Gonadal steroid hormones and the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis

Emotion recognition and regulation in males: Role of sex and stress steroids

Understanding emotions in males is crucial given their higher susceptibility to substance use, interpersonal violence, and suicide compared to females. Steroid hormones are assumed to be critical biological factors that affect and modulate emotion-related behaviors, together with psychological and social factors. This review explores whether males' abilities to recognize emotions of others and regulate their own emotions are associated with testosterone, cortisol, and their interaction. Higher levels of testosterone were associated with improved recognition and heightened sensitivity to threatening faces. In contrast, higher cortisol levels positively impacted emotion regulation ability. Indirect evidence from neuroimaging research suggested a link between higher testosterone levels and difficulties in cognitive emotion regulation. However, this notion must be investigated in future studies using different emotion regulation strategies and considering social status. The present review contributes to the understanding of how testosterone and cortisol affect psychological well-being and emotional behavior in males.

Gonads under stress: A systematic review and meta-analysis on the effects of acute psychosocial stress on gonadal steroids secretion in humans

Animal research has shown that the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis is inhibited by (chronic and/or severe) stress, which can lead to impaired fertility and reproductive functioning, presumably caused by the inhibition of gonadal steroid secretion and in interactions with glucocorticoids. However, what has not been clarified is how acute psychosocial stress modulates gonadal steroid secretion in humans. Here we summarize the experimental research on the acute effects of stress on the secretion of gonadal steroids in humans. A systematic literature search revealed 21 studies (with N=881 individuals) measuring testosterone, progesterone or estradiol in response to a standardized acute laboratory stressor in healthy humans. Both our literature review and quantitative meta-analysis suggest that in humans, acute stress stimulates rather than inhibits HPG axis activity, although there is a considerable heterogeneity in the reported methods and results. Increased gonadal steroids in response to acute stress contrasts with many animal studies reporting the opposite pattern, at least regarding severe and/or chronic stressors. We discuss methodological issues and challenges for future research and hope to stimulate experimental studies within this area. A better understanding of these mechanisms is needed, and may have important implications for health and disease, as well as the modulation of various behaviors by acute stressors.

Acute, but not repeated, cocaine exposure alters allopregnanolone levels in the midbrain of male and female rats

RATIONALE

Multiple psychiatric disorders are associated with altered brain and serum levels of neuroactive steroids, including the endogenous GABAergic steroid, allopregnanolone. Clinically, chronic cocaine use was correlated with decreased levels of pregnenolone. Preclinically, the effect of acute cocaine on allopregnanolone levels in rodents has had mixed results, showing an increase or no change in allopregnanolone levels in some brain regions.

OBJECTIVE

We hypothesized that cocaine acutely increases allopregnanolone levels, but repeated cocaine exposure decreases allopregnanolone levels compared to controls.

METHODS

We performed two separate studies to determine how systemic administration of 15 mg/kg cocaine (1) acutely or (2) chronically alters brain (olfactory bulb, frontal cortex, dorsal striatum, and midbrain) and serum allopregnanolone levels in adult male and female Sprague-Dawley rats.

RESULTS

Cocaine acutely increased allopregnanolone levels in the midbrain, but not in olfactory bulb, frontal cortex, or dorsal striatum. Repeated cocaine did not persistently (24 h later) alter allopregnanolone levels in any region in either sex. However, allopregnanolone levels varied by sex across brain regions. In the acute study, we found that females had significantly higher allopregnanolone levels in serum and olfactory bulb relative to males. In the repeated cocaine study, females had significantly higher allopregnanolone levels in olfactory bulb, frontal cortex, and serum. Finally, acute cocaine increased allopregnanolone levels in the frontal cortex of females in proestrus, relative to non-proestrus stages.

CONCLUSION

Collectively these results suggest that allopregnanolone levels vary across brain regions and by sex, which may play a part in differential responses to cocaine by sex.

