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Yang Y, Kong Y, Cui J, Hou Y, Gu Z, Ma C. Advances and Applications of Cancer Organoids in Drug Screening and Personalized Medicine. Stem Cell Rev Rep 2024; 20:1213-1226. [PMID: 38532032 DOI: 10.1007/s12015-024-10714-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/21/2024] [Indexed: 03/28/2024]
Abstract
In recent years, the rapid emergence of 3D organoid technology has garnered significant attention from researchers. These miniature models accurately replicate the structure and function of human tissues and organs, offering more physiologically relevant platforms for cancer research. These intricate 3D structures not only serve as promising models for studying human cancer, but also significantly contribute to the advancement of various potential applications in the field of cancer research. To date, organoids have been efficiently constructed from both normal and malignant tissues originating from patients. Using such bioengineering platforms, simulations of infections and cancer processes, mutations and carcinogenesis can be achieved, and organoid technology is also expected to facilitate drug testing and personalized therapies. In conclusion, regenerative medicine has the potential to enhance organoid technology and current transplantation treatments by utilizing genetically identical healthy organoids as substitutes for irreversibly deteriorating diseased organs. This review explored the evolution of cancer organoids and emphasized the significant role these models play in fundamental research and the advancement of personalized medicine in oncology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yujia Yang
- Hebei Medical University-National University of Ireland Galway Stem Cell Research Center, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, 050017, Hebei Province, China
- Hebei Research Center for Stem Cell Medical Translational Engineering, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, 050017, Hebei Province, China
| | - Yajie Kong
- Hebei Medical University-National University of Ireland Galway Stem Cell Research Center, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, 050017, Hebei Province, China
- Hebei Research Center for Stem Cell Medical Translational Engineering, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, 050017, Hebei Province, China
| | - Jinlei Cui
- Immunology Department, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, 050017, Hebei Province, China
| | - Yu Hou
- Hebei Medical University-National University of Ireland Galway Stem Cell Research Center, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, 050017, Hebei Province, China
- Hebei Research Center for Stem Cell Medical Translational Engineering, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, 050017, Hebei Province, China
| | - Zhanjing Gu
- Hebei Medical University-National University of Ireland Galway Stem Cell Research Center, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, 050017, Hebei Province, China
- Hebei Research Center for Stem Cell Medical Translational Engineering, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, 050017, Hebei Province, China
| | - Cuiqing Ma
- Hebei Medical University-National University of Ireland Galway Stem Cell Research Center, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, 050017, Hebei Province, China.
- Hebei Research Center for Stem Cell Medical Translational Engineering, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, 050017, Hebei Province, China.
- Immunology Department, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, 050017, Hebei Province, China.
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Cadavid JL, Li NT, McGuigan AP. Bridging systems biology and tissue engineering: Unleashing the full potential of complex 3D in vitro tissue models of disease. BIOPHYSICS REVIEWS 2024; 5:021301. [PMID: 38617201 PMCID: PMC11008916 DOI: 10.1063/5.0179125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2023] [Accepted: 03/12/2024] [Indexed: 04/16/2024]
Abstract
Rapid advances in tissue engineering have resulted in more complex and physiologically relevant 3D in vitro tissue models with applications in fundamental biology and therapeutic development. However, the complexity provided by these models is often not leveraged fully due to the reductionist methods used to analyze them. Computational and mathematical models developed in the field of systems biology can address this issue. Yet, traditional systems biology has been mostly applied to simpler in vitro models with little physiological relevance and limited cellular complexity. Therefore, integrating these two inherently interdisciplinary fields can result in new insights and move both disciplines forward. In this review, we provide a systematic overview of how systems biology has been integrated with 3D in vitro tissue models and discuss key application areas where the synergies between both fields have led to important advances with potential translational impact. We then outline key directions for future research and discuss a framework for further integration between fields.
