Developmental role of dpp in the gastropod shell plate and co-option of the dpp signaling pathway in the evolution of the operculum

The small GTPase Cdc42 regulates shell field morphogenesis in a gastropod mollusk

In most mollusks (conchiferans), the early tissue responsible for shell development, namely, the shell field, shows a common process of invagination during morphogenesis. Moreover, lines of evidence indicated that shell field invagination is not an independent event, but an integrated output reflecting the overall state of shell field morphogenesis. Nevertheless, the underlying mechanisms of this conserved process remain largely unknown. We previously found that actomyosin networks (regularly organized filamentous actin (F-actin) and myosin) may play essential roles in this process by revealing the evident aggregation of F-actin in the invaginated region and demonstrating that nonmuscle myosin II (NM II) is required for invagination in the gastropod Lottia peitaihoensis (= Lottia goshimai). Here, we investigated the roles of the Rho family of small GTPases (RhoA, Rac1, and Cdc42) to explore the upstream regulators of actomyosin networks. Functional assays using small molecule inhibitors suggested that Cdc42 modulates key events of shell field morphogenesis, including invagination and cell rearrangements, while the roles of RhoA and Rac1 may be nonspecific or negligible. Further investigations revealed that the Cdc42 protein was concentrated on the apical side of shell field cells and colocalized with F-actin aggregation. The aggregation of these two molecules could be prevented by treatment with Cdc42 inhibitors. These findings suggest a possible regulatory cascade of shell field morphogenesis in which Cdc42 recruits F-actin (actomyosin networks) on the apical side of shell field cells, which then generates resultant mechanical forces that mediate correct shell field morphogenesis (cell shape changes, invagination and cell rearrangement). Our results emphasize the roles of the cytoskeleton in early shell development and provide new insights into molluscan shell evolution.

Cell type and gene regulatory network approaches in the evolution of spiralian biomineralisation

Biomineralisation is the process by which living organisms produce hard structures such as shells and bone. There are multiple independent origins of biomineralised skeletons across the tree of life. This review gives a glimpse into the diversity of spiralian biominerals and what they can teach us about the evolution of novelty. It discusses different levels of biological organisation that may be informative to understand the evolution of biomineralisation and considers the relationship between skeletal and non-skeletal biominerals. More specifically, this review explores if cell type and gene regulatory network approaches could enhance our understanding of the evolutionary origins of biomineralisation.

Role of maternal spiralian-specific homeobox gene SPILE-E in the specification of blastomeres along the animal-vegetal axis during the early cleavage stages of mollusks

Spiralians, one of the major clades of bilaterians, share a unique development known as spiralian development, characterized by the formation of tiers of cells called quartets, which exhibit different developmental potentials along the animal-vegetal axis. Recently, spiralian-specific TALE-type homeobox genes (SPILE) have been identified, some of which show zygotic and staggered expression patterns along the animal-vegetal axis and function in quartet specification in mollusks. However, it is unclear which maternal molecular components control the zygotic expression of these transcription factors. In this study, we focused on SPILE-E, a maternal transcription factor, and investigated its expression and function in mollusks. We found that the maternal and ubiquitous expression of SPILE-E in the cleavage stages is conserved in molluskan species, including limpets, mussels, and chitons. We knocked down SPILE-E in limpets and revealed that the expression of transcription factors specifically expressed in the first quartet (1q2 ; foxj1b) and second quartet (2q; SPILE-B) was abolished, whereas the macromere-quartet marker (SPILE-C) was ectopically expressed in 1q2 in SPILE-E morphants. Moreover, we showed that the expression of SPILE-A, which upregulates SPILE-B but represses SPILE-C expression, decreased in SPILE-E morphants. Consistent with changes in the expression pattern of the above transcription factors, SPILE-E-morphant larvae exhibited patchy or complete loss of expression of marker genes of ciliated cells and shell fields, possibly reflecting incomplete specification of 1q2 and 2q. Our results provide a molecular framework for quartet specification and highlight the importance of maternal lineage-specific transcription factors in the development and evolution of spiralians.

Shell field morphogenesis in the polyplacophoran mollusk Acanthochitona rubrolineata

BACKGROUND

The polyplacophoran mollusks (chitons) possess serially arranged shell plates. This feature is unique among mollusks and believed to be essential to explore the evolution of mollusks as well as their shells. Previous studies revealed several cell populations in the dorsal epithelium (shell field) of polyplacophoran larvae and their roles in the formation of shell plates. Nevertheless, they provide limited molecular information, and shell field morphogenesis remains largely uninvestigated.

RESULTS

In the present study, we investigated shell field development in the chiton Acanthochitona rubrolineata based on morphological characteristics and molecular patterns. A total of four types of tissue could be recognized from the shell field of A. rubrolineata. The shell field comprised not only the centrally located, alternatively arranged plate fields and ridges, but also the tissues surrounding them, which were the precursors of the girdle and we termed as the girdle field. The girdle field exhibited a concentric organization composed of two circularly arranged tissues, and spicules were only developed in the outer circle. Dynamic engrailed expression and F-actin (filamentous actin) distributions revealed relatively complicated morphogenesis of the shell field. The repeated units (plate fields and ridges) were gradually established in the shell field, seemingly different from the manners used in the segmentation of Drosophila or vertebrates. The seven repeated ridges also experienced different modes of ontogenesis from each other. In the girdle field, the presumptive spicule-formation cells exhibited different patterns of F-actin aggregations as they differentiate.

