Wt1a, Foxc1a, and the Notch mediator Rbpj physically interact and regulate the formation of podocytes in zebrafish

Emx2 is an essential regulator of ciliated cell development across embryonic tissues

Cilia are hair-like organelles with vital physiological roles, and ciliogenesis defects underlie a range of severe congenital malformations and human diseases. Here, we report that empty spiracles homeobox 2 (emx2) is essential for cilia development across multiple embryonic tissues including the ear, neuromasts and Kupffer's vesicle (KV), which establishes left/right axial pattern. emx2 deficient embryos manifest altered fluid homeostasis and kidney defects including decreased multiciliated cells (MCCs), determining that emx2 is essential to properly establish several renal lineages. Further, emx2 deficiency disrupted renal monociliated cells, MCCs and led to aberrant basal body positioning. We reported that emx2 regulates prostaglandin biosynthesis in ciliogenesis and renal fate changes through key factors including ppargc1a, ptgs1 and PGE2. Our findings reveal essential roles of emx2 in tissue cilia development, and identify emx2 as a critical regulator of prostaglandin biosynthesis during renal development and ciliogenesis, providing insights relevant for future treatments of ciliopathies.

Thyroid, neurodevelopmental, and kidney toxicities of common organic UV filters in embryo-larval zebrafish (Danio rerio), and their potential links

Organic UV filters (OUVFs) have been commonly used in sunscreen and many consumer products. Following dermal application, these compounds can enter circulation and may cause systemic effects in humans. In the present study, we chose four OUVFs frequently detected in the environment, i.e., avobenzone (AVB), benzophenone-3 (BP-3), octocrylene (OC), and octyl methoxycinnamate (OMC), and evaluated their thyroid, neurodevelopmental, and kidney toxicities. For this purpose, zebrafish embryos (<4 h post fertilization, hpf) were exposed to sublethal concentrations of AVB, BP-3, OC, or OMC until 120 hpf. Exposure to all OUVFs decreased thyroid hormone (TH) levels, probably by enhanced metabolism and excretion of THs (ugt1ab and/or sult1 st5) in the larval fish. Exposure to the OUVFs also induced hypoactivities and/or anxiety-like behaviors: Regulatory changes of mbp, gfap, c-fos, syn2a, sty1a, and stxbp1b genes, support the changes in normal neurobehavior of the larval fish. Moreover, the OUVFs exposure caused increased proteinuria in the fish, along with transcriptional changes of wt1, nephrin, podocin, and cdh17 genes, which could explain the observed reduction in kidney functions. Principal component analysis (PCA) implied the potential interplay of THs with neurogenesis, or podocyte differentiation of the larval fish. Toxicological consequences of altered TH homeostasis, neurobehavior, and kidney function at the early life stage warrant further investigations not only in humans but also in aquatic ecosystems.

(Zebra)fishing for nephrogenesis genes

Kidney disease is a devastating condition affecting millions of people worldwide, where over 100,000 patients in the United States alone remain waiting for a lifesaving organ transplant. Concomitant with a surge in personalized medicine, single-gene mutations, and polygenic risk alleles have been brought to the forefront as core causes of a spectrum of renal disorders. With the increasing prevalence of kidney disease, it is imperative to make substantial strides in the field of kidney genetics. Nephrons, the core functional units of the kidney, are epithelial tubules that act as gatekeepers of body homeostasis by absorbing and secreting ions, water, and small molecules to filter the blood. Each nephron contains a series of proximal and distal segments with explicit metabolic functions. The embryonic zebrafish provides an ideal platform to systematically dissect the genetic cues governing kidney development. Here, we review the use of zebrafish to discover nephrogenesis genes.

Zebrafish as a model for podocyte research

Podocytes, specialized postmitotic cells, are central players in various kidney-related diseases. Zebrafish have become a valuable model system for studying podocyte biology because they are genetically easy to manipulate, transparent, and their glomerular structure is similar to that of mammals. This review provides an overview of the knowledge of podocyte biology in zebrafish larvae, with particular focus on their essential contribution to understanding the mechanisms that underlie kidney diseases as well as supporting drug development. In addition, special attention is given to advances in live-imaging techniques allowing the observation of dynamic processes, including podocyte motility, podocyte process behavior, and glomerulus maturation. The review further addresses the functional aspects of podocytes in zebrafish larvae. This includes topics such as glomerular filtration, ultrastructural analyses, and evaluation of podocyte response to nephrotoxic insults. Studies presented in this context have provided important insights into the maintenance and resistance of the glomerular filtration barrier in zebrafish larvae and explored the potential transferability of these findings to mammals such as mice, rats, and most importantly, humans. The recent ability to identify potential therapeutic targets represents a promising new way to identify drugs that could effectively treat podocyte-associated glomerulopathies in humans. In summary, this review gives an overview about the importance of zebrafish as a model for podocyte-related disease and targeted drug development. It also highlights the key role of advanced imaging techniques in transparent zebrafish larvae, improving our understanding of glomerular diseases and the significant potential for translation of these findings to humans.

Kidney injury contributes to edema of zebrafish larvae caused by quantum dots

Edema represents a notable outcome in fishes exposed to aquatic pollutants, yet the underlying etiology remains inadequately understood. This investigation delves into the etiological factors of edema formation in 7 days post fertilization (dpf) zebrafish larvae following their exposure to InP/ZnS quantum dots (QDs), which was chosen as a prototypical edema inducer. Given the fundamental role of the kidney in osmoregulation, we used transgenic zebrafish lines featuring fluorescent protein labeling of the glomerulus, renal tubule, and blood vessels, in conjunction with histopathological scrutiny. We identified the pronounced morphological and structural aberrations within the pronephros. By means of tissue mass spectrometry imaging and hyperspectral microscopy, we discerned the accumulation of InP/ZnS QDs in the pronephros. Moreover, InP/ZnS QDs impeded the renal clearance capacity of the pronephros, as substantiated by diminished uptake of FITC-dextran. InP/ZnS QDs also disturbed the expression levels of marker genes associated with kidney development and osmoregulatory function at the earlier time points, which preceded the onset of edema. These results suggest that impaired fluid clearance most likely resulting from pronephros injury contributes to the emergence of zebrafish edema. Briefly, our study provides a perspective: the kidney developmental injury induced by exogenous substances may regulate edema in a zebrafish model.

Effects of the environment on the evolution of the vertebrate urinary tract

Evolution of the vertebrate urinary system occurs in response to numerous selective pressures, which have been incompletely characterized. Developing research into urinary evolution led to the occurrence of clinical applications and insights in paediatric urology, reproductive medicine, urolithiasis and other domains. Each nephron segment and urinary organ has functions that can be contextualized within an evolutionary framework. For example, the structure and function of the glomerulus and proximal tubule are highly conserved, enabling blood cells and proteins to be retained, and facilitating the elimination of oceanic Ca+ and Mg+. Urea emerged as an osmotic mediator during evolution, as cells of large organisms required increased precision in the internal regulation of salinity and solutes. As the first vertebrates moved from water to land, acid-base regulation was shifted from gills to skin and kidneys in amphibians. In reptiles and birds, solute regulation no longer occurred through the skin but through nasal salt glands and post-renally, within the cloaca and the rectum. In placental mammals, nasal salt glands are absent and the rectum and urinary tracts became separate, which limited post-renal urine concentration and led to the necessity of a kidney capable of high urine concentration. Considering the evolutionary and environmental selective pressures that have contributed to renal evolution can help to gain an increased understanding of renal physiology.