Chronic corticosterone exposure in rats induces sex-specific alterations in hypothalamic reelin fragments, MeCP2, and DNMT3a protein levels

Women are disproportionately affected by stress-related disorders like depression. In our prior research, we discovered that females exhibit lower basal hypothalamic reelin levels, and these levels are differentially influenced by chronic stress induced through repeated corticosterone (CORT) injections. Although epigenetic mechanisms involving DNA methylation and the formation of repressor complexes by DNA methyl-transferases (DNMTs) and Methyl-CpG binding protein 2 (MeCP2) have been recognized as regulators of reelin expression in vitro, there is limited understanding of the impact of stress on the epigenetic regulation of reelin in vivo and whether sex differences exist in these mechanisms. To address these questions, we conducted various biochemical analyses on hypothalamic brain samples obtained from male and female rats previously treated with either 21 days of CORT (40 mg/kg) or vehicle (0.9 % saline) subcutaneous injections. Upon chronic CORT treatment, a reduction in reelin fragment NR2 was noted in males, while the full-length molecule remained unaffected. This decrease paralleled with an elevation in MeCP2 and a reduction in DNMT3a protein levels only in males. Importantly, sex differences in baseline and CORT-induced reelin protein levels were not associated with changes in the methylation status of the Reln promoter. These findings suggest that CORT-induced reelin decreases in the hypothalamus may be a combination of alterations in downstream processes beyond gene transcription. This research brings novel insights into the sexually distinct consequences of chronic stress, an essential aspect to understand, particularly concerning its role in the development of depression.

Androgen loss weakens anti-tumor immunity and accelerates brain tumor growth

Many cancers, including glioblastoma (GBM), have a male-biased sex difference in incidence and outcome. The underlying reasons for this sex bias are unclear but likely involve differences in tumor cell state and immune response. This effect is further amplified by sex hormones, including androgens, which have been shown to inhibit anti-tumor T cell immunity. Here, we show that androgens drive anti-tumor immunity in brain tumors, in contrast to its effect in other tumor types. Upon castration, tumor growth was accelerated with attenuated T cell function in GBM and brain tumor models, but the opposite was observed when tumors were located outside the brain. Activity of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal gland (HPA) axis was increased in castrated mice, particularly in those with brain tumors. Blockade of glucocorticoid receptors reversed the accelerated tumor growth in castrated mice, indicating that the effect of castration was mediated by elevated glucocorticoid signaling. Furthermore, this mechanism was not GBM specific, but brain specific, as hyperactivation of the HPA axis was observed with intracranial implantation of non-GBM tumors in the brain. Together, our findings establish that brain tumors drive distinct endocrine-mediated mechanisms in the androgen-deprived setting and highlight the importance of organ-specific effects on anti-tumor immunity.

The differential sensitivity of the hypothalamic-hypophysial-ovarian axis to 5-hydroxytryptophan alters the secretion of estradiol

Serotonin [5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT)] modulates ovarian function. The precursor of 5-HT, 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP), has been used to treat depression. However, the effects of 5-HTP on ovarian and reproductive physiology remain unknown. In this research, we analysed the impact of 5-HTP on the monoaminergic system and its interactions with the reproductive axis and ovarian estradiol secretion when administered by distinct routes. Female rats 30 days of age were injected with 5-HTP i.p. (100 mg/kg), into the ovarian bursa (1.5 µg/40 µL) or into the median raphe nucleus (20 µg/2.5 µL) and were killed 60 or 120 min after injection. As controls, we used rats of the same age injected with vehicle (0.9% NaCl). Monoamine, gonadotrophin and steroid ovarian hormone concentrations were measured. The injection of 5-HTP either i.p. or directly into the ovarian bursa increased the concentrations of 5-HT and the metabolite 5-hydroxyindole-3-acetic acid in the ovary. For both routes of administration, the serum concentration of estradiol increased. After i.p. injection of 5-HTP, the concentrations of luteinizing hormone were decreased and follicle-stimulating hormone increased after 120 min. Micro-injection of 5-HTP into the median raphe nucleus increased the concentrations of 5-HT in the anterior hypothalamus and dopamine in the medial hypothalamus after 120 min. Our results suggest that the administration of 5-HTP either i.p. or directly into the ovarian bursa enhances ovarian estradiol secretion.