CONCLUSIONS

These results reveal the details concerning the structure of polyplacophoran shell field as well as its morphogenesis. They would contribute to exploring the mechanisms of polyplacophoran shell development and molluscan shell evolution.

Brachiopod and mollusc biomineralisation is a conserved process that was lost in the phoronid-bryozoan stem lineage

BACKGROUND

Brachiopods and molluscs are lophotrochozoans with hard external shells which are often believed to have evolved convergently. While palaeontological data indicate that both groups are descended from biomineralising Cambrian ancestors, the closest relatives of brachiopods, phoronids and bryozoans, are mineralised to a much lower extent and are comparatively poorly represented in the Palaeozoic fossil record. Although brachiopod and mollusc shells are structurally analogous, genomic and proteomic evidence indicates that their formation involves a complement of conserved, orthologous genes. Here, we study a set of genes comprised of 3 homeodomain transcription factors, one signalling molecule and 6 structural proteins which are implicated in mollusc and brachiopod shell formation, search for their orthologs in transcriptomes or genomes of brachiopods, phoronids and bryozoans, and present expression patterns of 8 of the genes in postmetamorphic juveniles of the rhynchonelliform brachiopod T. transversa.

RESULTS

Transcriptome and genome searches for the 10 target genes in the brachiopods Terebratalia transversa, Lingula anatina, Novocrania anomala, the bryozoans Bugula neritina and Membranipora membranacea, and the phoronids Phoronis australis and Phoronopsis harmeri resulted in the recovery of orthologs of the majority of the genes in all taxa. While the full complement of genes was present in all brachiopods with a single exception in L. anatina, a bloc of four genes could consistently not be retrieved from bryozoans and phoronids. The genes engrailed, distal-less, ferritin, perlucin, sp1 and sp2 were shown to be expressed in the biomineralising mantle margin of T. transversa juveniles.

CONCLUSIONS

The gene expression patterns we recovered indicate that while mineralised shells in brachiopods and molluscs are structurally analogous, their formation builds on a homologous process that involves a conserved complement of orthologous genes. Losses of some of the genes related to biomineralisation in bryozoans and phoronids indicate that loss of the capacity to form mineralised structures occurred already in the phoronid-bryozoan stem group and supports the idea that mineralised skeletons evolved secondarily in some of the bryozoan subclades.

Feeding behaviour and the operculum in Olividae (Gastropoda): the case of Callianax biplicata (G. B. Sowerby I, 1825)

Olividae are marine gastropods living as predators or scavengers on soft sediments. The complex prey handling behaviour of large predatory species includes the storage of food in a pouch formed temporarily by bending and contraction of the posterior foot. Such metapodial pouches had been observed only in Olividae that lack an operculum, prompting the hypothesis that the folding of the metapodium into a pouch biomechanically required the absence of the operculum. Here we report metapodial pouch formation in an operculate olivid, Callianax biplicata (formerly Olivella biplicata). Since the operculum is too small to close the shell aperture in mature C. biplicata, a protective function seems unlikely. The operculum may rather serve as an exoskeletal point for muscle attachment, but may also represent a ‘vestigial organ’ in the process of evolutionary reduction, or an ontogenetic remnant functional at early life stages but not at maturity. Consequently, our observations refute the notion that only inoperculate olivids can form pouches, but not necessarily the idea that the ability to form a metapodial pouch evolved in parallel with operculum reduction

Expression Pattern of Nitric Oxide Synthase during Development of the Marine Gastropod Mollusc, Crepidula fornicata

Nitric Oxide (NO) plays a key role in the induction of larval metamorphosis in several invertebrate phyla. The inhibition of the NO synthase in Crepidula fornicata, a molluscan model for evolutionary, developmental, and ecological research, has been demonstrated to block the initiation of metamorphosis highlighting that endogenous NO is crucial in the control of this developmental and morphological process. Nitric Oxide Synthase contributes to the development of shell gland, digestive gland and kidney, being expressed in cells that presumably correspond to FMRF-amide, serotoninergic and catecolaminergic neurons. Here we identified a single Nos gene in embryonic and larval transcriptomes of C. fornicata and studied its localization during development, through whole-mount in situ hybridization, in order to compare its expression pattern with that of other marine invertebrate animal models.

Early shell field morphogenesis of a patellogastropod mollusk predominantly relies on cell movement and F-actin dynamics

Background

The morphogenesis of the shell field is an essential step of molluscan shell formation, which exhibits both conserved features and interlineage variations. As one major gastropod lineage, the patellogastropods show different characters in its shell field morphogenesis compared to other gastropods (e.g., the pulmonate gastropod Lymnaea stagnalis), likely related to its epibolic gastrulation. The investigation on the shell field morphogenesis of patellogastropods would be useful to reveal the lineage-specific characters in the process and explore the deep conservation among different molluscan lineages.

Results

We investigated the early shell field morphogenesis in the patellogastropod Lottia goshimai using multiple techniques. Electron microscopy revealed distinct morphological characters for the central and peripheral cells of the characteristic rosette-like shell field. Gene expression analysis and F-actin staining suggested that the shell field morphogenesis in this species predominantly relied on cell movement and F-actin dynamics, while BrdU assay revealed that cell proliferation contributed little to the process. We found constant contacts between ectodermal and meso/endodermal tissues during the early stages of shell field morphogenesis, which did not support the induction of shell field by endodermal tissues in general, but a potential stage-specific induction was indicated.