Principles of Zebrafish Nephron Segment Development

Nephrons are the functional units which comprise the kidney. Each nephron contains a number of physiologically unique populations of specialized epithelial cells that are organized into discrete domains known as segments. The principles of nephron segment development have been the subject of many studies in recent years. Understanding the mechanisms of nephrogenesis has enormous potential to expand our knowledge about the basis of congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract (CAKUT), and to contribute to ongoing regenerative medicine efforts aimed at identifying renal repair mechanisms and generating replacement kidney tissue. The study of the zebrafish embryonic kidney, or pronephros, provides many opportunities to identify the genes and signaling pathways that control nephron segment development. Here, we describe recent advances of nephron segment patterning and differentiation in the zebrafish, with a focus on distal segment formation.

Modeling Podocyte Ontogeny and Podocytopathies with the Zebrafish

Podocytes are exquisitely fashioned kidney cells that serve an essential role in the process of blood filtration. Congenital malformation or damage to podocytes has dire consequences and initiates a cascade of pathological changes leading to renal disease states known as podocytopathies. In addition, animal models have been integral to discovering the molecular pathways that direct the development of podocytes. In this review, we explore how researchers have used the zebrafish to illuminate new insights about the processes of podocyte ontogeny, model podocytopathies, and create opportunities to discover future therapies.

Visualizing multiciliated cells in the zebrafish

Ciliated cells serve vital functions in the body ranging from mechano- and chemo-sensing to fluid propulsion. Specialized cells with bundles dozens to hundreds of motile cilia known as multiciliated cells (MCCs) are essential as well, where they direct fluid movement in locations such as the respiratory, central nervous and reproductive systems. Intriguingly, the appearance of MCCs has been noted in the kidney in several disease conditions, but knowledge about their contributions to the pathobiology of these states has remained a mystery. As the mechanisms contributing to ciliopathic diseases are not yet fully understood, animal models serve as valuable tools for studying cilia development and how alterations in ciliated cell function impacts disease progression. Like other vertebrates, the zebrafish, Danio rerio, has numerous ciliated tissues. Among these, the embryonic kidney (or pronephros) is comprised of both monociliated cells and MCCs and therefore provides a setting to investigate both ciliated cell fate choice and ciliogenesis. Considering the zebrafish nephron resembles the segmentation and function of human nephrons, the zebrafish provide a tractable model for studying conserved ciliogenesis pathways in vivo. In this chapter, we provide an overview of ciliated cells with a special focus on MCCs, and present a suite of methods that can be used to visualize ciliated cells and their features in the developing zebrafish. Further, these methods enable precise quantification of ciliated cell number and various cilia-related characteristics.

osr1 Maintains Renal Progenitors and Regulates Podocyte Development by Promoting wnt2ba via the Antagonism of hand2

Knowledge about the genetic pathways that control nephron development is essential for better understanding the basis of congenital malformations of the kidney. The transcription factors Osr1 and Hand2 are known to exert antagonistic influences to balance kidney specification. Here, we performed a forward genetic screen to identify nephrogenesis regulators, where whole genome sequencing identified an osr1 lesion in the novel oceanside (ocn) mutant. The characterization of the mutant revealed that osr1 is needed to specify not renal progenitors but rather their maintenance. Additionally, osr1 promotes the expression of wnt2ba in the intermediate mesoderm (IM) and later the podocyte lineage. wnt2ba deficiency reduced podocytes, where overexpression of wnt2ba was sufficient to rescue podocytes and osr1 deficiency. Antagonism between osr1 and hand2 mediates podocyte development specifically by controlling wnt2ba expression. These studies reveal new insights about the roles of Osr1 in promoting renal progenitor survival and lineage choice.

A zebrafish model of congenital nephrotic syndrome of the Finnish type

Nephrotic syndrome (NS) is a disease characterized by proteinuria and subsequent hypoalbuminemia, hyperlipidemia and edema due to the defective renal glomerular filtration barrier (GFB). Mutations of NPHS1, encoding NEPHRIN, a podocyte protein essential for normal GFB, cause congenital nephrotic syndrome (CNS) of the Finnish type (CNF), which accounts for about 50% of CNS cases. We generated zebrafish nphs1 mutants by using CRISPR/Cas9. These mutants completely lack nephrin proteins in podocytes and develop progressive peri-orbital and whole-body edema after 5 days post fertilization. Ultra-structurally, loss of nephrin results in absence of slit-diaphragms and progressive foot process effacement in zebrafish pronephric glomeruli, similar to the pathological changes in human CNF patients. Interestingly, some nphs1 mutants are viable to adulthood despite ultra-structural defects in renal glomeruli. Using a reporter line Tg (l-fabp:VDBP-GFP) expressing GFP-tagged vitamin-D-binding protein in the blood plasma, we observed a reduction of intravascular GFP fluorescence in the nphs1 mutants, a hypoalbuminemia-like phenotype. In addition, we detected excretion of GFP by the nphs1 mutants, reminiscent of proteinuria. Therefore, we have demonstrated that the nphs1 mutant zebrafish recapitulate the human NS phenotypes and provide a novel and relevant animal model useful for screening therapeutical agents for this disease.

Endothelial versus pronephron fate decision is modulated by the transcription factors Cloche/Npas4l, Tal1, and Lmo2

Endothelial specification is a key event during embryogenesis; however, when, and how, endothelial cells separate from other lineages is poorly understood. In zebrafish, Npas4l is indispensable for endothelial specification by inducing the expression of the transcription factor genes etsrp, tal1, and lmo2. We generated a knock-in reporter in zebrafish npas4l to visualize endothelial progenitors and their derivatives in wild-type and mutant embryos. Unexpectedly, we find that in npas4l mutants, npas4l reporter-expressing cells contribute to the pronephron tubules. Single-cell transcriptomics and live imaging of the early lateral plate mesoderm in wild-type embryos indeed reveals coexpression of endothelial and pronephron markers, a finding confirmed by creERT2-based lineage tracing. Increased contribution of npas4l reporter-expressing cells to pronephron tubules is also observed in tal1 and lmo2 mutants and is reversed in npas4l mutants injected with tal1 mRNA. Together, these data reveal that Npas4l/Tal1/Lmo2 regulate the fate decision between the endothelial and pronephron lineages.

Super-Enhancer-Associated Transcription Factors Maintain Transcriptional Regulation in Mature Podocytes

BACKGROUND

Transcriptional programs control cell fate, and identifying their components is critical for understanding diseases caused by cell lesion, such as podocytopathy. Although many transcription factors (TFs) are necessary for cell-state maintenance in glomeruli, their roles in transcriptional regulation are not well understood.

METHODS

The distribution of H3K27ac histones in human glomerulus cells was analyzed to identify superenhancer-associated TFs, and ChIP-seq and transcriptomics were performed to elucidate the regulatory roles of the TFs. Transgenic animal models of disease were further investigated to confirm the roles of specific TFs in podocyte maintenance.

RESULTS

Superenhancer distribution revealed a group of potential TFs in core regulatory circuits in human glomerulus cells, including FOXC1/2, WT1, and LMX1B. Integration of transcriptome and cistrome data of FOXC1/2 in mice resolved transcriptional regulation in podocyte maintenance. FOXC1/2 regulated differentiation-associated transcription in mature podocytes. In both humans and animal models, mature podocyte injury was accompanied by deregulation of FOXC1/2 expression, and FOXC1/2 overexpression could protect podocytes in zebrafish.

CONCLUSIONS

FOXC1/2 maintain podocyte differentiation through transcriptional stabilization. The genome-wide chromatin resources support further investigation of TFs' regulatory roles in glomeruli transcription programs.

