wide range of molecules having different chemical natures. Moreover, the extract, when loaded in hyalurosomes and glycerohyalurosomes was able to counteract the damages induced in the fibroblasts by hydrogen peroxide to a better extent (viability~110%) than that loaded in the other vesicles (viability~100%), and effectively promoted their proliferation and migration ensuring the healing of the wound performed in a cell monolayer (scratch assay) during 48 h of experiment. Overall in vitro results confirmed the potential of glycerohyalurosomes as delivery systems for T. marum extract for the treatment of skin lesions connected with oxidative stress.

Nanoemulsion-based dosage forms for the transdermal drug delivery applications: A review of recent advances

INTRODUCTION

Nanoemulsion-based drug delivery approaches have witnessed massive acceptance over the years and acquired a significant foothold owing to their tremendous benefits over the others. It has widely been used for transdermal delivery of hydrophobic and hydrophilic drugs with solubility, lipophilicity, and bioavailability issues.

AREAS COVERED

The review highlights the recent advancements and applications of transdermal nanoemulsions. Their utilities and characteristics, clinical pertinence showcasing intellectual properties and advancements, potential in treating disorders accompanying liquid, semisolid, and solid dosage forms, the ability to modulate a drug's physicochemical properties, and regulatory status are thoroughly summarized.

EXPERT OPINION

Despite tremendous therapeutic utilities and extensive investigations, this field of transdermal nanoemulsion-based technologies yet tackles several challenges such as optimum use of surfactant mixtures, economic burden due to high energy consumption during production, lack of concrete regulatory requirement, etc. Provided with the concrete guidelines on the safe use of surfactants, stability, use of scalable and economical methods, and the use of NE as a transdermal system would solve the purpose best as nanoemulsion shows remarkable improvement in drug release profiles and bioavailability of many drugs. Nevertheless, a better understanding of nanoemulsion technology holds a promising outlook and would land more opportunities and better delivery outcomes.

Nanoemulsion-based dissolving microneedle arrays for enhanced intradermal and transdermal delivery

The development of dissolving microneedles (DMN) is one of the advanced technologies in transdermal drug delivery systems, which precisely deliver the drugs through a rapid dissolution of polymers after insertion into the skin. In this study, we fabricated nanoemulsion-loaded dissolving microneedle (DMN) arrays for intradermal and transdermal drug delivery. For this task, model drug (amphotericin B, AmB)-loaded nanoemulsion (NE) were prepared by the probe-sonication method. AmB-loaded-NE was prepared using Capmul MCM C-8 EP/NF, Tween^® 80, poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA-10 kDa), and poly (vinyl pyrrolidone) (PVP-360 kDa or K29/32) by using SpeedMixer™, followed by probe-sonication and evaluated for particle size and polydispersity index (PDI). Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) was also used to assess the particle size before and after DMN casting. AmB-NE embedded DMN arrays were found to be strong enough, revealed efficient skin insertion, and penetrated down to the fourth layer (depth ≈ 508 μm) of Parafilm M^® (validated skin model). Ex vivo skin deposition experiments in full-thickness neonatal porcine demonstrated that after 24 h, AmB-NE-DMN arrays were able to deposit 111.05 ± 48.4 µg/patch AmB into the skin. At the same time, transdermal porcine skin permeation studies showed significantly higher permeability of AmB (29.60 ± 8.23 μg/patch) from AmB-NE-DMN compared to MN-free AmB-NE patches (5.0 ± 6.15 μg/patch) over 24 h. Antifungal studies of optimized AmB-NE-DMN, AmB-loaded discs and drug-free DMN against Candida albicans, confirmed the synergistic activity of Campul-MCM C-8, used in the nanoemulsion formulation. This study establishes that nanoemulsion based dissolving microneedle may serve as an efficient system for intradermal as well as transdermal drug delivery.

Site-Specific Vesicular Drug Delivery System for Skin Cancer: A Novel Approach for Targeting

Skin cancer, one of the most prevalent cancers worldwide, has demonstrated an alarming increase in prevalence and mortality. Hence, it is a public health issue and a high burden of disease, contributing to the economic burden in its treatment. There are multiple treatment options available for skin cancer, ranging from chemotherapy to surgery. However, these conventional treatment modalities possess several limitations, urging the need for the development of an effective and safe treatment for skin cancer that could provide targeted drug delivery and site-specific tumor penetration and minimize unwanted systemic toxicity. Therefore, it is vital to understand the critical biological barriers involved in skin cancer therapeutics for the optimal development of the formulations. Various nanocarriers for targeted delivery of chemotherapeutic drugs have been developed and extensively studied to overcome the limitations faced by topical conventional dosage forms. A site-specific vesicular drug delivery system appears to be an attractive strategy in topical drug delivery for the treatment of skin malignancies. In this review, vesicular drug delivery systems, including liposomes, niosomes, ethosomes, and transfersomes in developing novel drug delivery for skin cancer therapeutics, are discussed. Firstly, the prevalence statistics, current treatments, and limitations of convention dosage form for skin cancer treatment are discussed. Then, the common type of nanocarriers involved in the research for skin cancer treatment are summarized. Lastly, the utilization of vesicular drug delivery systems in delivering chemotherapeutics is reviewed and discussed, along with their beneficial aspects over other nanocarriers, safety concerns, and clinical aspects against skin cancer treatment.