Conclusions

Our results emphasize the roles of cell movement and F-actin dynamics during the morphogenesis of the shell field in Lo. goshimai, and suggest potential regulators such as diffusible factors and F-actin modulators. These findings reflect the differences in shell field morphogenesis of different gastropods, and add to the knowledge of molluscan larval shell formation.

Establishment of the novel bivalve body plan through modification of early developmental events in mollusks

Mollusks have a wide variety of body plans, which develop through conserved early embryogenesis, namely spiral embryonic development and trochophore larvae. Although the comparative study of mollusks has attracted the interest of evolutionary developmental biology researchers, less attention has been paid to bivalves. In this review, we focused on the evolutionary process from single-shell ancestors to bivalves, which possess bilaterally separated shells. Our study tracing the lineage of shell field cells in bivalves did not support the old hypothesis that shell plate morphology is due to modification of the spiral cleavage pattern. Rather, we suggest that modification of the shell field induction process is the key to understanding the evolution of shell morphology. The novel body plan of bivalves cannot be established solely via separating shell plates, but rather requires the formation of additional organs, such as adductor muscles. The evolutionary biology of bivalves offers a unique view on how multiple organs evolve in a coordinated manner to establish a novel body plan.

Thyroid hormone receptor: A new player in epinephrine-induced larval metamorphosis of the hard-shelled mussel

Many marine invertebrate larvae undergo a dramatic morphological and physiological transition from a planktonic larva to a benthic juvenile. The mechanisms of this metamorphosis in bivalves are mainly unknown. The recent identification in bivalves of a thyroid hormone receptor (TR) gene raises the possibility that as occurs in vertebrate metamorphosis, TRs regulate this developmental process. An evolutionary study of TR receptors revealed they are ubiquitous in the molluscs. Knock-down of the TR gene in pediveliger larvae of the hard-shelled mussel, Mytilus coruscus (Mc), using electroporation of siRNA significantly (p < 0.01) reduced TR gene expression. TR gene knock-down decreased pediveliger larval metamorphosis by 54% and was associated with a significant (p < 0.01) reduction in viability compared to control larvae. The TR in the hard-shelled mussel appears to be an essential regulatory factor for the successful epinephrine-induced metamorphosis of the pediveliger larvae to post-larvae. It is hypothesised that the knock-down of TR by siRNA transfection affects the "competence" of pediveliger larvae for the metamorphic transition by reducing their ability to respond to the inducer. The involvement of TR in the epinephrine-induced metamorphosis of a mollusc, the hard-shelled mussel, suggests the role of TR in this process probably emerged early during evolution.

Identification of three cell populations from the shell gland of a bivalve mollusc

The molluscan larval shell formation is a complicated process. There is evidence that the mantle of the primary larva (trochophore) contains functionally different cell populations with distinct gene expression profiles. However, it remains unclear how these cells are specified. In the present study, we identified three cell populations from the shell gland in earlier stages (gastrula) from the bivalve mollusc Crassostrea gigas. These cell populations were determined by analyzing the co-expression relationships among six potential shell formation (pSF) genes using two-color hybridization. The three cell populations, which we designated as SGCPs (shell gland cell populations), formed a concentric-circle pattern from outside to inside of the shell gland. SGCP I was located in the outer edge of the shell gland and the cells expressed pax2/5/8, gata2/3, and bmp2/4. SGCP II was located more internally and the cells expressed two engrailed genes. The last population, SGCP III, was located in the central region of the shell gland and the cells expressed lox4. Determination of the gene expression profiles of SGCPs would help trace their origins and fates and elucidate how these cell populations are specified. Moreover, potential roles of the SGCPs, e.g., development of sensory cells and shell biogenesis, are suggested. Our results reveal the internal organization of the embryonic shell gland at the molecular level and add to the knowledge of larval shell formation.

Dorsoventral decoupling of Hox gene expression underpins the diversification of molluscs

In contrast to the Hox genes in arthropods and vertebrates, those in molluscs show diverse expression patterns with differences reported among lineages. Here, we investigate 2 phylogenetically distant molluscs, a gastropod and a polyplacophoran, and show that the Hox expression in both species can be divided into 2 categories. The Hox expression in the ventral ectoderm generally shows a canonical staggered pattern comparable to the patterns of other bilaterians and likely contributes to ventral patterning, such as neurogenesis. The other category of Hox expression on the dorsal side is strongly correlated with shell formation and exhibits lineage-specific characteristics in each class of mollusc. This generalized model of decoupled dorsoventral Hox expression is compatible with known Hox expression data from other molluscan lineages and may represent a key characteristic of molluscan Hox expression. These results support the concept of widespread staggered Hox expression in Mollusca and reveal aspects that may be related to the evolutionary diversification of molluscs. We propose that dorsoventral decoupling of Hox expression allowed lineage-specific dorsal and ventral patterning, which may have facilitated the evolution of diverse body plans in different molluscan lineages.