Mutations in PRDM15 Are a Novel Cause of Galloway-Mowat Syndrome

BACKGROUND

Galloway-Mowat syndrome (GAMOS) is characterized by neurodevelopmental defects and a progressive nephropathy, which typically manifests as steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome. The prognosis of GAMOS is poor, and the majority of children progress to renal failure. The discovery of monogenic causes of GAMOS has uncovered molecular pathways involved in the pathogenesis of disease.

METHODS

Homozygosity mapping, whole-exome sequencing, and linkage analysis were used to identify mutations in four families with a GAMOS-like phenotype, and high-throughput PCR technology was applied to 91 individuals with GAMOS and 816 individuals with isolated nephrotic syndrome. In vitro and in vivo studies determined the functional significance of the mutations identified.

RESULTS

Three biallelic variants of the transcriptional regulator PRDM15 were detected in six families with proteinuric kidney disease. Four families with a variant in the protein's zinc-finger (ZNF) domain have additional GAMOS-like features, including brain anomalies, cardiac defects, and skeletal defects. All variants destabilize the PRDM15 protein, and the ZNF variant additionally interferes with transcriptional activation. Morpholino oligonucleotide-mediated knockdown of Prdm15 in Xenopus embryos disrupted pronephric development. Human wild-type PRDM15 RNA rescued the disruption, but the three PRDM15 variants did not. Finally, CRISPR-mediated knockout of PRDM15 in human podocytes led to dysregulation of several renal developmental genes.

CONCLUSIONS

Variants in PRDM15 can cause either isolated nephrotic syndrome or a GAMOS-type syndrome on an allelic basis. PRDM15 regulates multiple developmental kidney genes, and is likely to play an essential role in renal development in humans.

Ppargc1a Controls Ciliated Cell Development by Regulating Prostaglandin Biosynthesis

Cilia are microtubule-based organelles that function in a multitude of physiological contexts to perform chemosensing, mechanosensing, and fluid propulsion. The process of ciliogenesis is highly regulated, and disruptions result in disease states termed ciliopathies. Here, we report that peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma, coactivator 1 alpha (ppargc1a) is essential for ciliogenesis in nodal, mono-, and multiciliated cells (MCCs) and for discernment of renal tubule ciliated cell fate during embryogenesis. ppargc1a performs these functions by affecting prostaglandin signaling, whereby cilia formation and renal MCC fate are restored with prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) treatment in ppargc1a-deficient animals. Genetic disruption of ppargc1a specifically reduces expression of the prostanoid biosynthesis gene prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase 1 (ptgs1), and suboptimal knockdown of both genes shows this synergistic effect. Furthermore, ptgs1 overexpression rescues ciliogenesis and renal MCCs in ppargc1a-deficient embryos. These findings position Ppargc1a as a key genetic regulator of prostaglandin signaling during ciliated cell ontogeny.

The WT1-like transcription factor Klumpfuss maintains lineage commitment of enterocyte progenitors in the Drosophila intestine

In adult epithelial stem cell lineages, the precise differentiation of daughter cells is critical to maintain tissue homeostasis. Notch signaling controls the choice between absorptive and entero-endocrine cell differentiation in both the mammalian small intestine and the Drosophila midgut, yet how Notch promotes lineage restriction remains unclear. Here, we describe a role for the transcription factor Klumpfuss (Klu) in restricting the fate of enteroblasts (EBs) in the Drosophila intestine. Klu is induced in Notch-positive EBs and its activity restricts cell fate towards the enterocyte (EC) lineage. Transcriptomics and DamID profiling show that Klu suppresses enteroendocrine (EE) fate by repressing the action of the proneural gene Scute, which is essential for EE differentiation. Loss of Klu results in differentiation of EBs into EE cells. Our findings provide mechanistic insight into how lineage commitment in progenitor cell differentiation can be ensured downstream of initial specification cues.

Notch signaling mediates intestinal enteroblast specification in Drosophila but the molecular mechanism as to how this is regulated is unclear. Here, the authors show that the transcription factor Klumpfuss ensures enteroblast commitment through repression of enteroendocrine cell fate downstream of Notch.

Visualizing gene expression during zebrafish pronephros development and regeneration

The vertebrate kidney is comprised of functional units known as nephrons. Defects in nephron development or activity are a common feature of kidney disease. Current medical treatments are unable to ameliorate the dire consequences of nephron deficit or injury. Although there have been tremendous advancements in our understanding of nephron ontogeny and the response to damage, many significant knowledge gaps still remain. The zebrafish embryo kidney, or pronephros, is an ideal model for many renal development and regeneration studies because it is comprised of nephrons that share conserved features with the nephron units that comprise the mammalian metanephric kidney. In this chapter, we provide an overview about the benefits of using the zebrafish pronephros to study the mechanisms underlying nephrogenesis as well as epithelial repair and regeneration. We subsequently detail methods for the spatiotemporal assessment of gene and protein expression in zebrafish embryos that can be used to extend the understanding of nephron development and disease, and thereby create new opportunities to identify therapeutic strategies for regenerative medicine.

ppargc1a controls nephron segmentation during zebrafish embryonic kidney ontogeny

Nephron segmentation involves a concert of genetic and molecular signals that are not fully understood. Through a chemical screen, we discovered that alteration of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) signaling disrupts nephron segmentation in the zebrafish embryonic kidney (Poureetezadi et al., 2016). Here, we show that the PPAR co-activator ppargc1a directs renal progenitor fate. ppargc1a mutants form a small distal late (DL) segment and an expanded proximal straight tubule (PST) segment. ppargc1a promotes DL fate by regulating the transcription factor tbx2b, and restricts expression of the transcription factor sim1a to inhibit PST fate. Interestingly, sim1a restricts ppargc1a expression to promote the PST, and PST development is fully restored in ppargc1a/sim1a-deficient embryos, suggesting Ppargc1a and Sim1a counterbalance each other in an antagonistic fashion to delineate the PST segment boundary during nephrogenesis. Taken together, our data reveal new roles for Ppargc1a during development, which have implications for understanding renal birth defects.

Genetic Renal Diseases: The Emerging Role of Zebrafish Models

The structural and functional similarity of the larval zebrafish pronephros to the human nephron, together with the recent development of easier and more precise techniques to manipulate the zebrafish genome have motivated many researchers to model human renal diseases in the zebrafish. Over the last few years, great advances have been made, not only in the modeling techniques of genetic diseases in the zebrafish, but also in how to validate and exploit these models, crossing the bridge towards more informative explanations of disease pathophysiology and better designed therapeutic interventions in a cost-effective in vivo system. Here, we review the significant progress in these areas giving special attention to the renal phenotype evaluation techniques. We further discuss the future applications of such models, particularly their role in revealing new genetic diseases of the kidney and their potential use in personalized medicine.

Activation of podocyte Notch mediates early Wt1 glomerulopathy

The Wilms' tumor suppressor gene, WT1, encodes a zinc finger protein that regulates podocyte development and is highly expressed in mature podocytes. Mutations in the WT1 gene are associated with the development of renal failure due to the formation of scar tissue within glomeruli, the mechanisms of which are poorly understood. Here, we used a tamoxifen-based CRE-LoxP system to induce deletion of Wt1 in adult mice to investigate the mechanisms underlying evolution of glomerulosclerosis. Podocyte apoptosis was evident as early as the fourth day post-induction and increased during disease progression, supporting a role for Wt1 in mature podocyte survival. Podocyte Notch activation was evident at disease onset with upregulation of Notch1 and its transcriptional targets, including Nrarp. There was repression of podocyte FoxC2 and upregulation of Hey2 supporting a role for a Wt1/FoxC2/Notch transcriptional network in mature podocyte injury. The expression of cleaved Notch1 and HES1 proteins in podocytes of mutant mice was confirmed in early disease. Furthermore, induction of podocyte HES1 expression was associated with upregulation of genes implicated in epithelial mesenchymal transition, thereby suggesting that HES1 mediates podocyte EMT. Lastly, early pharmacological inhibition of Notch signaling ameliorated glomerular scarring and albuminuria. Thus, loss of Wt1 in mature podocytes modulates podocyte Notch activation, which could mediate early events in WT1-related glomerulosclerosis.