Chronic low salinity stress rescued masculinization effect in farmed Cynoglossus semilaevis population

Salinity, being an indispensable abiotic factor crucial for the survival of marine organisms, has demonstrated diverse alterations globally in response to the current trend of global warming. In this study, the effect of chronic low salinity stress on teleosts' sex differentiation was investigated using Cynoglossus semilaevis, an economically important fish with both genetic and environmental sex determination system. The cultivation experiment was conducted employing artificially simulated seawater of 20 ppt and ambient sea water of 30 ppt to rear juveniles C. semilaevis. Throughout the experiment, the growth performance was assessed and the histology of gonadal development was examined, a significantly lower masculinization rate was observed in LS group. To gain further insights, transcriptome analysis was conducted using raw reads obtained from 53 libraries derived from gonads of 55 days post fertilization (dpf) and 100 dpf juveniles in both LS and CT groups. GO/KEGG enrichment were further proceeded, Terms and pathways involved in reproduction ability, germ cell proliferation, immune function, steroid metabolism etc., were illuminated and a possible crosstalk between HPI and HPG axis was proposed. WGCNA was conducted and two hub genes, hspb8-like and Histone H2A.V were exhibited to be of great significance in the changes of masculinization rate. Our findings provided solid reference for sex differentiation study of GSD + ESD species in a constantly changing ocean environment, as well as practice guiding significance for the environmental management for the culture of C. semilaevis.

Aging effects in adrenal cortex of male Mongolian gerbil: A model for endocrine studies

The adrenal gland produces steroid hormones that act in the homeostasis of organisms. During aging, alterations in the hormonal balance affect the adrenal glands, but these have not yet been fully described due to the lack of adequate animal models. The adrenal gland of the Mongolian gerbil has a morphology similar to the primate's adrenal gland, which makes it a possible animal model for endocrine studies. Therefore, the current study aimed to study the morphophysiology of the adrenal gland under the effect of aging. For this purpose, males Meriones unguiculatus, aged three, six, nine, twelve, and fifteen months were used. Morphometric, immunohistochemical, and hormonal analyses were performed. It was observed that during aging the adrenal gland presents hypertrophy of the fasciculata and reticularis zones. Lipofuscin accumulation was observed during aging, in addition to changes in proliferation, cell death, and cell receptors. The analyses also showed that the gerbil presents steroidogenic enzymes and the production of steroid hormones, such as DHEA, like that found in humans. The data provide the first comprehensive assessment of the morphophysiology of the Mongolian gerbil adrenal cortex during aging, indicating that this species is a possible experimental model for studies of the adrenal gland and aging.

The Role of Estrogen Signaling and Exercise in Drug Abuse: A Review

BACKGROUND

Discovering how sex differences impact the efficacy of exercise regimens used for treating drug addiction is becoming increasingly important. Estrogen is a hormone believed to explain a large portion of sex differences observed during drug addiction, and why certain exercise regimens are not equally effective between sexes in treatment. Addiction is currently a global hindrance to millions, many of whom are suffering under the influence of their brain's intrinsic reward system coupled with external environmental factors. Substance abuse disorders in the U.S. alone cost billions of dollars annually.

REVIEW SUMMARY

Studies involving the manipulation of estrogen levels in female rodents, primarily via ovariectomy, highlight its impact regarding drug addiction. More specifically, female rodents with higher estrogen levels during the estrus phase increase cocaine consumption, whereas those in the non-estrus phase (low estrogen levels) decrease cocaine consumption. If estrogen is reintroduced, self-administration increases once again. Exercise has been proven to decrease relapse tendency, but its effect on estrogen levels is not fully understood.

CONCLUSIONS

Such findings and results discussed in this review suggest that estrogen influences the susceptibility of females to relapse. Therefore, to improve drug-abuse-related treatment, exercise regimens for females should be generated based on key sex differences with respect to males.

Stress-enhanced ethanol drinking does not increase sensitivity to the effects of a CRF-R1 antagonist on ethanol intake in male and female mice