Growth and morphogenesis of the gastropod shell

Gastropod shell morphologies are famously diverse but generally share a common geometry, the logarithmic coil. Variations on this morphology have been modeled mathematically and computationally but the developmental biology of shell morphogenesis remains poorly understood. Here we characterize the organization and growth patterns of the shell-secreting epithelium of the larval shell of the basket whelk Tritia (also known as Ilyanassa). Despite the larval shell's relative simplicity, we find a surprisingly complex organization of the shell margin in terms of rows and zones of cells. We examined cell division patterns with EdU incorporation assays and found two growth zones within the shell margin. In the more anterior aperture growth zone, we find that inferred division angles are biased to lie parallel to the shell edge, and these divisions occur more on the margin's left side. In the more posterior mantle epithelium growth zone, inferred divisions are significantly biased to the right, relative to the anterior-posterior axis. These growth zones, and the left-right asymmetries in cleavage patterns they display, can explain the major modes of shell morphogenesis at the level of cellular behavior. In a gastropod with a different coiling geometry, Planorbella sp., we find similar shell margin organization and growth zones as Tritia, but different left-right asymmetries than we observed in the helically coiled shell of Tritia These results indicate that differential growth patterns in the mantle edge epithelium contribute to shell shape in gastropod shells and identify cellular mechanisms that may vary to generate shell diversity in evolution.

Insights into the Evolution of Shells and Love Darts of Land Snails Revealed from Their Matrix Proteins

Over the past decade, many skeletal matrix proteins that are possibly related to calcification have been reported in various calcifying animals. Molluscs are among the most diverse calcifying animals and some gastropods have adapted to terrestrial ecological niches. Although many shell matrix proteins (SMPs) have already been reported in molluscs, most reports have focused on marine molluscs, and the SMPs of terrestrial snails remain unclear. In addition, some terrestrial stylommatophoran snails have evolved an additional unique calcified character, called a "love dart," used for mating behavior. We identified 54 SMPs in the terrestrial snail Euhadra quaesita, and found that they contain specific domains that are widely conserved in molluscan SMPs. However, our results also suggest that some of them possibly have evolved independently by domain shuffling, domain recruitment, or gene co-option. We then identified four dart matrix proteins, and found that two of them are the same proteins as those identified as SMPs. Our results suggest that some dart matrix proteins possibly have evolved by independent gene co-option from SMPs during dart evolution events. These results provide a new perspective on the evolution of SMPs and "love darts" in land snails.

The evolution of molluscs

Molluscs are extremely diverse invertebrate animals with a rich fossil record, highly divergent life cycles, and considerable economical and ecological importance. Key representatives include worm-like aplacophorans, armoured groups (e.g. polyplacophorans, gastropods, bivalves) and the highly complex cephalopods. Molluscan origins and evolution of their different phenotypes have largely remained unresolved, but significant progress has been made over recent years. Phylogenomic studies revealed a dichotomy of the phylum, resulting in Aculifera (shell-less aplacophorans and multi-shelled polyplacophorans) and Conchifera (all other, primarily uni-shelled groups). This challenged traditional hypotheses that proposed that molluscs gradually evolved complex phenotypes from simple, worm-like animals, a view that is corroborated by developmental studies that showed that aplacophorans are secondarily simplified. Gene expression data indicate that key regulators involved in anterior-posterior patterning (the homeobox-containing Hox genes) lost this function and were co-opted into the evolution of taxon-specific novelties in conchiferans. While the bone morphogenetic protein (BMP)/decapentaplegic (Dpp) signalling pathway, that mediates dorso-ventral axis formation, and molecular components that establish chirality appear to be more conserved between molluscs and other metazoans, variations from the common scheme occur within molluscan sublineages. The deviation of various molluscs from developmental pathways that otherwise appear widely conserved among metazoans provides novel hypotheses on molluscan evolution that can be tested with genome editing tools such as the CRISPR/Cas9 (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats/clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats-associated protein9) system.

Cloning and molecular characterization of two ferritins from red abalone Haliotis rufescens and their expressions in response to bacterial challenge at juvenile and adult life stages

Ferritins are ubiquitous proteins with a pivotal role in iron storage and homeostasis, and in host defense responses during infection by pathogens in several organisms, including mollusks. In this study, we characterized two ferritin homologues in the red abalone Haliotis rufescens, a species of economic importance for Chile, USA and Mexico. Two ferritin subunits (Hrfer1 and Hrfer2) were cloned. Hrfer1 cDNA is an 807 bp clone containing a 516 bp open reading frame (ORF) that corresponds to a novel ferritin subunit in H. rufescens. Hrfer2 cDNA is an 868 bp clone containing a 516 bp ORF that corresponds to a previously reported ferritin subunit, but in this study 5'- and 3'-UTR sequences were additionally found. We detected a putative Iron Responsive Element (IRE) in the 5'-UTR sequence, suggesting a posttranscriptional regulation of Hrfer2 translation by iron. The deduced protein sequences of both cDNAs possessed the motifs and domains required in functional ferritin subunits. Expression patterns of both ferritins in different tissues, during different developmental stages, and in response to bacterial (Vibrio splendidus) exposure were examined. Both Hrfer1 and Hrfer2 are most expressed in digestive gland and gonad. Hrfer1 mRNA levels increased about 34-fold along with larval developmental process, attaining the highest level in the creeping post-larvae. Exogenous feeding is initiated at the creeping larva stage; thus, the increase of Hrfer1 may suggest and immunity-related role upon exposure to bacteria. Highest Hrfer2 expression levels were detected at trochophore stage; which may be related with early shell formation. Upon challenge with, the bacteria an early mild induction of Hrfer2 (2 h post-challenge), followed by a stronger induction of Hrfer1 at 15 h post-challenge, was observed in haemocytes from adult abalones. While maximal upregulation of both genes in the whole individual occurred at 24 h post-challenge, in juveniles. A significant increase in ferritin protein levels from 6 h to 24 h post-challenge was also detected. Our results suggest an involvement of Hrfer1 and Hrfer2, and of ferritin proteins in the immune response of H. rufescens to bacterial infection.