Identification of suh gene and evidence for involvement of notch signaling pathway on gonadal differentiation of Yellow River carp (Cyprinus carpio)

The suh gene is crucial in Notch pathway and regulates mammalian gonad development. In this study, the sequences of suh1 and suh2 genes in Yellow River carp (Cyprinus carpio) were verified. The partial 5'-flanking regions of suh1 and suh2 were analyzed and several potential transcription factor-binding sites were identified. Phylogenetic, gene structure, and chromosome synteny analyses revealed that carp suh1 and suh2 were orthologs and homologous to vertebrate suh. Investigation of the expression profiles of suh1 and suh2 with qPCR showed that these genes were abundant in the brain and gonad of carp, with suh1 exhibiting sexual dimorphism expression pattern in gonad. To study the relationship between gonad differentiation and Notch signaling, primordial gonads were exposed to DAPT, an inhibitor of Notch signaling, in vitro and in vivo. The results revealed a significant downregulation of suh1 and other Notch genes in vitro. In addition, expression of male-biased genes, such as amh, dmrt1, etc., was downregulated, whereas that of female-biased genes, such as foxl2, gdf9, etc., was upregulated. When the primordial gonads were subjected to long-term DAPT exposure, an increased proportion of ovary and delay in testis development were observed. These results suggest that suh gene may have a conservative function between teleosts and mammals. Furthermore, Notch signaling was found to be involved in gonad differentiation in Yellow River carp, and DAPT was noted to inhibit and enhance the expression of male- and female-biased genes, respectively, and induce the increase in number of females.

Function and Regulation of the Wilms' Tumor Suppressor 1 (WT1) Gene in Fish

The Wilms' tumor suppressor gene Wt1 is highly conserved among vertebrates. In contrast to mammals, most fish species possess two wt1 paralogs that have been named wt1a and wt1b. Concerning wt1 in fish, most work so far has been done using zebrafish, focusing on the embryonic kidney, the pronephros. In this chapter we will describe the structure and development of the pronephros as well as the role that the wt1 genes play in the embryonic zebrafish kidney. We also discuss Wt1 target genes and describe the potential function of the Wt1 proteins in the adult kidney. Finally we will summarize data on the role of Wt1 outside of the kidney.

Scaling up to study brca2: the zeppelin zebrafish mutant reveals a role for brca2 in embryonic development of kidney mesoderm

Specialized renal epithelial cells known as podocytes are essential components of the filtering structures within the kidney that coordinate the process of removing waste from the bloodstream. Podocyte loss initiates many human kidney diseases as it triggers subsequent damage to the kidney, leading to progressive loss of function that culminates with end stage renal failure. Podocyte morphology, function and gene expression profiles are well conserved between zebrafish and humans, making the former a relevant model to study podocyte development and model kidney diseases. Recently, we reported that whole genome sequencing of the zeppelin (zep) zebrafish mutant, which exhibits podocyte abrogation, revealed that the causative lesion for this defect was a splicing mutation in the breast cancer 2, early onset (brca2) gene. This was a surprising and novel discovery, as previous research on brca2/BRCA2 in a number of vertebrate animal models had not implicated an explicit role for this gene in kidney mesoderm development. Interestingly, the abrogation of the podocyte lineage in zep mutants was also accompanied by the formation of a larger interrenal (IR) gland, which is analogous to the adrenal gland in mammals, and suggested a fate switch between the renal and inter renal mesodermal derivatives. Mirroring these findings, knockdown of brca2 also recapitulated the loss of podocytes and increased IR population. In addition, brca2 overexpression was sufficient to partially rescue podocytes in zep mutants, and induced ectopic podocyte formation in wild-type embryos. Interestingly, immunofluorescence studies indicated that zep mutants had elevated P-h2A.X levels, suggesting that DNA repair is dysfunctional in these animals and contributes to the zep phenotype. Moving forward, this unique zebrafish mutant provides a new model to further explore how brca2 contributes to the development of tissues including the kidney mesoderm-roles which may have implications for renal diseases as well.

Aberrant Global and Jagged-Mediated Notch Signaling Disrupts Segregation Between wt1-Expressing and Steroidogenic Tissues in Zebrafish

Although the zebrafish interrenal tissue has been used as a model for steroidogenesis and genesis of the adrenal gland, its specification and morphogenesis remains largely unclear. In the present study, we explored how the Wilms tumor 1 (WT1)-expressing cells are segregated from the SF-1-expressing steroidogenic cells in the zebrafish model. The interrenal tissue precursors expressing ff1b, the equivalent of mammalian SF-1, were derived from wt1-expressing pronephric primordia in the zebrafish embryo. Through histochemistry and in situ hybridization, we demonstrated that the size of functionally differentiated interrenal tissue was substantially increased on global inhibition of the Notch signaling pathway and was accompanied by a disrupted segregation between the wt1- and ff1b-expressing cells. As the Notch pathway was conditionally activated during interrenal specification, differentiation, but not ff1b expression, of interrenal tissue was drastically compromised. In embryos deficient for Notch ligands jagged 1b and 2b, transgenic reporter activity of wt1b promoter was detected within the steroidogenic interrenal tissue. In conclusion, our results indicate that Jagged-Notch signaling is required (1) for segregation between wt1-expressing cells and differentiated steroidogenic tissue; and (2) to modulate the extent of functional differentiation in the steroidogenic interrenal tissue.

The zebrafish kidney mutant zeppelin reveals that brca2/fancd1 is essential for pronephros development

The zebrafish kidney is conserved with other vertebrates, making it an excellent genetic model to study renal development. The kidney collects metabolic waste using a blood filter with specialized epithelial cells known as podocytes. Podocyte formation is poorly understood but relevant to many kidney diseases, as podocyte injury leads to progressive scarring and organ failure. zeppelin (zep) was isolated in a forward screen for kidney mutants and identified as a homozygous recessive lethal allele that causes reduced podocyte numbers, deficient filtration, and fluid imbalance. Interestingly, zep mutants had a larger interrenal gland, the teleostean counterpart of the mammalian adrenal gland, which suggested a fate switch with the related podocyte lineage since cell proliferation and cell death were unchanged within the shared progenitor field from which these two identities arise. Cloning of zep by whole genome sequencing (WGS) identified a splicing mutation in breast cancer 2, early onset (brca2)/fancd1, which was confirmed by sequencing of individual fish. Several independent brca2 morpholinos (MOs) phenocopied zep, causing edema, reduced podocyte number, and increased interrenal cell number. Complementation analysis between zep and brca2^ZM_00057434 -/- zebrafish, which have an insertional mutation, revealed that the interrenal lineage was expanded. Importantly, overexpression of brca2 rescued podocyte formation in zep mutants, providing critical evidence that the brca2 lesion encoded by zep specifically disrupts the balance of nephrogenesis. Taken together, these data suggest for the first time that brca2/fancd1 is essential for vertebrate kidney ontogeny. Thus, our findings impart novel insights into the genetic components that impact renal development, and because BRCA2/FANCD1 mutations in humans cause Fanconi anemia and several common cancers, this work has identified a new zebrafish model to further study brca2/fancd1 in disease.