Research confirms that stress is associated with alcohol drinking and relapse in males and females and that there are sex differences in the alcohol-related adaptations of stress pathways. The predator stress (PS) model of traumatic stress produces an increase in alcohol drinking or self-administration in a subpopulation of rodents, so it is utilized as an animal model of comorbid alcohol use disorder (AUD) and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Previous work determined that sensitivity to PS-enhanced drinking produced sex differences in proteins related to stress-regulating systems in the medial prefrontal cortex and hippocampus. The present studies examined whether male and female C57BL/6J mice differ in sensitivity to the ability of the corticotropin releasing factor receptor 1 antagonist CP-376395 to decrease PS-enhanced drinking. In control studies, CP-376395 doses of 5, 10, and 20 mg/kg dose-dependently decreased 4-hour ethanol drinking. Next, CP-376395 doses of 5 and 10 mg/kg were tested for effects on ethanol drinking in mice with differential sensitivity to PS-enhanced drinking. Subgroups of "Sensitive" and "Resilient" male and female mice were identified based on changes in ethanol intake in an unrestricted access ethanol drinking procedure following four exposures to PS (dirty rat bedding). During the first 2 hours post-injection of CP-376395, both doses significantly decreased ethanol licks versus vehicle in the females, with no significant interaction between subgroups, whereas the 10 mg/kg dose significantly decreased ethanol licks versus vehicle in the "Resilient" males. Thus, sensitivity to the suppressive effect of CP-376395 on stress-induced ethanol intake was greater in females versus males, whereas sensitivity and resilience to PS-enhanced drinking produced differential sensitivity to the ability of CP-376395 to decrease ethanol drinking only in male mice. Our results argue against greater efficacy of CRF-R1's ability to decrease ethanol intake in subjects with traumatic stress-enhanced ethanol drinking.

Sex-specific prefrontal-hypothalamic control of behavior and stress responding

Depression and cardiovascular disease are both augmented by daily life stress. Yet, the biological mechanisms that translate psychological stress into affective and physiological outcomes are unknown. Previously, we demonstrated that stimulation of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) has sexually divergent outcomes on behavior and physiology. Importantly, the vmPFC does not innervate the brain regions that initiate autonomic or neuroendocrine stress responses; thus, we hypothesized that intermediate synapses integrate cortical information to regulate stress responding. The posterior hypothalamus (PH) directly innervates stress-effector regions and receives substantial innervation from the vmPFC. In the current studies, circuit-specific approaches examined whether vmPFC synapses in the PH coordinate stress responding. Here we tested the effects of optogenetic vmPFC-PH circuit stimulation in male and female rats on social and motivational behaviors as well as physiological stress responses. Additionally, an intersectional genetic approach was used to knock down synaptobrevin in PH-projecting vmPFC neurons. Our collective results indicate that male vmPFC-PH circuitry promotes positive motivational valence and is both sufficient and necessary to reduce sympathetic-mediated stress responses. In females, the vmPFC-PH circuit does not affect social or preference behaviors but is sufficient and necessary to elevate neuroendocrine stress responses. Altogether, these data suggest cortical regulation of stress reactivity and behavior is mediated, in part, by projections to the hypothalamus that function in a sex-specific manner.

Sex Differences in Stress Response: Classical Mechanisms and Beyond

Neuropsychiatric disorders, which are associated with stress hormone dysregulation, occur at different rates in men and women. Moreover, nowadays, preclinical and clinical evidence demonstrates that sex and gender can lead to differences in stress responses that predispose males and females to different expressions of similar pathologies. In this curated review, we focus on what is known about sex differences in classic mechanisms of stress response, such as glucocorticoid hormones and corticotrophin-releasing factor (CRF), which are components of the hypothalamicpituitary- adrenal (HPA) axis. Then, we present sex differences in neurotransmitter levels, such as serotonin, dopamine, glutamate and GABA, as well as indices of neurodegeneration, such as amyloid β and Tau. Gonadal hormone effects, such as estrogens and testosterone, are also discussed throughout the review. We also review in detail preclinical data investigating sex differences caused by recentlyrecognized regulators of stress and disease, such as the immune system, genetic and epigenetic mechanisms, as well neurosteroids. Finally, we discuss how understanding sex differences in stress responses, as well as in pharmacology, can be leveraged into novel, more efficacious therapeutics for all. Based on the supporting evidence, it is obvious that incorporating sex as a biological variable into preclinical research is imperative for the understanding and treatment of stress-related neuropsychiatric disorders, such as depression, anxiety and Alzheimer's disease.