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Mulero-Russe A, García AJ. Engineered Synthetic Matrices for Human Intestinal Organoid Culture and Therapeutic Delivery. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2024; 36:e2307678. [PMID: 37987171 PMCID: PMC10922691 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202307678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2023] [Revised: 11/02/2023] [Indexed: 11/22/2023]
Abstract
Human intestinal organoids (HIOs) derived from pluripotent stem cells or adult stem cell biopsies represent a powerful platform to study human development, drug testing, and disease modeling in vitro, and serve as a cell source for tissue regeneration and therapeutic advances in vivo. Synthetic hydrogels can be engineered to serve as analogs of the extracellular matrix to support HIO growth and differentiation. These hydrogels allow for tuning the mechanical and biochemical properties of the matrix, offering an advantage over biologically derived hydrogels such as Matrigel. Human intestinal organoids have been used for repopulating transplantable intestinal grafts and for in vivo delivery to an injured intestinal site. The use of synthetic hydrogels for in vitro culture and for in vivo delivery is expected to significantly increase the relevance of human intestinal organoids for drug screening, disease modeling, and therapeutic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriana Mulero-Russe
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 30332, USA
- Parker H. Petit Institute for Bioengineering and Biosciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 30332, USA
| | - Andrés J García
- Parker H. Petit Institute for Bioengineering and Biosciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 30332, USA
- George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 30332, USA
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4
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Pinto S, Hosseini M, Buckley ST, Yin W, Garousi J, Gräslund T, van Ijzendoorn S, Santos HA, Sarmento B. Nanoparticles targeting the intestinal Fc receptor enhance intestinal cellular trafficking of semaglutide. J Control Release 2024; 366:621-636. [PMID: 38215986 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2024.01.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2023] [Revised: 12/29/2023] [Accepted: 01/09/2024] [Indexed: 01/14/2024]
Abstract
Semaglutide is the first oral glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) analog commercially available for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. In this work, semaglutide was incorporated into poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid)-poly(ethylene glycol) (PLGA-PEG) nanoparticles (NPs) to improve its delivery across the intestinal barrier. The nanocarriers were surface-decorated with either a peptide or an affibody that target the human neonatal Fc receptor (hFcRn), located on the luminal cell surface of the enterocytes. Both ligands were successfully conjugated with the PLGA-PEG via maleimide-thiol chemistry and thereafter, the functionalized polymers were used to produce semaglutide-loaded NPs. Monodisperse NPs with an average size of 170 nm, neutral surface charge and 3% of semaglutide loading were obtained. Both FcRn-targeted NPs exhibited improved interaction and association with Caco-2 cells (cells that endogenously express the hFcRn), compared to non-targeted NPs. Additionally, the uptake of FcRn-targeted NPs was also observed to occur in human intestinal organoids (HIOs) expressing hFcRn through microinjection into the lumen of HIOs, resulting in potential increase of semaglutide permeability for both ligand-functionalized nanocarriers. Herein, our study demonstrates valuable data and insights that the FcRn-targeted NPs has the capacity to promote intestinal absorption of therapeutic peptides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soraia Pinto
- Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (i3S), Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal; Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar (ICBAS), Universidade do Porto, Rua Jorge de Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Mahya Hosseini
- Department of Biomedical Sciences of Cell and Systems, Section Molecular Cell Biology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, 9713, AV, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Stephen T Buckley
- Global Research Technologies, Novo Nordisk, Novo Nordisk Park 1, 2760 Måløv, Denmark
| | - Wen Yin
- Department of Protein Science, School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Roslagstullsbacken 21, 114 17 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Javad Garousi
- Department of Protein Science, School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Roslagstullsbacken 21, 114 17 Stockholm, Sweden; Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Uppsala University, 75185 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Torbjörn Gräslund
- Department of Protein Science, School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and Health, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Roslagstullsbacken 21, 114 17 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Sven van Ijzendoorn
- Department of Biomedical Sciences of Cell and Systems, Section Molecular Cell Biology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, 9713, AV, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Hélder A Santos
- Drug Research Program, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Viikinkaari 5E, Helsinki FI-00014, Finland; W.J. Kolff Institute for Biomedical Engineering and Materials Science, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, 9713 AV Groningen, the Netherlands; Department of Biomedical Engineering, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, 9713 AV Groningen, the Netherlands.
| | - Bruno Sarmento
- Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (i3S), Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal; Instituto Universitário de Ciências da Saúde (IUCS-CESPU), Rua Central de Gandra 1317, 4585-116 Gandra, Portugal.