Pronephric tubule formation in zebrafish: morphogenesis and migration

The nephron is the functional subunit of the vertebrate kidney and plays important osmoregulatory and excretory roles during embryonic development and in adulthood. Despite its central role in kidney function, surprisingly little is known about the molecular and cellular processes that control nephrogenesis. The zebrafish pronephric kidney, comprising two nephrons, provides a visually accessible and genetically tractable model system for a better understanding of nephron formation. Using this system, various developmental processes, including the commitment of mesoderm to a kidney fate, renal tubule proliferation, and migration, can be studied during nephrogenesis. Here, we discuss some of these processes in zebrafish with a focus on the pathways that influence renal tubule cell morphogenesis.

The tbx2a/b transcription factors direct pronephros segmentation and corpuscle of Stannius formation in zebrafish

The simplified and genetically conserved zebrafish pronephros is an excellent model to examine the cryptic processes of cell fate decisions during the development of nephron segments as well as the origins of associated endocrine cells that comprise the corpuscles of Stannius (CS). Using whole mount in situ hybridization, we found that transcripts of the zebrafish genes t-box 2a (tbx2a) and t-box 2b (tbx2b), which belong to the T-box family of transcription factors, were expressed in the caudal intermediate mesoderm progenitors that give rise to the distal pronephros and CS. Deficiency of tbx2a, tbx2b or both tbx2a/b reduced the size of the distal late (DL) segment, which was accompanied by a proximal convoluted segment (PCT) expansion. Further, tbx2a/b deficiency led to significantly larger CS clusters. These phenotypes were also observed in embryos with the from beyond (fby)c144 mutation, which encodes a premature stop codon in the tbx2b T-box sequence. Conversely, overexpression of tbx2a and tbx2b in wild-type embryos expanded the DL segment where cells were comingled with the adjacent DE, and also decreased CS cell number, but notably did not alter PCT development-providing independent evidence that tbx2a and tbx2b are each necessary and sufficient to promote DL fate and suppress CS genesis. Epistasis studies indicated that tbx2a acts upstream of tbx2b to regulate the DL and CS fates, and likely has other targets as well. Retinoic acid (RA) addition and inhibition studies revealed that tbx2a and tbx2b are negatively regulated by RA signaling. Interestingly, the CS cell expansion that typifies tbx2a/b deficiency also occurred when blocking Notch signaling with the chemical DAPT (N-[N-(3,5-difluorophenacetyl)-L-alanyl]-S-phenylglycine t-butyl ester). Ectopic activation of Notch in Tg(hsp70::Gal4; UAS::NICD)(NICD) embryos led to a reduced CS post heat-shock induction. To further examine the link between the tbx2a/b genes and Notch during CS formation, DAPT treatment was used to block Notch activity in tbx2a/b deficient embryos, and tbx2a/b knockdown was performed in NICD transgenic embryos. Both manipulations caused similar CS expansions, indicating that Notch functions upstream of the tbx2a/b genes to suppress CS ontogeny. Taken together, these data reveal for the first time that tbx2a/b mitigate pronephros segmentation downstream of RA, and that interplay between Notch signaling and tbx2a/b regulate CS formation, thus providing several novel insights into the genetic regulatory networks that influence these lineages.

Zebrafish Pronephros Development

The pronephros is the first kidney type to form in vertebrate embryos. The first step of pronephrogenesis in the zebrafish is the formation of the intermediate mesoderm during gastrulation, which occurs in response to secreted morphogens such as BMPs and Nodals. Patterning of the intermediate mesoderm into proximal and distal cell fates is induced by retinoic acid signaling with downstream transcription factors including wt1a, pax2a, pax8, hnf1b, sim1a, mecom, and irx3b. In the anterior intermediate mesoderm, progenitors of the glomerular blood filter migrate and fuse at the midline and recruit a blood supply. More posteriorly localized tubule progenitors undergo epithelialization and fuse with the cloaca. The Notch signaling pathway regulates the formation of multi-ciliated cells in the tubules and these cells help propel the filtrate to the cloaca. The lumenal sheer stress caused by flow down the tubule activates anterior collective migration of the proximal tubules and induces stretching and proliferation of the more distal segments. Ultimately these processes create a simple two-nephron kidney that is capable of reabsorbing and secreting solutes and expelling excess water-processes that are critical to the homeostasis of the body fluids. The zebrafish pronephric kidney provides a simple, yet powerful, model system to better understand the conserved molecular and cellular progresses that drive nephron formation, structure, and function.

Hand2 inhibits kidney specification while promoting vein formation within the posterior mesoderm

Proper organogenesis depends upon defining the precise dimensions of organ progenitor territories. Kidney progenitors originate within the intermediate mesoderm (IM), but the pathways that set the boundaries of the IM are poorly understood. Here, we show that the bHLH transcription factor Hand2 limits the size of the embryonic kidney by restricting IM dimensions. The IM is expanded in zebrafish hand2 mutants and is diminished when hand2 is overexpressed. Within the posterior mesoderm, hand2 is expressed laterally adjacent to the IM. Venous progenitors arise between these two territories, and hand2 promotes venous development while inhibiting IM formation at this interface. Furthermore, hand2 and the co-expressed zinc-finger transcription factor osr1 have functionally antagonistic influences on kidney development. Together, our data suggest that hand2 functions in opposition to osr1 to balance the formation of kidney and vein progenitors by regulating cell fate decisions at the lateral boundary of the IM.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.19941.001

The human body is made up of many different types of cells, yet they are all descended from one single fertilized egg cell. The process by which cells specialize into different types is complex and has many stages. At each step of the process, the selection of cell types that a cell can eventually become is increasingly restricted. The entire system is controlled by switching different genes on and off in different groups of cells. Balancing the activity of these genes ensures that enough cells of each type are made in order to build a complete and healthy body. Upsetting this balance can result in organs that are too large, too small or even missing altogether.

The cells that form the kidneys and bladder originate within a tissue called the intermediate mesoderm. Controlling the size of this tissue is an important part of building working kidneys. Perens et al. studied how genes control the size of the intermediate mesoderm of zebrafish embryos, which is very similar to the intermediate mesoderm of humans. The experiments revealed that a gene called hand2, which is switched on in cells next to the intermediate mesoderm, restricts the size of this tissue in order to determine the proper size of the kidney. Switching off the hand2 gene resulted in zebrafish with abnormally large kidneys. Loss of hand2 also led to the loss of a different type of cell that forms veins. These findings suggest that cells with an active hand2 gene are unable to become intermediate mesoderm cells and instead go on to become part of the veins.

These experiments also demonstrated that a gene called osr1 works in opposition to hand2 to determine the right number of cells that are needed to build the kidneys. Further work will reveal how hand2 prevents cells from joining the intermediate mesoderm and how its role is balanced by the activity of osr1. Understanding how the kidneys form could eventually help to diagnose or treat several genetic diseases and may make it possible to grow replacement kidneys from unspecialized cells.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.19941.002

The endoderm indirectly influences morphogenetic movements of the zebrafish head kidney through the posterior cardinal vein and VegfC

Integration of blood vessels and organ primordia determines organ shape and function. The head kidney in the zebrafish interacts with the dorsal aorta (DA) and the posterior cardinal vein (PCV) to achieve glomerular filtration and definitive hematopoiesis, respectively. How the head kidney co-develops with both the axial artery and vein remains unclear. We found that in endodermless sox32-deficient embryos, the head kidney associated with the PCV but not the DA. Disrupted convergent migration of the PCV and the head kidney in sox32-deficient embryos was rescued in a highly coordinated fashion through the restoration of endodermal cells. Moreover, grafted endodermal cells abutted the host PCV endothelium in the transplantation assay. Interestingly, the severely-disrupted head kidney convergence in the sox32-deficient embryo was suppressed by both the cloche mutation and the knockdown of endothelial genes, indicating that an interaction between the endoderm and the PCV restricts the migration of the head kidney. Furthermore, knockdown of either vegfC or its receptor vegfr3 suppressed the head kidney convergence defect in endodermless embryos and perturbed the head kidney-PCV association in wild-type embryos. Our findings thus underscore a role for PCV and VegfC in patterning the head kidney prior to organ assembly and function.