The role of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in depression across the female reproductive lifecycle: current knowledge and future directions

The aim of this narrative review is to consolidate knowledge on the role of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis in depression pathophysiology at different reproductive stages across the female lifespan. Despite growing evidence about the impact of gonadal hormones on mood disorders, no previous review has examined the interaction between such hormonal changes and the HPA axis within the context of depressive disorders in women. We will focus on HPA axis function in depressive disorders at different reproductive stages including the menstrual cycle (e.g., premenstrual dysphoric disorder [PMDD]), perinatally (e.g., postpartum depression), and in perimenopausal depression. Each of these reproductive stages is characterized by vast physiological changes and presents major neuroendocrine reorganization. The HPA axis is one of the main targets of such functional alterations, and with its key role in stress response, it is an etiological factor in vulnerable windows for depression across the female lifespan. We begin with an overview of the HPA axis and a brief summary of techniques for measuring HPA axis parameters. We then describe the hormonal milieu of each of these key reproductive stages, and integrate information about HPA axis function in depression across these reproductive stages, describing similarities and differences. The role of a history of stress and trauma exposure as a contributor to female depression in the context of HPA axis involvement across the reproductive stages is also presented. This review advances the pursuit of understanding common biological mechanisms across depressive disorders among women. Our overarching goal is to identify unmet needs in characterizing stress-related markers of depression in women in the context of hormonal changes across the lifespan, and to support future research in women's mental health as it pertains to pathophysiology, early diagnosis, and treatment targets.

Early Adverse Family Experiences and Elevated Adrenocorticotropic Hormone Predict Non-Suicidal Self-Injury in Females with Non-Psychotic Mental Disorders and Suicidal Ideation

Nonsuicidal self-injurious behavior (NSSI), prevalent in patients with non-psychotic mental disorders (NPMD), is associated with numerous adverse outcomes. Despite active research into the clinical and psychological aspects of NSSI, the underlying biological mechanisms remain obscure. Early adverse experiences are believed to induce long-lasting changes in neuroendocrine mechanisms of stress control playing a key role in NSSI development. The aim of the study was to evaluate parameters potentially predicting development of NSSI in female patients with NPMD and suicidal ideation. Eighty female patients over 18 years with NPMD and suicidal ideation (40 with and 40 without NSSI) and 48 age matching women without evidence of mental illness (healthy controls) were enrolled. Diagnostic interviews and self-report measures were used to assess childhood maltreatment, presence, frequency, and characteristics of suicidal and self-injurious thoughts and behaviors, the Beck Depression Inventory scale to assess severity of depression. Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis markers, hormones, and neurotrophic factors were measured in blood serum. The likelihood of developing NSSI in patients with NPMD and suicidal ideation was associated with early adverse family history and elevated adrenocorticotropic hormone levels. Dysregulation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis as a result of early chronic stress experiences may represent critical biological mechanism promoting the development of NSSI behaviors in patients with NPMD.

Hormones, oxidized proteins, and lipids in alcoholism. Duration of remission

The instability of remission in alcohol dependence (AD) creates a need to search for criteria for predicting its duration. The aim of study was to determine the hormones, oxidized proteins, and lipids in patients with AD, and the possible relations between these parameters and the duration of remission. Blood samples were obtained from 49 male patients with AD after alcohol detoxification (Total group). Two groups of patients were formed: with unstable therapeutic remission up to 6 months (UTR-group); with stable therapeutic remission which lasted 12 months or longer (STR-group). The control group comprised men without AD. The levels of carbonylated proteins (CP), lipid peroxidation (TBA-RS) were determined in the blood plasma. The levels of cortisol, testosterone total, thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), triiodothyronine free (fT3), and thyroxine free (fT4) in the blood serum were measured. The Total group of patients showed an increase in CP, TBA-RS, Cortisol, cortisol/testosterone ratio, and a decrease in TSH, fT3, and fT3/fT4 levels. A set of parameters (T, fT3, fT4, cortisol/testosterone ratio) associated with unstable remission was identified.