Expansion of TALE homeobox genes and the evolution of spiralian development

Spiralians, including molluscs, annelids and platyhelminths, share a unique development process that includes the typical geometry of early cleavage and early segregation of cell fate in blastomeres along the animal-vegetal axis. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying this early cell fate segregation are largely unknown. Here, we report spiralian-specific expansion of the three-amino-acid loop extension (TALE) class of homeobox genes. During early development, some of these TALE genes are expressed in staggered domains along the animal-vegetal axis in the limpet Nipponacmea fuscoviridis and the polychaete Spirobranchus kraussii. Inhibition or overexpression of these genes alters the developmental fate of blastomeres, as predicted by the gene expression patterns. These results suggest that the expansion of novel TALE genes plays a critical role in the establishment of a novel cell fate segregation mechanism in spiralians.

Effects of phenanthrene on early development of the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas (Thunberg, 1789)

Phenanthnere (PHE) is a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon continuously discarded in the marine environment and bioavailable to many aquatic species. Although studies about PHE toxicity have been documented for adult oysters, the effects on early developmental stages are poorly characterized in bivalves. In this study, the effects of PHE (0.02 and 2.0μg.L^-1) were evaluated on the embryogenesis and larval development of Crassostrea gigas. Toxicity bioassays, growth and deformities assessment, analysis of shell calcium abundance and transcript levels of genes related to xenobiotic biotransformation (CYP2AU2, CYP30C1), immune system (Cg-Tal) and tissue growth and shell formation (Ferritin, Insulin-like, Cg-Try, Calmodulin and Nacrein) were assayed in D-shape larvae after 24h of PHE exposure. At the highest concentration (2.0μg.L^-1), PHE decreased the frequency of normal development (19.7±2.9%) and shell size (53.5±2.8mm). Developmental deformities were mostly related to abnormal mantle and shell formation. Lower calcium levels in oyster shells exposed to PHE 2.0μg.L^-1 were observed, suggesting effects on shell structure. At this same PHE concentration, CYP30C1, Cg-Tal, Cg-Tyr, Calmodulin were upregulated and CYP2AU2, Ferritin, Nacrein, and Insulin-Like were downregulated compared to control larvae. At the lowest PHE concentration (0.02μg.L^-1), it was observed a minor decrease in normal larval development (89,6±6%) and the remaining parameters were not affected. This is the first study to provide evidences that exposure to PHE can affect early oyster development at the molecular and morphological levels, possibly threatening this bivalve species.

Brain regionalization genes are co-opted into shell field patterning in Mollusca

The 'brain regionalization genes' Six3/6, Otx, Pax2/5/8, Gbx, and Hox1 are expressed in a similar fashion in the deuterostome, ecdysozoan, and the cephalopod brain, questioning whether this holds also true for the remaining Mollusca. We investigated developmental Gbx-expression in representatives of both molluscan sister groups, the Aculifera and Conchifera. Gbx is expressed in the posterior central nervous system of an aculiferan polyplacophoran and solenogaster but not in a conchiferan bivalve suggesting that Gbx, together with Six3/6, Otx, Pax2/5/8, and Hox1, is involved in central nervous system regionalization as reported for other bilaterians. Gbx is, however, also expressed in the anterior central nervous system, i.e. the anlagen of the cerebral ganglia, in the solenogaster, a condition not reported for any other bilaterian so far. Strikingly, all Gbx-orthologs and the other 'posterior brain regionalization genes' such as Pax2/5/8 and Hox1 are expressed in the mantle that secretes shell(s) and spicules of mollusks (except cephalopods). In bivalves, the ancestral condition has even been lost, with Gbx and Pax2/5/8 not being expressed in the developing central nervous system anymore. This suggests an additional role in the formation of the molluscan shell field(s) and spicule-bearing cells, key features of mollusks.

A SoxC gene related to larval shell development and co-expression analysis of different shell formation genes in early larvae of oyster

Among the potential larval shell formation genes in mollusks, most are expressed in cells surrounding the shell field during the early phase of shell formation. The only exception (cgi-tyr1) is expressed in the whole larval mantle and thus represents a novel type of expression pattern. This study reports another gene with such an expression pattern. The gene encoded a SoxC homolog of the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas and was named cgi-soxc. Whole-mount in situ hybridization revealed that the gene was highly expressed in the whole larval mantle of early larvae. Based on its spatiotemporal expression, cgi-soxc is hypothesized to be involved in periostracum biogenesis, biomineralization, and regulation of cell proliferation. Furthermore, we investigated the interrelationship between cgi-soxc expression and two additional potential shell formation genes, cgi-tyr1 and cgi-gata2/3. The results confirmed co-expression of the three genes in the larval mantle of early D-veliger. Nevertheless, cgi-gata2/3 was only expressed in the mantle edge, and the other two genes were expressed in all mantle cells. Based on the spatial expression patterns of the three genes, two cell groups were identified from the larval mantle (tyr1 ⁺/soxc ⁺/gata2/3 ⁺ cells and tyr1 ⁺/soxc ⁺/gata2/3 ^- cells) and are important to study the differentiation and function of this tissue. The results of this study enrich our knowledge on the structure and function of larval mantle and provide important information to understand the molecular mechanisms of larval shell formation.