Generation of functional podocytes from human induced pluripotent stem cells

Generating human podocytes in vitro could offer a unique opportunity to study human diseases. Here, we describe a simple and efficient protocol for obtaining functional podocytes in vitro from human induced pluripotent stem cells. Cells were exposed to a three-step protocol, which induced their differentiation into intermediate mesoderm, then into nephron progenitors and, finally, into mature podocytes. After differentiation, cells expressed the main podocyte markers, such as synaptopodin, WT1, α-Actinin-4, P-cadherin and nephrin at the protein and mRNA level, and showed the low proliferation rate typical of mature podocytes. Exposure to Angiotensin II significantly decreased the expression of podocyte genes and cells underwent cytoskeleton rearrangement. Cells were able to internalize albumin and self-assembled into chimeric 3D structures in combination with dissociated embryonic mouse kidney cells. Overall, these findings demonstrate the establishment of a robust protocol that, mimicking developmental stages, makes it possible to derive functional podocytes in vitro.

•

Human iPSC differentiation into podocytes recapitulates kidney developmental stages.

•

The differentiation protocol is reproducible and highly efficient.

•

The generated podocytes reflect primary cell behaviour and are functional.

Zebrafish kidney development

The kidney of the zebrafish shares many features with other vertebrate kidneys including the human kidney. Similar cell types and shared developmental and patterning mechanisms make the zebrafish pronephros a valuable model for kidney organogenesis. Here we review recent advances in studies of zebrafish pronephric development and provide experimental protocols to analyze kidney cell types and structures, measure nephron function, live image kidney cells in vivo, and probe mechanisms of kidney regeneration after injury.

Little fish, big catch: zebrafish as a model for kidney disease

The zebrafish, Danio rerio, is a relevant vertebrate model for biomedical research and translational studies because of its broad genetic conservation with humans. In recent years, scientists have formulated a growing list of zebrafish kidney disease paradigms, the study of which has contributed a multitude of insights into the basic biology of human conditions and even identified potential therapeutic agents. Conversely, there are also distinctive aspects of zebrafish biology lacking in higher vertebrates, such as the capacity to heal without lasting scar formation after tissue damage and the ability to generate nephrons throughout their lifespan, which makes the zebrafish uniquely suited to study regeneration in the context of the kidney. Here, we review several informative zebrafish models of kidney disease and discuss their future applications in nephrology.

Analysis of Zebrafish Kidney Development with Time-lapse Imaging Using a Dissecting Microscope Equipped for Optical Sectioning

In order to understand organogenesis, the spatial and temporal alterations that occur during development of tissues need to be recorded. The method described here allows time-lapse analysis of normal and impaired kidney development in zebrafish embryos by using a fluorescence dissecting microscope equipped for structured illumination and z-stack acquisition. To visualize nephrogenesis, transgenic zebrafish (Tg(wt1b:GFP)) with fluorescently labeled kidney structures were used. Renal defects were triggered by injection of an antisense morpholino oligonucleotide against the Wilms tumor gene wt1a, a factor known to be crucial for kidney development.

The advantage of the experimental setup is the combination of a zoom microscope with simple strategies for re-adjusting movements in x, y or z direction without additional equipment. To circumvent focal drift that is induced by temperature variations and mechanical vibrations, an autofocus strategy was applied instead of utilizing a usually required environmental chamber. In order to re-adjust the positional changes due to a xy-drift, imaging chambers with imprinted relocation grids were employed.

In comparison to more complex setups for time-lapse recording with optical sectioning such as confocal laser scanning or light sheet microscopes, a zoom microscope is easy to handle. Besides, it offers dissecting microscope-specific benefits such as high depth of field and an extended working distance.

The method to study organogenesis presented here can also be used with fluorescence stereo microscopes not capable of optical sectioning. Although limited for high-throughput, this technique offers an alternative to more complex equipment that is normally used for time-lapse recording of developing tissues and organ dynamics.

Insights into kidney stem cell development and regeneration using zebrafish

Kidney disease is an escalating global health problem, for which the formulation of therapeutic approaches using stem cells has received increasing research attention. The complexity of kidney anatomy and function, which includes the diversity of renal cell types, poses formidable challenges in the identification of methods to generate replacement structures. Recent work using the zebrafish has revealed their high capacity to regenerate the integral working units of the kidney, known as nephrons, following acute injury. Here, we discuss these findings and explore the ways that zebrafish can be further utilized to gain a deeper molecular appreciation of renal stem cell biology, which may uncover important clues for regenerative medicine.

Epithelial cell fate in the nephron tubule is mediated by the ETS transcription factors etv5a and etv4 during zebrafish kidney development

Kidney development requires the differentiation and organization of discrete nephron epithelial lineages, yet the genetic and molecular pathways involved in these events remain poorly understood. The embryonic zebrafish kidney, or pronephros, provides a simple and useful model to study nephrogenesis. The pronephros is primarily comprised of two types of epithelial cells: transportive and multiciliated cells (MCCs). Transportive cells occupy distinct tubule segments and are characterized by the expression of various solute transporters, while MCCs function in fluid propulsion and are dispersed in a "salt-and-pepper" fashion within the tubule. Epithelial cell identity is reliant on interplay between the Notch signaling pathway and retinoic acid (RA) signaling, where RA promotes MCC fate by inhibiting Notch activity in renal progenitors, while Notch acts downstream to trigger transportive cell formation and block adoption of an MCC identity. Previous research has shown that the transcription factor ets variant 5a (etv5a), and its closely related ETS family members, are required for ciliogenesis in other zebrafish tissues. Here, we mapped etv5a expression to renal progenitors that occupy domains where MCCs later emerge. Thus, we hypothesized that etv5a is required for normal development of MCCs in the nephron. etv5a loss of function caused a decline of MCC number as indicated by the reduced frequency of cells that expressed the MCC-specific markers outer dense fiber of sperm tails 3b (odf3b) and centrin 4 (cetn4), where rescue experiments partially restored MCC incidence. Interestingly, deficiency of ets variant 4 (etv4), a related gene that is broadly expressed in the posterior mesoderm during somitogenesis stages, also led to reduced MCC numbers, which were further reduced by dual etv5a/4 deficiency, suggesting that both of these ETS factors are essential for MCC formation and that they also might have redundant activities. In epistatic studies, exogenous RA treatment expanded the etv5a domain within the renal progenitor field and RA inhibition blocked etv5a in this populace, indicating that etv5a acts downstream of RA. Additionally, treatment with exogenous RA partially rescued the reduced MCC phenotype after loss of etv5a. Further, abrogation of Notch with the small molecule inhibitor DAPT increased the renal progenitor etv5a expression domain as well as MCC density in etv5a deficient embryos, suggesting Notch acts upstream to inhibit etv5a. In contrast, etv4 levels in renal progenitors were unaffected by changes in RA or Notch signaling levels, suggesting a possible non-cell autonomous role during pronephros formation. Taken together, these findings have revealed new insights about the genetic mechanisms of epithelial cell development during nephrogenesis.