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Cruz-Acuña R, Kariuki SW, Sugiura K, Karaiskos S, Plaster EM, Loebel C, Efe G, Karakasheva T, Gabre JT, Hu J, Burdick JA, Rustgi AK. Engineered hydrogel reveals contribution of matrix mechanics to esophageal adenocarcinoma and identifies matrix-activated therapeutic targets. J Clin Invest 2023; 133:e168146. [PMID: 37788109 PMCID: PMC10688988 DOI: 10.1172/jci168146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2022] [Accepted: 09/28/2023] [Indexed: 10/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Increased extracellular matrix (ECM) stiffness has been implicated in esophageal adenocarcinoma (EAC) progression, metastasis, and resistance to therapy. However, the underlying protumorigenic pathways are yet to be defined. Additional work is needed to develop physiologically relevant in vitro 3D culture models that better recapitulate the human tumor microenvironment and can be used to dissect the contributions of matrix stiffness to EAC pathogenesis. Here, we describe a modular, tumor ECM-mimetic hydrogel platform with tunable mechanical properties, defined presentation of cell-adhesive ligands, and protease-dependent degradation that supports robust in vitro growth and expansion of patient-derived EAC 3D organoids (EAC PDOs). Hydrogel mechanical properties control EAC PDO formation, growth, proliferation, and activation of tumor-associated pathways that elicit stem-like properties in the cancer cells, as highlighted through in vitro and in vivo environments. We also demonstrate that the engineered hydrogel serves as a platform for identifying potential therapeutic targets to disrupt the contribution of protumorigenic matrix mechanics in EAC. Together, these studies show that an engineered PDO culture platform can be used to elucidate underlying matrix-mediated mechanisms of EAC and inform the development of therapeutics that target ECM stiffness in EAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ricardo Cruz-Acuña
- Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Division of Digestive and Liver Diseases, Department of Medicine, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York, USA
| | - Secunda W. Kariuki
- Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Division of Digestive and Liver Diseases, Department of Medicine, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York, USA
| | - Kensuke Sugiura
- Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Division of Digestive and Liver Diseases, Department of Medicine, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York, USA
| | - Spyros Karaiskos
- Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Division of Digestive and Liver Diseases, Department of Medicine, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York, USA
| | | | - Claudia Loebel
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Gizem Efe
- Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Division of Digestive and Liver Diseases, Department of Medicine, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York, USA
| | - Tatiana Karakasheva
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Joel T. Gabre
- Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Division of Digestive and Liver Diseases, Department of Medicine, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York, USA
| | - Jianhua Hu
- Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Division of Digestive and Liver Diseases, Department of Medicine, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York, USA
| | - Jason A. Burdick
- BioFrontiers Institute and Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, USA
| | - Anil K. Rustgi
- Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Division of Digestive and Liver Diseases, Department of Medicine, Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, New York, USA
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Ahmed T. Biomaterial-based in vitro 3D modeling of glioblastoma multiforme. CANCER PATHOGENESIS AND THERAPY 2023; 1:177-194. [PMID: 38327839 PMCID: PMC10846340 DOI: 10.1016/j.cpt.2023.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2022] [Revised: 12/24/2022] [Accepted: 01/04/2023] [Indexed: 02/09/2024]
Abstract
Adult-onset brain cancers, such as glioblastomas, are particularly lethal. People with glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) do not anticipate living for more than 15 months if there is no cure. The results of conventional treatments over the past 20 years have been underwhelming. Tumor aggressiveness, location, and lack of systemic therapies that can penetrate the blood-brain barrier are all contributing factors. For GBM treatments that appear promising in preclinical studies, there is a considerable rate of failure in phase I and II clinical trials. Unfortunately, access becomes impossible due to the intricate architecture of tumors. In vitro, bioengineered cancer models are currently being used by researchers to study disease development, test novel therapies, and advance specialized medications. Many different techniques for creating in vitro systems have arisen over the past few decades due to developments in cellular and tissue engineering. Later-stage research may yield better results if in vitro models that resemble brain tissue and the blood-brain barrier are used. With the use of 3D preclinical models made available by biomaterials, researchers have discovered that it is possible to overcome these limitations. Innovative in vitro models for the treatment of GBM are possible using biomaterials and novel drug carriers. This review discusses the benefits and drawbacks of 3D in vitro glioblastoma modeling systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanvir Ahmed
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, North South University, Bashundhara, Dhaka, 1229, Bangladesh
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Abdal Dayem A, Lee SB, Lim KM, Kim A, Shin HJ, Vellingiri B, Kim YB, Cho SG. Bioactive peptides for boosting stem cell culture platform: Methods and applications. Biomed Pharmacother 2023; 160:114376. [PMID: 36764131 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2023.114376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2022] [Revised: 02/02/2023] [Accepted: 02/03/2023] [Indexed: 02/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Peptides, short protein fragments, can emulate the functions of their full-length native counterparts. Peptides are considered potent recombinant protein alternatives due to their specificity, high stability, low production cost, and ability to be easily tailored and immobilized. Stem cell proliferation and differentiation processes are orchestrated by an intricate interaction between numerous growth factors and proteins and their target receptors and ligands. Various growth factors, functional proteins, and cellular matrix-derived peptides efficiently enhance stem cell adhesion, proliferation, and directed differentiation. For that, peptides can be immobilized on a culture plate or conjugated to scaffolds, such as hydrogels or synthetic matrices. In this review, we assess the applications of a variety of peptides in stem cell adhesion, culture, organoid assembly, proliferation, and differentiation, describing the shortcomings of recombinant proteins and their full-length counterparts. Furthermore, we discuss the challenges of peptide applications in stem cell culture and materials design, as well as provide a brief outlook on future directions to advance peptide applications in boosting stem cell quality and scalability for clinical applications in tissue regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed Abdal Dayem
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biotechnology, KU Convergence Science and Technology Institute, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Soo Bin Lee
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biotechnology, KU Convergence Science and Technology Institute, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyung Min Lim
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biotechnology, KU Convergence Science and Technology Institute, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea; R&D Team, StemExOne co., ltd. 303, Life Science Bldg, 120 Neungdong-ro, Gwangjin-gu, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Aram Kim
- Department of Urology, Konkuk University Medical Center, Konkuk University School of Medicine, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea; R&D Team, StemExOne co., ltd. 303, Life Science Bldg, 120 Neungdong-ro, Gwangjin-gu, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun Jin Shin
- Department of Ophthalmology, Research Institute of Medical Science, Konkuk University Medical Center, Konkuk University School of Medicine, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea; R&D Team, StemExOne co., ltd. 303, Life Science Bldg, 120 Neungdong-ro, Gwangjin-gu, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Balachandar Vellingiri
- Stem cell and Regenerative Medicine/Translational Research, Department of Zoology, School of Basic Sciences, Central University of Punjab (CUPB), Bathinda 151401, Punjab, India
| | - Young Bong Kim
- Department of Biomedical Science & Engineering, KU Convergence Science and Technology Institute, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Ssang-Goo Cho
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biotechnology, KU Convergence Science and Technology Institute, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea; R&D Team, StemExOne co., ltd. 303, Life Science Bldg, 120 Neungdong-ro, Gwangjin-gu, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea.