Expression patterns indicate that BMP2/4 and Chordin, not BMP5-8 and Gremlin, mediate dorsal-ventral patterning in the mollusk Crassostrea gigas

Though several bilaterian animals use a conserved BMP2/4-Chordin antagonism to pattern the dorsal-ventral (DV) axis, the only lophotrochozoan species in which early DV patterning has been studied to date, the leech Helobdella robusta, appears to employ BMP5-8 and Gremlin. These findings call into question the conservation of a common DV patterning mechanism among bilaterian animals. To explore whether the unusual DV patterning mechanism in H. robusta is also used in other lophotrochozoan species, we investigated the expression of orthologous genes in the early embryo of a bivalve mollusk, Crassostrea gigas. Searching of the genome and phylogenetic analysis revealed that C. gigas possesses single orthologs of BMP2/4, Chordin, and BMP5-8 and no Gremlin homolog. Whole mount in situ hybridization revealed mRNA localization of BMP2/4 and Chordin on the opposite sides of embryos, suggesting the potential involvement of a BMP2/4-Chordin antagonism in DV patterning in this species. Furthermore, universal BMP5-8 expression and the absence of a Gremlin homolog in the C. gigas genome called into question any major contribution by BMP5-8 and Gremlin to early DV patterning in this species. Additionally, we identified seven genes showing asymmetric expression along the DV axis, providing further insight into DV patterning in C. gigas. We present the first report of a Chordin gene in a lophotrochozoan species and of the opposite expression of BMP2/4 (dorsal) and Chordin (ventral) along the D/V axis of a lophotrochozoan embryo. The findings of this study further the knowledge of axis formation in lophotrochozoan species and provide insight into the evolution of the animal DV patterning mechanism.

Comparative transcriptomics enlarges the toolkit of known developmental genes in mollusks

BACKGROUND

Mollusks display a striking morphological disparity, including, among others, worm-like animals (the aplacophorans), snails and slugs, bivalves, and cephalopods. This phenotypic diversity renders them ideal for studies into animal evolution. Despite being one of the most species-rich phyla, molecular and in silico studies concerning specific key developmental gene families are still scarce, thus hampering deeper insights into the molecular machinery that governs the development and evolution of the various molluscan class-level taxa.

RESULTS

Next-generation sequencing was used to retrieve transcriptomes of representatives of seven out of the eight recent class-level taxa of mollusks. Similarity searches, phylogenetic inferences, and a detailed manual curation were used to identify and confirm the orthology of numerous molluscan Hox and ParaHox genes, which resulted in a comprehensive catalog that highlights the evolution of these genes in Mollusca and other metazoans. The identification of a specific molluscan motif in the Hox paralog group 5 and a lophotrochozoan ParaHox motif in the Gsx gene is described. Functional analyses using KEGG and GO tools enabled a detailed description of key developmental genes expressed in important pathways such as Hedgehog, Wnt, and Notch during development of the respective species. The KEGG analysis revealed Wnt8, Wnt11, and Wnt16 as Wnt genes hitherto not reported for mollusks, thereby enlarging the known Wnt complement of the phylum. In addition, novel Hedgehog (Hh)-related genes were identified in the gastropod Lottia cf. kogamogai, demonstrating a more complex gene content in this species than in other mollusks.

CONCLUSIONS

The use of de novo transcriptome assembly and well-designed in silico protocols proved to be a robust approach for surveying and mining large sequence data in a wide range of non-model mollusks. The data presented herein constitute only a small fraction of the information retrieved from the analysed molluscan transcriptomes, which can be promptly employed in the identification of novel genes and gene families, phylogenetic inferences, and other studies using molecular tools. As such, our study provides an important framework for understanding some of the underlying molecular mechanisms involved in molluscan body plan diversification and hints towards functions of key developmental genes in molluscan morphogenesis.

Sea shell diversity and rapidly evolving secretomes: insights into the evolution of biomineralization

An external skeleton is an essential part of the body plan of many animals and is thought to be one of the key factors that enabled the great expansion in animal diversity and disparity during the Cambrian explosion. Molluscs are considered ideal to study the evolution of biomineralization because of their diversity of highly complex, robust and patterned shells. The molluscan shell forms externally at the interface of animal and environment, and involves controlled deposition of calcium carbonate within a framework of macromolecules that are secreted from the dorsal mantle epithelium. Despite its deep conservation within Mollusca, the mantle is capable of producing an incredible diversity of shell patterns, and macro- and micro-architectures. Here we review recent developments within the field of molluscan biomineralization, focusing on the genes expressed in the mantle that encode secreted proteins. The so-called mantle secretome appears to regulate shell deposition and patterning and in some cases becomes part of the shell matrix. Recent transcriptomic and proteomic studies have revealed marked differences in the mantle secretomes of even closely-related molluscs; these typically exceed expected differences based on characteristics of the external shell. All mantle secretomes surveyed to date include novel genes encoding lineage-restricted proteins and unique combinations of co-opted ancient genes. A surprisingly large proportion of both ancient and novel secreted proteins containing simple repetitive motifs or domains that are often modular in construction. These repetitive low complexity domains (RLCDs) appear to further promote the evolvability of the mantle secretome, resulting in domain shuffling, expansion and loss. RLCD families further evolve via slippage and other mechanisms associated with repetitive sequences. As analogous types of secreted proteins are expressed in biomineralizing tissues in other animals, insights into the evolution of the genes underlying molluscan shell formation may be applied more broadly to understanding the evolution of metazoan biomineralization.