Nephron Patterning: Lessons from Xenopus, Zebrafish, and Mouse Studies

The nephron is the basic structural and functional unit of the vertebrate kidney. To ensure kidney functions, the nephrons possess a highly segmental organization where each segment is specialized for the secretion and reabsorption of particular solutes. During embryogenesis, nephron progenitors undergo a mesenchymal-to-epithelial transition (MET) and acquire different segment-specific cell fates along the proximo-distal axis of the nephron. Even if the morphological changes occurring during nephrogenesis are characterized, the regulatory networks driving nephron segmentation are still poorly understood. Interestingly, several studies have shown that the pronephric nephrons in Xenopus and zebrafish are segmented in a similar fashion as the mouse metanephric nephrons. Here we review functional and molecular aspects of nephron segmentation with a particular interest on the signaling molecules and transcription factors recently implicated in kidney development in these three different vertebrate model organisms. A complete understanding of the mechanisms underlying nephrogenesis in different model organisms will provide novel insights on the etiology of several human renal diseases.

Recent advances in elucidating the genetic mechanisms of nephrogenesis using zebrafish

The kidney is comprised of working units known as nephrons, which are epithelial tubules that contain a series of specialized cell types organized into a precise pattern of functionally distinct segment domains. There is a limited understanding of the genetic mechanisms that establish these discrete nephron cell types during renal development. The zebrafish embryonic kidney serves as a simplified yet conserved vertebrate model to delineate how nephron segments are patterned from renal progenitors. Here, we provide a concise review of recent advances in this emerging field, and discuss how continued research using zebrafish genetics can be applied to gain insightsabout nephrogenesis.

Zebrafish Renal Pathology: Emerging Models of Acute Kidney Injury

The renal system is vital to maintain homeostasis in the body, where the kidneys contain nephron functional units that remove metabolic waste from the bloodstream, regulate fluids, and balance electrolytes. Severe organ damage from toxins or ischemia that occurs abruptly can cause acute kidney injury (AKI) in which there is a rapid, life-threatening loss of these activities. Humans have a limited but poorly understood ability to regenerate damaged nephrons after AKI. However, researchers studying AKI in vertebrate animal models such as mammals, and more recently the zebrafish, have documented robust regeneration within the nephron blood filter and tubule following injury. Further, zebrafish kidneys contain progenitors that create new nephrons after AKI. Here, we review investigations in zebrafish which have established a series of exciting renal pathology paradigms that complement existing AKI models and can be implemented to discover insights into kidney regeneration and the roles of stem cells.

Development of the zebrafish mesonephros

The vertebrate kidney plays an essential role in removing metabolic waste and balancing water and salt. This is carried out by nephrons, which comprise a blood filter attached to an epithelial tubule with proximal and distal segments. In zebrafish, two nephrons are first formed as part of the embryonic kidney (pronephros) and hundreds are formed later to make up the adult kidney (mesonephros). Previous studies have focused on the development of the pronephros while considerably less is known about how the mesonephros is formed. Here, we characterize mesonephros development in zebrafish and examine the nephrons that form during larval metamorphosis. These nephrons, arising from proliferating progenitor cells that express the renal transcription factor genes wt1b, pax2a, and lhx1a, form on top of the pronephric tubules and develop a segmentation pattern similar to pronephric nephrons. We find that the pronephros acts as a scaffold for the mesonephros, where new nephrons fuse with the distal segments of the pronephric tubules to form the final branching network that characterizes the adult zebrafish kidney.

Zebrafish foxc1a plays a crucial role in early somitogenesis by restricting the expression of aldh1a2 directly

Foxc1a is a member of the forkhead transcription factors. It plays an essential role in zebrafish somitogenesis. However, little is known about the molecular mechanisms underlying its controlling somitogenesis. To uncover how foxc1a regulates zebrafish somitogenesis, we generated foxc1a knock-out zebrafish using TALEN (transcription activator-like effector nuclease) technology. The foxc1a null embryos exhibited defective somites at early development. Analyses on the expressions of the key genes that control processes of somitogenesis revealed that foxc1a controlled early somitogenesis by regulating the expression of myod1. In the somites of foxc1a knock-out embryos, expressions of fgf8a and deltaC were abolished, whereas the expression of aldh1a2 (responsible for providing retinoic acid signaling) was significantly increased. Once the increased retinoic acid level in the foxc1a null embryos was reduced by knocking down aldh1a2, the reduced expression of myod1 was partially rescued by resuming expressions of fgf8a and deltaC in the somites of the mutant embryos. Moreover, a chromatin immunoprecipitation assay on zebrafish embryos revealed that Foxc1a bound aldh1a2 promoter directly. On the other hand, neither knocking down fgf8a nor inhibiting Notch signaling affected the expression of aldh1a2, although knocking down fgf8a reduced expression of deltaC in the somites of zebrafish embryos at early somitogenesis and vice versa. Taken together, our results demonstrate that foxc1a plays an essential role in early somitogenesis by controlling Fgf and Notch signaling through restricting the expression of aldh1a2 in paraxial mesoderm directly.

Combination therapy with telmisartan and oxacalcitriol suppresses the progression of murine adriamycin nephropathy

BACKGROUND

Blockade of the renin-angiotensin system plays a key role in suppressing the progression of renal diseases. It has not been well established whether this therapy provides additional effects when combined with vitamin D or its analog in a model of adriamycin (ADR)-induced nephropathy.

METHODS

We evaluated the effect of an angiotensin II subtype 1 receptor blocker (telmisartan) combined with a vitamin D analog (oxacalcitriol) on mice ADR-induced nephropathy (9.5 mg/kg single intravenous injection). We also tested immortalized murine podocytes to examine the effects on podocyte apoptosis.

RESULTS

Mice with ADR-induced nephropathy developed progressive albuminuria and glomerulosclerosis within 30 days accompanied by decreased expression of slit diaphragm (SD)-associated proteins (nephrin and podocin), reduced numbers of podocytes, and increased systolic blood pressure. Treatment with telmisartan or oxacalcitriol alone moderately ameliorated kidney injury. The combined treatment most effectively reduced the albuminuria and glomerulosclerosis. These effects were accompanied by the restoration of SD-associated proteins, reduction of podocyte apoptosis, and prevention of podocyte depletion in the glomeruli. Treatment with telmisartan, oxacalcitriol, and the combination therapy resulted in similar reductions in systolic blood pressure. In cultured murine podocytes, ADR stimulated the expression of Bax/Bcl-2 and apoptosis as determined by Hoechst 33342 staining. These changes were effectively inhibited by telmisartan or oxacalcitriol, but the combination treatment most effectively reduced these effects.

CONCLUSIONS

These data demonstrated that application of a renin-angiotensin system blocker plus a vitamin D analog effectively prevented renal injury in ADR-induced nephropathy. The observed amelioration of renal injury may be partly attributable to antiapoptotic effects in podocytes.

Integration of Cistromic and Transcriptomic Analyses Identifies Nphs2, Mafb, and Magi2 as Wilms' Tumor 1 Target Genes in Podocyte Differentiation and Maintenance

The Wilms' tumor suppressor gene 1 (WT1) encodes a zinc finger transcription factor. Mutation of WT1 in humans leads to Wilms' tumor, a pediatric kidney tumor, or other kidney diseases, such as Denys-Drash and Frasier syndromes. We showed previously that inactivation of WT1 in podocytes of adult mice results in proteinuria, foot process effacement, and glomerulosclerosis. However, the WT1-dependent transcriptional network regulating podocyte development and maintenance in vivo remains unknown. Here, we performed chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by high-throughput sequencing with glomeruli from wild-type mice. Additionally, we performed a cDNA microarray screen on an inducible podocyte-specific WT1 knockout mouse model. By integration of cistromic and transcriptomic analyses, we identified the WT1 targetome in mature podocytes. To further analyze the function and targets of WT1 in podocyte maturation, we used an Nphs2-Cre model, in which WT1 is deleted during podocyte differentiation. These mice display anuria and kidney hemorrhage and die within 24 hours after birth. To address the evolutionary conservation of WT1 targets, we performed functional assays using zebrafish as a model and identified Nphs2, Mafb, and Magi2 as novel WT1 target genes required for podocyte development. Our data also show that both Mafb and Magi2 are required for normal development of the embryonic zebrafish kidney. Collectively, our work provides insights into the transcriptional networks controlled by WT1 and identifies novel WT1 target genes that mediate the function of WT1 in podocyte differentiation and maintenance.