Sex differences in androgen receptor, estrogen receptor alpha, and c-Fos co-expression with corticotropin releasing factor expressing neurons in restrained adult mice

Gonadal hormone actions through androgen receptor (AR) and estrogen receptor alpha (ERα) regulate sex differences in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis responsivity and stress-related behaviors. Here we tested whether corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) expressing neurons, which are widely known to regulate neuroendocrine and behavioral stress responses, co-express AR and ERα as a potential mechanism for gonadal hormone regulation of these responses. Using Crh-IRES-Cre::Ai9 reporter mice we report high co-localization of AR in CRF neurons within the medial preoptic area (MPOA), bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BST), medial amygdala (MeA), and ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH), moderate levels within the central amygdala (CeA) and low levels in the paraventricular hypothalamus (PVN). Sex differences in CRF/AR co-expression were found in the principal nucleus of the BST (BSTmpl), CeA, MeA, and VMH (males>females). CRF co-localization with ERα was generally lower relative to AR co-localization. However, high co-expression was found within the MPOA, AVPV, and VMH, with moderate co-expression in the arcuate nucleus (ARC), BST, and MeA and low levels in the PVN and CeA. Sex differences in CRF/ERα co-localization were found in the BSTmpl and PVN (males>females). Finally, we assessed neural activation of CRF neurons in restraint-stressed mice and found greater CRF/c-Fos co-expression in females in the BSTmpl and periaqueductal gray, while co-expression was higher in males within the ARC and dorsal CA1. Given the known role of CRF in regulating behavioral stress responses and the HPA axis, AR/ERα co-expression and sex-specific activation of CRF cell groups indicate potential mechanisms for modulating sex differences in these functions.

Adrenal gland responses surgical castration and immunocastration by different compensatory manners to increase DHEA secretion

Androgen from the testis and weak androgens from the adrenal cortex may interact with each other and affect their synthesis and secretion due to their similar functions. The purpose of this study was to investigate the compensatory effect of adrenal in rats after immunocastration and surgical castration, and the interaction between the hypothalamic-pituitary-testis (HPT) axis and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. 24 male SD rats aged 8 weeks were randomly divided into three groups and accepted treatments: surgical castration group, immunocastration group and control group. In both surgical castration and immunocastration groups, the secretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) hormones was significantly increased compared with the control group (p < 0.05). In the HPT axis of the immunocastration group, the KISS1 expression was up-regulated, whereas GPR54, LH and LHR expression were down-regulated (p < 0.05). The expression levels of CRH, POMC and MC2R genes were also significantly up-regulated (p < 0.05). In addition, in the immunocastration group, the expression of adrenal LHR mRNA expression was decreased (p < 0.05). The expression of HPT axis genes and adrenal LHR were up-regulated in the surgical castration group (p < 0.05). These results show that in both immunocastration and surgical castration, adrenal androgen is increased, suggesting that the adrenal gland plays a compensatory role. Moreover, it also shows that different castration treatments have effects on adrenal steroid secretion through different mechanisms.

Effects of autonomic nervous system disorders on male infertility

The male reproductive functions are largely regulated by the autonomic nervous system. Male sexual behavior and fertility primarily depend on the normal function of the higher neural centers related to the autonomic nervous system, the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, the autonomic nervous components within the spinal cord and spinal nerves, and certain somatic nerves in the pelvic floor. In this review article, we will summarize the role of the autonomic nervous system in regulating male reproductive capabilities and fertility, its impact on male infertility under abnormal conditions, including the role of drug-induced autonomic nervous dysfunctions on male infertility. The main purpose of this article was to provide an overview of the effects of autonomic nervous dysfunction on male reproductive function and shed light on the potential therapeutic target for male infertility.

Stress and gonadal steroid influences on alcohol drinking and withdrawal, with focus on animal models in females

Sexually dimorphic effects of alcohol, following binge drinking, chronic intoxication, and withdrawal, are documented at the level of the transcriptome and in behavioral and physiological responses. The purpose of the current review is to update and to expand upon contributions of the endocrine system to alcohol drinking and withdrawal in females, with a focus on animal models. Steroids important in the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axes, the reciprocal interactions between these axes, the effects of chronic alcohol use on steroid levels, and the genomic and rapid membrane-associated effects of steroids and neurosteroids in models of alcohol drinking and withdrawal are described. Importantly, comparison between males and females highlight some divergent effects of sex- and stress-steroids on alcohol drinking- and withdrawal-related behaviors, and the distinct differences in response emphasize the importance of considering sex in the development of novel pharmacotherapies for the treatment of alcohol use disorder.