PfSMAD4 plays a role in biomineralization and can transduce bone morphogenetic protein-2 signals in the pearl oyster Pinctada fucata

Background

Mollusca is the second largest phylum in nature. The shell of molluscs is a remarkable example of a natural composite biomaterial. Biomineralization and how it affects mollusks is a popular research topic. The BMP-2 signaling pathway plays a canonical role in biomineralization. SMAD4 is an intracellular transmitter in the BMP signaling pathway in mammals, and some genomic data show SMAD4’s involvment in BMP signaling in invertbrates, but whether SMAD4 plays a conservative role in pearl oyster, Pinctada fucata, still need to be tested.

Results

In this study, we identified a SMAD4 gene (hereafter designated PfSMAD4) in pearl oyster Pinctada fucata. Bioinformatics analysis of PfSMAD4 showed high identity with its orthologs. PfSMAD4 was located in the cytoplasm in immunofluorescence assays and analyses of PfSMAD4 mRNA in tissues and developmental stages showed high expression in ovaries and D-shaped larvae. An RNA interference experiment, performed by PfSMAD4 double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) injection, demonstrated inhibition not only of nacre growth but also organic sheet formation with a decrease in PfSMAD4 expression. A knockdown experiment using PfBMP2 dsRNA showed decreased PfBMP2 and PfSMAD4 mRNA and irregular crystallization of the nacreous layer using scanning electron microscopy. In co-transfection experiments, PfBMP2-transactivated reporter constructs contained PfSMAD4 promoter sequences.

Conclusions

Our results suggest that PfSMAD4 plays a role in biomineralization and can transduce BMP signals in P. fucata. Our data provides important clues about the molecular mechanisms that regulate biomineralization in pearl oyster.

An optimised whole mount in situ hybridisation protocol for the mollusc Lymnaea stagnalis

Background

The ability to visualise the expression of individual genes in situ is an invaluable tool for developmental and evolutionary biologists; it allows for the characterisation of gene function, gene regulation and through inter-specific comparisons, the evolutionary history of unique morphological features. For well-established model organisms (e.g., flies, worms, sea urchins) this technique has been optimised to an extent where it can be automated for high-throughput analyses. While the overall concept of in situ hybridisation is simple (hybridise a single-stranded, labelled nucleic acid probe complementary to a target of interest, and then detect the label immunologically using colorimetric or fluorescent methods), there are many parameters in the technique that can significantly affect the final result. Furthermore, due to variation in the biochemical and biophysical properties of different cells and tissues, an in situ technique optimised for one species is often not suitable for another, and often varies depending on the ontogenetic stage within a species.

Results

Using a variety of pre-hybridisation treatments we have identified a set of treatments that greatly increases both whole mount in situ hybridisation (WMISH) signal intensity and consistency while maintaining morphological integrity for early larval stages of Lymnaea stagnalis. These treatments function well for a set of genes with presumably significantly different levels of expression (beta tubulin, engrailed and COE) and for colorimetric as well as fluorescent WMISH. We also identify a tissue-specific background stain in the larval shell field of L. stagnalis and a treatment, which eliminates this signal.

Conclusions

This method that we present here will be of value to investigators employing L. stagnalis as a model for a variety of research themes (e.g. evolutionary biology, developmental biology, neurobiology, ecotoxicology), and brings a valuable tool to a species in a much understudied clade of animals collectively known as the Spiralia.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12861-015-0068-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

POU genes are expressed during the formation of individual ganglia of the cephalopod central nervous system

Background

Among the Lophotrochozoa, cephalopods possess the highest degree of central nervous system (CNS) centralization and complexity. Although the anatomy of the developing cephalopod CNS has been investigated, the developmental mechanisms underlying brain development and evolution are unknown. POU genes encode key transcription factors controlling nervous system development in a range of bilaterian species, including lophotrochozoans. In this study, we investigate the expression of POU genes during early development of the pygmy squid Idiosepius notoides and make comparisons with other bilaterians to reveal whether these genes have conserved or divergent roles during CNS development in this species.

Results

POU2, POU3, POU4 and POU6 orthologs were identified in transcriptomes derived from developmental stages and adult brain tissue of I. notoides. All four POU gene orthologs are expressed in different spatiotemporal combinations in the early embryo. Ino-POU2 is expressed in the gills and the palliovisceral, pedal, and optic ganglia of stage 19 to 20 embryos, whereas the cerebral and palliovisceral ganglia express Ino-POU3. Ino-POU4 is expressed in the optic and palliovisceral ganglia and the arms/intrabrachial ganglia of stage 19 to 20 individuals. Ino-POU6 is expressed in the palliovisceral ganglia during early development. In stage 25 embryos expression domains include the intrabrachial ganglia (Ino-POU3) and the pedal ganglia (Ino-POU6). All four POU genes are strongly expressed in large areas of the brain of stage 24 to 26 individuals. Expression could not be detected in late prehatching embryos (approximately stage 27 to 30).

Conclusions

The expression of four POU genes in unique spatiotemporal combinations during early neurogenesis and sensory organ development of I. notoides suggests that they fulfill distinct tasks during early brain development. Comparisons with other bilaterian species reveal that POU gene expression is associated with anteriormost neural structures, even between animals for which these structures are unlikely to be homologous. Within lophotrochozoans, POU3 and POU4 are the only two genes that have been comparatively investigated. Their expression patterns are broadly similar, indicating that the increased complexity of the cephalopod brain is likely due to other unknown factors.