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8
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Prasad M, Kumar R, Buragohain L, Kumari A, Ghosh M. Organoid Technology: A Reliable Developmental Biology Tool for Organ-Specific Nanotoxicity Evaluation. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:696668. [PMID: 34631696 PMCID: PMC8495170 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.696668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2021] [Accepted: 08/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Engineered nanomaterials are bestowed with certain inherent physicochemical properties unlike their parent materials, rendering them suitable for the multifaceted needs of state-of-the-art biomedical, and pharmaceutical applications. The log-phase development of nano-science along with improved "bench to beside" conversion carries an enhanced probability of human exposure with numerous nanoparticles. Thus, toxicity assessment of these novel nanoscale materials holds a key to ensuring the safety aspects or else the global biome will certainly face a debacle. The toxicity may span from health hazards due to direct exposure to indirect means through food chain contamination or environmental pollution, even causing genotoxicity. Multiple ways of nanotoxicity evaluation include several in vitro and in vivo methods, with in vitro methods occupying the bulk of the "experimental space." The underlying reason may be multiple, but ethical constraints in in vivo animal experiments are a significant one. Two-dimensional (2D) monoculture is undoubtedly the most exploited in vitro method providing advantages in terms of cost-effectiveness, high throughput, and reproducibility. However, it often fails to mimic a tissue or organ which possesses a defined three-dimensional structure (3D) along with intercellular communication machinery. Instead, microtissues such as spheroids or organoids having a precise 3D architecture and proximate in vivo tissue-like behavior can provide a more realistic evaluation than 2D monocultures. Recent developments in microfluidics and bioreactor-based organoid synthesis have eased the difficulties to prosper nano-toxicological analysis in organoid models surpassing the obstacle of ethical issues. The present review will enlighten applications of organoids in nanotoxicological evaluation, their advantages, and prospects toward securing commonplace nano-interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minakshi Prasad
- Department of Animal Biotechnology, Lala Lajpat Rai University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Hisar, India
| | - Rajesh Kumar
- Department of Veterinary Physiology and Biochemistry, Lala Lajpat Rai University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Hisar, India
| | - Lukumoni Buragohain
- Department of Animal Biotechnology, College of Veterinary Science, Assam Agricultural University, Guwahati, India
| | | | - Mayukh Ghosh
- Department of Veterinary Physiology and Biochemistry, RGSC, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India
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Chang CY, Johnson HC, Babb O, Fishel ML, Lin CC. Biomimetic stiffening of cell-laden hydrogels via sequential thiol-ene and hydrazone click reactions. Acta Biomater 2021; 130:161-171. [PMID: 34087443 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2021.05.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2021] [Revised: 05/11/2021] [Accepted: 05/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Hydrogels with dynamically tunable crosslinking are invaluable for directing stem cell fate and mimicking a stiffening matrix during fibrosis or tumor development. The increases in matrix stiffness during tissue development are often accompanied by the accumulation of extracellular matrices (e.g., collagen, hyaluronic acid (HA)), a phenomenon that has received little attention in the development of dynamic hydrogels. In this contribution, we present a gelatin-based cell-laden hydrogel system capable of being dynamically stiffened while accumulating HA, a key glycosaminoglycans (GAG) increasingly deposited by stromal cells during tumor progression. Central to this strategy is the synthesis of a dually-modified gelatin macromer - gelatin-norbornene-carbohydrazide (GelNB-CH), which is susceptible to both thiol-norbornene photopolymerization and hydrazone click chemistry. We demonstrate that the crosslinking density of cell-laden thiol-norbornene hydrogels can be dynamically tuned via simple incubation with aldehyde-bearing macromers (e.g., oxidized dextran (oDex) or oHA). The GelNB-CH hydrogel system is highly cytocompatible, as demonstrated by in situ encapsulation of pancreatic cancer cells (PCC) and cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAF). This unique dynamic stiffening scheme provides a platform to study tandem accumulation of HA and elevation in matrix stiffness in the pancreatic tumor microenvironment. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Hydrogels permitting on-demand and secondary crosslinking are ideal for mimicking a stiffening tumor microenvironment (TME). However, none of the current dynamic hydrogels account for both stiffening and accumulation of hyaluronic acid (HA), a major extracellular matrix component increasingly deposited in tumor stromal tissues, including pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). The current work addresses this gap by developing a dynamic hydrogel system capable of simultaneously increasing stiffness and HA accumulation. This is achieved by a new gelatin macromer permitting sequential thiol-norbornene (for primary network crosslinking) and hydrazone click chemistry (for bioinert or biomimetic stiffening with oxidized dextran (oDex) or oHA, respectively). The results of this study provide new insights into how dynamically changing physicochemical matrix properties guide cancer cell fate processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun-Yi Chang