Transfersomes improved delivery of ascorbic palmitate into the viable epidermis for enhanced treatment of melasma

Ascorbic palmitate (AP) is widely used in the topical pharmaceutical or cosmetic formulations for melasma treatment. However, the presence of the skin barriers makes it difficult for the highly lipophilic drug molecules to traverse the stratum corneum (SC) and diffuse into the viable epidermis (EP) to reach the melanocytes, thereby exerting suboptimal antimelasma effects. Herein, AP was encapsulated into the transfersomes (TFs), yielding AP-TFs. AP-TFs utilized the deformability of TFs to squeeze through the skin pores in the SC under the transepidermal hydration gradient forces, leading to 14.1-fold increase in AP accumulation to the EP. AP-TFs could slowly release the encapsulated AP, while whether the released AP or transfersomal AP showed comparable uptake into the melanocytes, thereby exerting similar inhibitory effects on tyrosinase activity and melanogenesis. Ultimately, in the rat melasma model, AP-TFs showed superior antimelasma efficacy to free AP, with effective relief of oxidative stress and inflammation in the skin. Moreover, AP-TFs did not induce skin irritation. Therefore, the study provides a safe and effective approach to elevating the delivery of highly lipophilic drugs to the EP for enhanced treatment of melasma.

Antimicrobial peptides - Unleashing their therapeutic potential using nanotechnology

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are potent, mostly cationic, and amphiphilic broad-spectrum host defense antimicrobials that are produced by all organisms ranging from prokaryotes to humans. In addition to their antimicrobial actions, they modulate inflammatory and immune responses and promote wound healing. Although they have clear benefits over traditional antibiotic drugs, their wide therapeutic utilization is compromised by concerns of toxicity, stability, and production costs. Recent advances in nanotechnology have attracted increasing interest to unleash the AMPs' immense potential as broad-spectrum antibiotics and anti-biofilm agents, against which the bacteria have less chances to develop resistance. Topical application of AMPs promotes migration of keratinocytes and fibroblasts, and contributes significantly to an accelerated wound healing process. Delivery of AMPs by employing nanotechnological approaches avoids the major disadvantages of AMPs, such as instability and toxicity, and provides a controlled delivery profile together with prolonged activity. In this review, we provide an overview of the key properties of AMPs and discuss the latest developments in topical AMP therapy using nanocarriers. We use chronic hard-to-heal wounds-complicated by infections, inflammation, and stagnated healing-as an example of an unmet medical need for which the AMPs' wide range of therapeutic actions could provide the most potential benefit. The use of innovative materials and sophisticated nanotechnological approaches offering various possibilities are discussed in more depth.

Advanced nanomedicine approaches applied for treatment of skin carcinoma

Skin-cancer is the commonest malignancy affecting huge proportion of the population, reaching heights in terms of morbidity. The treatment strategies are presently focusing on surgery, radiation and chemotherapy, which eventually cause destruction to unaffected cells. To overcome this limitation, wide range of nanoscaled materials have been recognized as potential carriers for delivering selective response to cancerous cells and neoplasms. Nanotechnological approach has been tremendously exploited in several areas, owing to their functional nanometric dimensions. The alarming incidence of skin cancer engenders burdensome effects worldwide, which is further awakening innovational medicinal approaches, accompanying target specific drug delivery tools for coveted benefits to provide reduced toxicity and tackle proliferative episodes of skin cancer. The developed nanosystems for anti-cancer agents include liposomes, ethosomes, nanofibers, solid lipid nanoparticles and metallic nanoparticles, which exhibit pronounced outcomes for skin carcinoma. In this review, skin cancer with its sub-types is explained in nutshell, followed by compendium of specific nanotechnological tools presented, in addition to therapeutic applications of drug-loaded nano systems for skin cancer.

Nanocarriers for Skin Applications: Where Do We Stand?

Skin penetration of active molecules for treatment of diverse diseases is a major field of research owing to the advantages associated with the skin like easy accessibility, reduced systemic‐derived side effects, and increased therapeutic efficacy. Despite these advantages, dermal drug delivery is generally challenging due to the low skin permeability of therapeutics. Although various methods have been developed to improve skin penetration and permeation of therapeutics, they are usually aggressive and could lead to irreversible damage to the stratum corneum. Nanosized carrier systems represent an alternative approach for current technologies, with minimal damage to the natural barrier function of skin. In this Review, the use of nanoparticles to deliver drug molecules, genetic material, and vaccines into the skin is discussed. In addition, nanotoxicology studies and the recent clinical development of nanoparticles are highlighted to shed light on their potential to undergo market translation.