Quantification and geometric analysis of coiling patterns in gastropod shells based on 3D and 2D image data

The morphology of gastropod shells has been a focus of analyses in ecology and evolution. It has recently emerged as an important issue in developmental biology, thanks to recent advancements in molecular biological techniques. The growing tube model is a theoretical morphological model for describing various coiling patterns of molluscan shells, and it is a useful theoretical tool to relate local tissue growth with global shell morphology. However, the growing tube model has rarely been adopted in empirical research owing to the difficulty in estimating the parameters of the model from morphological data. In this article, I solve this problem by developing methods of parameter estimation when (1) 3D Computed Tomography (CT) data are available and (2) only 2D image data (such as photographs) are available. When 3D CT data are available, the parameters can be estimated by fitting an analytical solution of the growing tube model to the data. When only 2D image data are available, we first fit Raup׳s model to the 2D image data and then convert the parameters of Raup׳s model to those of the growing tube model. To illustrate the use of these methods, I apply them to data generated by a computer simulation of the model. Both methods work well, except when shells grow without coiling. I also demonstrate the effectiveness of the methods by applying the model to actual 3D CT data and 2D image data of land snails. I conclude that the method proposed in this article can reconstruct the coiling pattern from observed data.

Cleavage pattern and development of isolated D blastomeres in bivalves

Although bivalves develop through spiral cleavage patterns, similar to other lophotrochozoans, the cleavage pattern of D lineage blastomeres is unique, since 2d shows four rounds of stereotypic unequal cleavage before bilateral cleavage of the largest derivative of 2d: 2d(1121) . This unique modification of spiral cleavage is directly associated with the characteristic morphology of bivalves, namely, bilaterally separated shell plates, because the bilateral shell plates are thought to be derived from the bilateral derivatives of 2d(1121) . In this report, to determine whether the unique cleavage pattern of bivalves is regulated depending on the interaction with other cells or by cell autonomous mechanisms, we performed cell isolation experiments and observed subsequent cleavage patterns of isolated blastomeres. When focusing on the largest derivatives of D blastomeres, 8% of isolated D blastomeres followed the cleavage pattern of normal development up to bilateral cleavage. Importantly, the remainder of the partial embryos ended cleavage before that stage, and none of the isolated blastomeres showed abnormal cleavage patterns. We also examined the development of isolated blastomeres and found that isolated D blastomeres could develop shell plates, whereas larvae developed from AB blastomeres never had shell plates. Based on these observations, we concluded that D blastomeres control their unique cleavage pattern through intrinsic mechanisms and develop shell glands autonomously without any cell-cell interaction with other lineages.

A genome-wide survey of genes encoding transcription factors in the Japanese pearl oyster, Pinctada fucata: I. homeobox genes

Homeobox genes are involved in various aspects of the development of multicellular animals, including anterior-posterior patterning of the body plan. We performed a genomic survey of homeobox genes in the Japanese pearl oyster, Pinctada fucata, and annotated 92 homeobox-containing genes and five homeobox-less Pax genes. This species possesses 10 or 11 Hox genes. We annotated another homeobox genes that cover 77 out of the 111 gene families identified in the amphioxus genome. Investigation of these repertoires of homeobox genes will shed new light on the comparatively less well-understood lophotrochozoan development.

An ancient process in a modern mollusc: early development of the shell in Lymnaea stagnalis

Background

The morphological variety displayed by the molluscan shell underlies much of the evolutionary success of this phylum. However, the broad diversity of shell forms, sizes, ornamentations and functions contrasts with a deep conservation of early cell movements associated with the initiation of shell construction. This process begins during early embryogenesis with a thickening of an ectodermal, ‘dorsal’ (opposite the blastopore) population of cells, which then invaginates into the blastocoel to form the shell gland. The shell gland evaginates to form the shell field, which then expands and further differentiates to eventually become the adult shell-secreting organ commonly known as the mantle. Despite the deep conservation of the early shell forming developmental program across molluscan classes, little is known about the fine-scale cellular or molecular processes that underlie molluscan shell development.

Results

Using modern imaging techniques we provide here a description of the morphogenesis of a gastropod shell gland and shell field using the pulmonate gastropod Lymnaea stagnalis as a model. We find supporting evidence for a hypothesis of molluscan shell gland specification proposed over 60 years ago, and present histochemical assays that can be used to identify a variety of larval shell stages and distinct cell populations in whole mounts.

Conclusions

By providing a detailed spatial and temporal map of cell movements and differentiation events during early shell development in L. stagnalis we have established a platform for future work aimed at elucidation of the molecular mechanisms and regulatory networks that underlie the evo-devo of the molluscan shell.

Left-right asymmetric expression of dpp in the mantle of gastropods correlates with asymmetric shell coiling

Background

Various shapes of gastropod shells have evolved ever since the Cambrian. Although theoretical analyses of morphogenesis exist, the molecular basis of shell development remains unclear. We compared expression patterns of the decapentaplegic (dpp) gene in the shell gland and mantle tissues at various developmental stages between coiled-shell and non-coiled-shell gastropods.

Results

We analyzed the expression patterns of dpp for the two limpets Patella vulgata and Nipponacmea fuscoviridis, and for the dextral wild-type and sinistral mutant lineage of the pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis. The limpets had symmetric expression patterns of dpp throughout ontogeny, whereas in the pond snail, the results indicated asymmetric and mirror image patterns between the dextral and sinistral lineages.

Conclusion

We hypothesize that Dpp induces mantle expansion, and the presence of a left/right asymmetric gradient of the Dpp protein causes the formation of a coiled shell. Our results provide a molecular explanation for shell, coiling including new insights into expression patterns in post-embryonic development, which should aid in understanding how various shell shapes are formed and have evolved in the gastropods.