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Hunter C Johnson
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue School of Engineering & Technology, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Olivia Babb
- Department of Pediatrics, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Melissa L Fishel
- Department of Pediatrics, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Indiana University Simon Comprehensive Cancer Center, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Chien-Chi Lin
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue School of Engineering & Technology, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, IN, USA; Indiana University Simon Comprehensive Cancer Center, Indianapolis, IN, USA.
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10
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Cruz-Acuña R, Vunjak-Novakovic G, Burdick JA, Rustgi AK. Emerging technologies provide insights on cancer extracellular matrix biology and therapeutics. iScience 2021; 24:102475. [PMID: 34027324 PMCID: PMC8131321 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2021.102475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent engineering technologies have transformed traditional perspectives of cancer to include the important role of the extracellular matrix (ECM) in recapitulating the malignant behaviors of cancer cells. Novel biomaterials and imaging technologies have advanced our understanding of the role of ECM density, structure, mechanics, and remodeling in tumor cell-ECM interactions in cancer biology and have provided new approaches in the development of cancer therapeutics. Here, we review emerging technologies in cancer ECM biology and recent advances in engineered systems for evaluating cancer therapeutics and provide new perspectives on how engineering tools present an opportunity for advancing the modeling and treatment of cancer. This review offers the cell biology and cancer cell biology communities insight into how engineering tools can improve our understanding of cancer ECM biology and therapeutic development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ricardo Cruz-Acuña
- Division of Digestive and Liver Diseases, Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
- Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | | | - Jason A. Burdick
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Anil K. Rustgi
- Division of Digestive and Liver Diseases, Department of Medicine, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
- Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
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11
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Sachdeva UM, Shimonosono M, Flashner S, Cruz-Acuña R, Gabre JT, Nakagawa H. Understanding the cellular origin and progression of esophageal cancer using esophageal organoids. Cancer Lett 2021; 509:39-52. [PMID: 33838281 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2021.03.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2021] [Revised: 03/25/2021] [Accepted: 03/29/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Three-dimensional (3D) organoids are a novel tool to model epithelial cell biology and human diseases of the esophagus. 3D organoid culture systems have been utilized to investigate the pathobiology of esophageal cancer, including both squamous cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma. Additional organoid-based approaches for study of esophageal development and benign esophageal diseases have provided key insights into esophageal keratinocyte differentiation and mucosal regeneration. These investigations have implications for the identification of esophageal cancer stem cells, as well as the potential to halt malignant progression through induction of differentiation pathways. Patient-derived organoids (PDOs) from human tissue samples allow for unique and faithful in vitro modeling of esophageal cancers, and provide an exciting platform for investigation into personalized medicine and targeted treatment approaches, as well as new models for understanding therapy resistance and recurrent disease. Future directions include high-throughput genomic screening using PDOs, and study of tumor-microenvironmental interactions through co-culture with immune and stromal cells and novel extracellular matrix complexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Uma M Sachdeva
- Divison of Thoracic Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Masataka Shimonosono
- Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Samuel Flashner
- Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Ricardo Cruz-Acuña
- Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Joel T Gabre
- Division of Digestive and Liver Diseases, Department of Medicine, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA; Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Hiroshi Nakagawa
- Division of Digestive and Liver Diseases, Department of Medicine, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA; Herbert Irving Comprehensive Cancer Center, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA.