Conditional on the social environment? Roots of repeatability in hormone concentrations of male guinea pigs

Individual differences in behavioral and physiological traits among members of the same species are increasingly being recognized as important in animal research. On the group level, shaping of behavioral and hormonal phenotypes by environmental factors has been reported in different taxa. The extent to which the environment impacts behavior and hormones on the individual level, however, is rather unexplored. Hormonal phenotypes of guinea pigs can be shaped by the social environment on the group level: pair-housed and colony-housed males differ systematically in average testosterone and stressor-induced cortisol levels (i.e. cortisol responsiveness). The aim of the present study was to evaluate whether repeatability and individual variance components (i.e. between- and within-individual variation) of hormonal phenotypes also differ in different social environments. To test this, we determined baseline testosterone, baseline cortisol, and cortisol responsiveness after challenge in same-aged pair-housed and colony-housed guinea pig males over a period of four months. We found comparable repeatability for baseline cortisol and cortisol responsiveness in males from both social conditions. In contrast, baseline testosterone was repeatable only in males from colonies. Interestingly, this result was brought about by significantly larger between-individual variation of testosterone, that was not explained by differences in dominance rank. Individualized social niches differentiated under complex colony, but not pair housing, could be an explanation for this finding.

RNA-Seq reveals ACTH-induced steroid hormone pathway participating in goat adrenal gland response to castration

The content of androgen from adrenal is elevated under castration, and the mechanisms of compensatory secretion of adrenal androgen remain unknown. This study was designed to compare the transcript profiles between adrenals from noncastrated, orchiectomized and immunocastrated Yiling goats. Fifteen goats were randomly divided into three groups: pVAX-asd injection (control) group, pVAX-B2L-(G4S)3-kisspeptin-54-asd immunization (PBK-asd) group, and surgical castration (SC) group. Subsequently, serum was collected every two weeks after the initial immunization for hormone assays. At week 14 after immunization, adrenal glands were collected for transcriptome sequencing and qPCR. Serum testosterone concentration was significantly reduced in PBK-asd and SC group, demonstrating the effectiveness of castration. Both surgical and immunized castration resulted in adrenal hyperplasia, and thickness of adrenal cortex elevated. The specific genes involving castration were enriched in many pathways, including Steroid hormone biosynthesis pathway. The adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which promotes the production of adrenal steroids, and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), a steroid hormone secreted by adrenal glands, both increased after castration. Further construction of co-expression network for transcription genes and traits (including adrenal weight and cortex thickness, ACTH and DHEA concentration) showed that the trait-related genes were enriched in multiple steroid-related pathways. These results showed that adrenal compensatory hyperplasia and androgen secretion caused by castration may involve in ACTH-induced steroid hormone synthesis.

Sex-specific prefrontal-hypothalamic control of behavior and stress responding

Depression and cardiovascular disease are both augmented by daily life stress. Yet, the biological mechanisms that translate psychological stress into affective and physiological outcomes are unknown. Previously, we demonstrated that stimulation of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) has sexually divergent outcomes on behavior and physiology. Importantly, the vmPFC does not innervate the brain regions that initiate autonomic or neuroendocrine stress responses; thus, we hypothesized that intermediate synapses integrate cortical information to regulate stress responding. The posterior hypothalamus (PH) directly innervates stress-effector regions and receives substantial innervation from the vmPFC. In the current studies, circuit-specific approaches examined whether vmPFC synapses in the PH coordinate stress responding. Here we tested the effects of optogenetic vmPFC-PH circuit stimulation in male and female rats on social and motivational behaviors as well as physiological stress responses. Additionally, an intersectional genetic approach was used to knock down synaptobrevin in PH-projecting vmPFC neurons. Our collective results indicate that male vmPFC-PH circuitry promotes positive motivational valence and is both sufficient and necessary to reduce sympathetic-mediated stress responses. In females, the vmPFC-PH circuit does not affect social or preference behaviors but is sufficient and necessary to elevate neuroendocrine stress responses. Altogether, these data suggest cortical regulation of stress reactivity and behavior is mediated, in part, by projections to the hypothalamus that function in a sex-specific manner.