Nephron proximal tubule patterning and corpuscles of Stannius formation are regulated by the sim1a transcription factor and retinoic acid in zebrafish

The mechanisms that establish nephron segments are poorly understood. The zebrafish embryonic kidney, or pronephros, is a simplified yet conserved genetic model to study this renal development process because its nephrons contain segments akin to other vertebrates, including the proximal convoluted and straight tubules (PCT, PST). The zebrafish pronephros is also associated with the corpuscles of Stannius (CS), endocrine glands that regulate calcium and phosphate homeostasis, but whose ontogeny from renal progenitors is largely mysterious. Initial patterning of zebrafish renal progenitors in the intermediate mesoderm (IM) involves the formation of rostral and caudal domains, the former being reliant on retinoic acid (RA) signaling, and the latter being repressed by elevated RA levels. Here, using expression profiling to gain new insights into nephrogenesis, we discovered that the gene single minded family bHLH transcription factor 1a (sim1a) is dynamically expressed in the renal progenitors-first marking the caudal domain, then becoming restricted to the proximal segments, and finally exhibiting specific CS expression. In loss of function studies, sim1a knockdown expanded the PCT and abrogated both the PST and CS populations. Conversely, overexpression of sim1a modestly expanded the PST and CS, while it reduced the PCT. These results show that sim1a activity is necessary and partially sufficient to induce PST and CS fates, and suggest that sim1a may inhibit PCT fate and/or negotiate the PCT/PST boundary. Interestingly, the sim1a expression domain in renal progenitors is responsive to altered levels of RA, suggesting that RA regulates sim1a, directly or indirectly, during nephrogenesis. sim1a deficient embryos treated with exogenous RA formed nephrons that were predominantly composed of PCT segments, but lacked the enlarged PST observed in RA treated wild-types, indicating that RA is not sufficient to rescue the PST in the absence of sim1a expression. Alternately, when sim1a knockdowns were exposed to the RA inhibitor diethylaminobenzaldehyde (DEAB), the CS was abrogated rather than expanded as seen in DEAB treated wild-types, revealing that CS formation in the absence of sim1a cannot be rescued by RA biosynthesis abrogation. Taken together, these data reveal previously unappreciated roles for sim1a in zebrafish pronephric proximal tubule and CS patterning, and are consistent with the model that sim1a acts downstream of RA to mitigate the formation of these lineages. These findings provide new insights into the genetic pathways that direct nephron development, and may have implications for understanding renal birth defects and kidney reprogramming.

Temporal and spatial expression of tight junction genes during zebrafish pronephros development

The kidney is comprised of nephrons - epithelial tubes with specialized segments that reabsorb and secrete solutes, perform osmoregulation, and produce urine. Different nephron segments exhibit unique combinations of ion channels, transporter proteins, and cell junction proteins that govern permeability between neighboring cells. The zebrafish pronephros is a valuable model to study the mechanisms of vertebrate nephrogenesis, but many basic features of segment gene expression in renal progenitors and mature nephrons have not been characterized. Here, we analyzed the temporal and spatial expression pattern of tight junction components during zebrafish kidney ontogeny. During nephrogenesis, renal progenitors show discrete expression domains of claudin (cldn) 15a, cldn8, occludin (ocln) a, oclnb, tight junction protein (tjp) 2a, tjp2b, and tjp3. Interestingly, transcripts encoding these genes exhibit dynamic spatiotemporal domains during the time when pronephros segment domains are established. These data provide a useful gene expression map of cell junction components during zebrafish nephrogenesis. As such, this information complements the existing molecular map of nephron segment characteristics, and can be used to characterize kidney development mutants as well as various disease models, in addition to aiding in the elucidation of mechanisms governing epithelial regeneration after acute nephron injury.

Zebrafish pronephros tubulogenesis and epithelial identity maintenance are reliant on the polarity proteins Prkc iota and zeta

The zebrafish pronephros provides an excellent in vivo system to study the mechanisms of vertebrate nephron development. When and how renal progenitors in the zebrafish embryo undergo tubulogenesis to form nephrons is poorly understood, but is known to involve a mesenchymal to epithelial transition (MET) and the acquisition of polarity. Here, we determined the precise timing of these events in pronephros tubulogenesis. As the ternary polarity complex is an essential regulator of epithelial cell polarity across tissues, we performed gene knockdown studies to assess the roles of the related factors atypical protein kinase C iota and zeta (prkcι, prkcζ). We found that prkcι and prkcζ serve partially redundant functions to establish pronephros tubule epithelium polarity. Further, the loss of prkcι or the combined knockdown of prkcι/ζ disrupted proximal tubule morphogenesis and podocyte migration due to cardiac defects that prevented normal fluid flow to the kidney. Surprisingly, tubule cells in prkcι/ζ morphants displayed ectopic expression of the transcription factor pax2a and the podocyte-associated genes wt1a, wt1b, and podxl, suggesting that prkcι/ζ are needed to maintain renal epithelial identity. Knockdown of genes essential for cardiac contractility and vascular flow to the kidney, such as tnnt2a, or elimination of pronephros fluid output through knockdown of the intraflagellar transport gene ift88, was not associated with ectopic pronephros gene expression, thus suggesting a unique role for prkcι/ζ in maintaining tubule epithelial identity separate from the consequence of disruptions to renal fluid flow. Interestingly, knockdown of pax2a, but not wt1a, was sufficient to rescue ectopic tubule gene expression in prkcι/ζ morphants. These data suggest a model in which the redundant activities of prkcι and prkcζ are essential to establish tubule epithelial polarity and also serve to maintain proper epithelial cell type identity in the tubule by inhibiting pax2a expression. These studies provide a valuable foundation for further analysis of MET during nephrogenesis, and have implications for understanding the pathways that affect nephron epithelial cells during kidney disease and regeneration.

Induction and patterning of the metanephric nephron

The functional unit of the mammalian metanephric kidney is the nephron: a complex tubular structure dedicated to blood filtration and maintenance of several important physiological functions. Nephrons are assembled from a nephron-restricted pool of mesenchymal progenitors over an extensive developmental period that is completed prior to (human), or shortly after (mouse), birth. An appropriate balance in the expansion and commitment of nephron progenitors to nephron formation is essential for normal kidney function. Too few nephrons increase risk of kidney disease later in life while the failure of normal progenitor differentiation in Wilm's tumor patients leads to massive growth of a nephroblast population often necessitating surgical removal of the kidney. An inductive process within the metanephric mesenchyme leads to the formation of a pretubular aggregate which transitions into an epithelial renal vesicle: the precursor for nephron assembly. Growth, morphogenesis and patterning transform this simple cyst-like structure into a highly elongated mature nephron with distinct cell types positioned along a proximal (glomerular) to distal (connecting segment) axis of functional organization. This review discusses our current understanding of the specification, maintenance and commitment of nephron progenitors, and the regulatory processes that transform the renal vesicle into a nephron.