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12
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Blanco‐Fernandez B, Gaspar VM, Engel E, Mano JF. Proteinaceous Hydrogels for Bioengineering Advanced 3D Tumor Models. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2021; 8:2003129. [PMID: 33643799 PMCID: PMC7887602 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202003129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2020] [Revised: 10/13/2020] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
The establishment of tumor microenvironment using biomimetic in vitro models that recapitulate key tumor hallmarks including the tumor supporting extracellular matrix (ECM) is in high demand for accelerating the discovery and preclinical validation of more effective anticancer therapeutics. To date, ECM-mimetic hydrogels have been widely explored for 3D in vitro disease modeling owing to their bioactive properties that can be further adapted to the biochemical and biophysical properties of native tumors. Gathering on this momentum, herein the current landscape of intrinsically bioactive protein and peptide hydrogels that have been employed for 3D tumor modeling are discussed. Initially, the importance of recreating such microenvironment and the main considerations for generating ECM-mimetic 3D hydrogel in vitro tumor models are showcased. A comprehensive discussion focusing protein, peptide, or hybrid ECM-mimetic platforms employed for modeling cancer cells/stroma cross-talk and for the preclinical evaluation of candidate anticancer therapies is also provided. Further development of tumor-tunable, proteinaceous or peptide 3D microtesting platforms with microenvironment-specific biophysical and biomolecular cues will contribute to better mimic the in vivo scenario, and improve the predictability of preclinical screening of generalized or personalized therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Blanco‐Fernandez
- Department of Chemistry, CICECO – Aveiro Institute of Materials, University of AveiroCampus Universitário de SantiagoAveiro3810‐193Portugal
- Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC)The Barcelona Institute of Science and TechnologyBaldiri Reixac 10–12Barcelona08028Spain
| | - Vítor M. Gaspar
- Department of Chemistry, CICECO – Aveiro Institute of Materials, University of AveiroCampus Universitário de SantiagoAveiro3810‐193Portugal
| | - Elisabeth Engel
- Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC)The Barcelona Institute of Science and TechnologyBaldiri Reixac 10–12Barcelona08028Spain
- Materials Science and Metallurgical EngineeringPolytechnical University of Catalonia (UPC)Eduard Maristany 16Barcelona08019Spain
- CIBER en BioingenieríaBiomateriales y NanomedicinaCIBER‐BBNMadrid28029Spain
| | - João F. Mano
- Department of Chemistry, CICECO – Aveiro Institute of Materials, University of AveiroCampus Universitário de SantiagoAveiro3810‐193Portugal
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13
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Kronemberger GS, Carneiro FA, Rezende DF, Baptista LS. Spheroids and organoids as humanized 3D scaffold-free engineered tissues for SARS-CoV-2 viral infection and drug screening. Artif Organs 2021; 45:548-558. [PMID: 33264436 PMCID: PMC7753831 DOI: 10.1111/aor.13880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2020] [Revised: 11/10/2020] [Accepted: 11/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The new coronavirus (2019‐nCoV) or the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2) was officially declared by the World Health Organization (WHO) as a pandemic in March 2020. To date, there are no specific antiviral drugs proven to be effective in treating SARS‐CoV‐2, requiring joint efforts from different research fronts to discover the best route of treatment. The first decisions in drug discovery are based on 2D cell culture using high‐throughput screening. In this context, spheroids and organoids emerge as a reliable alternative. Both are scaffold‐free 3D engineered constructs that recapitulate key cellular and molecular events of tissue physiology. Different studies have already shown their advantages as a model for different infectious diseases, including SARS‐CoV‐2 and for drug screening. The use of these 3D engineered tissues as an in vitro model can fill the gap between 2D cell culture and in vivo preclinical assays (animal models) as they could recapitulate the entire viral life cycle. The main objective of this review is to understand spheroid and organoid biology, highlighting their advantages and disadvantages, and how these scaffold‐free engineered tissues can contribute to a better comprehension of viral infection by SARS‐CoV‐2 and to the development of in vitro high‐throughput models for drug screening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriela S Kronemberger
- Nucleus of Multidisciplinary Research in Biology (Numpex-Bio), Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Campus Duque de Caxias, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.,Postgraduation Program of Translational Biomedicine (Biotrans), Unigranrio, Campus I, Duque de Caxias, Brazil
| | - Fabiana A Carneiro
- Nucleus of Multidisciplinary Research in Biology (Numpex-Bio), Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Campus Duque de Caxias, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | | | - Leandra S Baptista
- Nucleus of Multidisciplinary Research in Biology (Numpex-Bio), Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Campus Duque de Caxias, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.,Postgraduation Program of Translational Biomedicine (Biotrans), Unigranrio, Campus I, Duque de Caxias, Brazil
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14
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Keller F, Bruch R, Schneider R, Meier-Hubberten J, Hafner M, Rudolf R. A Scaffold-Free 3-D Co-Culture Mimics the Major Features of the Reverse Warburg Effect In Vitro. Cells 2020; 9:cells9081900. [PMID: 32823793 PMCID: PMC7463893 DOI: 10.3390/cells9081900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2020] [Revised: 07/31/2020] [Accepted: 08/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Most tumors consume large amounts of glucose. Concepts to explain the mechanisms that mediate the achievement of this metabolic need have proposed a switch of the tumor mass to aerobic glycolysis. Depending on whether primarily tumor or stroma cells undergo such a commutation, the terms ‘Warburg effect’ or ‘reverse Warburg effect’ were coined to describe the underlying biological phenomena. However, current in vitro systems relying on 2-D culture, single cell-type spheroids, or basal-membrane extract (BME/Matrigel)-containing 3-D structures do not thoroughly reflect these processes. Here, we aimed to establish a BME/Matrigel-free 3-D microarray cancer model to recapitulate the metabolic interplay between cancer and stromal cells that allows mechanistic analyses and drug testing. Human HT-29 colon cancer and CCD-1137Sk fibroblast cells were used in mono- and co-cultures as 2-D monolayers, spheroids, and in a cell-chip format. Metabolic patterns were studied with immunofluorescence and confocal microscopy. In chip-based co-cultures, HT-29 cells showed facilitated 3-D growth and increased levels of hexokinase-2, TP53-induced glycolysis and apoptosis regulator (TIGAR), lactate dehydrogenase, and: translocase of outer mitochondrial membrane 20 (TOMM20), when compared with HT-29 mono-cultures. Fibroblasts co-cultured with HT-29 cells expressed higher levels of mono-carboxylate transporter 4, hexokinase-2, microtubule-associated proteins 1A/1B light chain 3, and ubiquitin-binding protein p62 than in fibroblast mono-cultures, in both 2-D cultures and chips. Tetramethylrhodamin-methylester (TMRM) live-cell imaging of chip co-cultures revealed a higher mitochondrial potential in cancer cells than in fibroblasts. The findings demonstrate a crosstalk between cancer cells and fibroblasts that affects cellular growth and metabolism. Chip-based 3-D co-cultures of cancer cells and fibroblasts mimicked features of the reverse Warburg effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian Keller
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Mannheim University of Applied Sciences, 68163 Mannheim, Germany; (F.K.); (R.B.); (M.H.)
- Institute of Medical Technology, Medical Faculty Mannheim of Heidelberg University and Mannheim University of Applied Sciences, 68167 Mannheim, Germany
| | - Roman Bruch
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Mannheim University of Applied Sciences, 68163 Mannheim, Germany; (F.K.); (R.B.); (M.H.)
| | - Richard Schneider
- TIP Oncology, Merck Healthcare KGaA, 64289 Darmstadt, Germany; (R.S.); (J.M.-H.)
| | | | - Mathias Hafner
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Mannheim University of Applied Sciences, 68163 Mannheim, Germany; (F.K.); (R.B.); (M.H.)
- Institute of Medical Technology, Medical Faculty Mannheim of Heidelberg University and Mannheim University of Applied Sciences, 68167 Mannheim, Germany
| | - Rüdiger Rudolf
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Mannheim University of Applied Sciences, 68163 Mannheim, Germany; (F.K.); (R.B.); (M.H.)
- Institute of Medical Technology, Medical Faculty Mannheim of Heidelberg University and Mannheim University of Applied Sciences, 68167 Mannheim, Germany
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-621-292-6804
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15
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Kakni P, Hueber R, Knoops K, López‐Iglesias C, Truckenmüller R, Habibovic P, Giselbrecht S. Intestinal Organoid Culture in Polymer Film‐Based Microwell Arrays. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020; 4:e2000126. [DOI: 10.1002/adbi.202000126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2020] [Revised: 07/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Panagiota Kakni
- Department of Instructive Biomaterials Engineering MERLN Institute for Technology‐Inspired Regenerative Medicine Maastricht University Universiteitssingel 40 Maastricht ER 6229 The Netherlands
| | - Rui Hueber
- Department of Instructive Biomaterials Engineering MERLN Institute for Technology‐Inspired Regenerative Medicine Maastricht University Universiteitssingel 40 Maastricht ER 6229 The Netherlands
| | - Kèvin Knoops
- Microscopy CORE Lab Maastricht Multimodal Molecular Imaging Institute (M4I) Maastricht University Universiteitssingel 50 Maastricht ER 6229 The Netherlands
| | - Carmen López‐Iglesias
- Microscopy CORE Lab Maastricht Multimodal Molecular Imaging Institute (M4I) Maastricht University Universiteitssingel 50 Maastricht ER 6229 The Netherlands
| | - Roman Truckenmüller
- Department of Instructive Biomaterials Engineering MERLN Institute for Technology‐Inspired Regenerative Medicine Maastricht University Universiteitssingel 40 Maastricht ER 6229 The Netherlands
| | - Pamela Habibovic
- Department of Instructive Biomaterials Engineering MERLN Institute for Technology‐Inspired Regenerative Medicine Maastricht University Universiteitssingel 40 Maastricht ER 6229 The Netherlands
| | - Stefan Giselbrecht
- Department of Instructive Biomaterials Engineering MERLN Institute for Technology‐Inspired Regenerative Medicine Maastricht University Universiteitssingel 40 Maastricht ER 6229 The Netherlands
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason A. Burdick
- Department of BioengineeringUniversity of Pennsylvania Philadelphia PA 19104 USA
| | - Andrés J. García
- Petit Institute for Bioengineering and BioscienceWoodruff School of Mechanical EngineeringGeorgia Institute of Technology Atlanta GA 30332 USA
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17
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Shafiee A. Design and Fabrication of Three-Dimensional Printed Scaffolds for Cancer Precision Medicine. Tissue Eng Part A 2020; 26:305-317. [PMID: 31992154 DOI: 10.1089/ten.tea.2019.0278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Three-dimensional (3D)-engineered scaffolds have been widely investigated as drug delivery systems (DDS) or cancer models with the aim to develop effective cancer therapies. The in vitro and in vivo models developed via 3D printing (3DP) and tissue engineering concepts have significantly contributed to our understanding of cell-cell and cell-extracellular matrix interactions in the cancer microenvironment. Moreover, 3D tumor models were used to study the therapeutic efficiency of anticancer drugs. The present study aims to provide an overview of applying the 3DP and tissue engineering concepts for cancer studies with suggestions for future research directions. The 3DP technologies being used for the fabrication of personalized DDS have been highlighted and the potential technical approaches and challenges associated with the fused deposition modeling, the inkjet-powder bed, and stereolithography as the most promising 3DP techniques for drug delivery purposes are briefly described. Then, the advances, challenges, and future perspectives in tissue-engineered cancer models for precision medicine are discussed. Overall, future advances in this arena depend on the continuous integration of knowledge from cancer biology, biofabrication techniques, multiomics and patient data, and medical needs to develop effective treatments ultimately leading to improved clinical outcomes. Impact statement Three-dimensional printing (3DP) enables the fabrication of personalized medicines and drug delivery systems. The convergence of 3DP, tissue engineering concepts, and cancer biology could significantly improve our understanding of cancer biology and contribute to the development of new cancer therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abbas Shafiee
- UQ Diamantina Institute, Translational Research Institute, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.,Centre in Regenerative Medicine, Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), Brisbane, Australia.,Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Metro North Hospital and Health Service, Brisbane, Australia
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18
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Blockade of STAT3 Causes Severe In Vitro and In Vivo Maturation Defects in Intestinal Organoids Derived from Human Embryonic Stem Cells. J Clin Med 2019; 8:jcm8070976. [PMID: 31277507 PMCID: PMC6678857 DOI: 10.3390/jcm8070976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2019] [Revised: 06/28/2019] [Accepted: 07/01/2019] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Human intestinal organoids (hIOs), which resemble the human intestine structurally and physiologically, have emerged as a new modality for the study of the molecular and cellular biology of the intestine in vitro. We recently developed an in vitro maturation technique for generating functional hIOs from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs). Here, we investigated the function of STAT3 for inducing in vitro maturation of hIOs. This was accompanied by the tyrosine phosphorylation of STAT3, whereas treatment with pharmacological inhibitors of STAT3 suppressed the phosphorylation of STAT3 and the expression of intestinal maturation markers. We generated and characterized STAT3 knockout (KO) human embryonic stem cell (hESC) lines using CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene editing. We found that STAT3 KO does not affect the differentiation of hESCs into hIOs but rather affects the in vitro maturation of hIOs. STAT3 KO hIOs displayed immature morphologies with decreased size and reduced budding in hIOs even after in vitro maturation. STAT3 KO hIOs showed markedly different profiles from hIOs matured in vitro and human small intestine. Additionally, STAT3 KO hIOs failed to maintain upon in vivo transplantation. This study reveals a core signaling pathway consisting of STAT3 controlling the in vitro maturation of hIOs derived from hPSCs.
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19
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Wickström SA, Roca-Cusachs P. Special issue on "mechanotransduction in cell fate determination" - From molecular switches to organ-level regulation. Exp Cell Res 2019; 382:111452. [PMID: 31153925 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2019.05.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sara A Wickström
- Helsinki Institute of Life Science, Biomedicum Helsinki, University of Helsinki, Finland; Wihuri Research Institute, Biomedicum Helsinki, University of Helsinki, Finland; Stem Cells and Metabolism Research Program, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Finland; Max Planck Institute for Biology of Ageing, Cologne, Germany; Cologne Excellence Cluster for Stress Responses in Ageing-associated Diseases (CECAD), University of Cologne, Germany.
| | - Pere Roca-Cusachs
- Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute of Technology (BIST), 08028, Barcelona, Spain; Universitat de Barcelona, 08036, Barcelona, Spain.
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