Hypothalamus and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: A Review

Humans have lived in a dynamic environment fraught with potential dangers for thousands of years. While fear and stress were crucial for the survival of our ancestors, today, they are mostly considered harmful factors, threatening both our physical and mental health. Trauma is a highly stressful, often life-threatening event or a series of events, such as sexual assault, war, natural disasters, burns, and car accidents. Trauma can cause pathological metaplasticity, leading to long-lasting behavioral changes and impairing an individual's ability to cope with future challenges. If an individual is vulnerable, a tremendously traumatic event may result in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The hypothalamus is critical in initiating hormonal responses to stressful stimuli via the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Linked to the prefrontal cortex and limbic structures, especially the amygdala and hippocampus, the hypothalamus acts as a central hub, integrating physiological aspects of the stress response. Consequently, the hypothalamic functions have been attributed to the pathophysiology of PTSD. However, apart from the well-known role of the HPA axis, the hypothalamus may also play different roles in the development of PTSD through other pathways, including the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) and hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axes, as well as by secreting growth hormone, prolactin, dopamine, and oxytocin. This review aims to summarize the current evidence regarding the neuroendocrine functions of the hypothalamus, which are correlated with the development of PTSD. A better understanding of the role of the hypothalamus in PTSD could help develop better treatments for this debilitating condition.

Menstrual cycle-related changes in HPA axis reactivity to acute psychosocial and physiological stressors - a systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies

Sex disparities are evident in the biological response to acute stressors, with a suggested influence of ovarian hormones on hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis functioning. This systematic review and meta-analysis investigates differences in HPA axis reactivity to acute psychosocial or physiological stressors between menstrual cycle phases. A systematic literature search of six databases resulted in 12 longitudinal studies (n = 182) examining HPA axis reactivity in healthy, naturally-cycling, non-breastfeeding participants aged between 18 and 45 years in at least two cycle phases. The quality of cortisol and menstrual cycle assessment was rated and a descriptive synthesis and meta-analysis of HPA axis reactivity between two broader and five more precise cycle phases was conducted. Three studies provided sufficient data for the meta-analysis and showed a significant, small-sized effect, indicating higher cortisol reactivity in the luteal than in the follicular cycle phase. More primary studies with high-quality menstrual cycle and cortisol assessment are needed. The review did not receive funding and was pre-registered (PROSPERO; CRD42020181632).

Cannabis and Paternal Epigenetic Inheritance

Cannabis is the most widely used illicit drug in Western counties and its abuse is particularly high in male adolescents and young adults. Its main psychotropic component, the cannabinoid delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ⁹-THC), interferes in the endogenous endocannabinoid system. This signaling system is involved in the control of many biological activities, including the formation of high-quality male gametes. Direct adverse effects of Δ⁹-THC in male reproduction are well known in both animal models and humans. Nevertheless, the possibility of long-term effects due to epigenetic mechanisms has recently been reported. In this review, we summarize the main advances in the field suggesting the need to pay attention to the possible long-term epigenetic risks for the reproductive health of cannabis users and the health of their offspring.

The role of androgens and estrogens in social interactions and social cognition

Gonadal hormones are becoming increasingly recognized for their effects on cognition. Estrogens, in particular, have received attention for their effects on learning and memory that rely upon the functioning of various brain regions. However, the impacts of androgens on cognition are relatively under investigated. Testosterone, as well as estrogens, have been shown to play a role in the modulation of different aspects of social cognition. This review explores the impact of testosterone and other androgens on various facets of social cognition including social recognition, social learning, social approach/avoidance, and aggression. We highlight the relevance of considering not only the actions of the most commonly studied steroids (i.e., testosterone, 17β-estradiol, and dihydrotestosterone), but also that of their metabolites and precursors, which interact with a plethora of different receptors and signalling molecules, ultimately modulating behaviour. We point out that it is also essential to investigate the effects of androgens, their precursors and metabolites in females, as prior studies have mostly focused on males. Overall, a comprehensive analysis of the impact of steroids such as androgens on behaviour is fundamental for a full understanding of the neural mechanisms underlying social cognition, including that of humans.

The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Gonadal Axis in Men with Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is a severe mental disorder with a chronic, progressive course. The etiology of this condition is linked to the interactions of multiple genes and environmental factors. The earlier age of onset of schizophrenia, the higher frequency of negative symptoms in the clinical presentation, and the poorer response to antipsychotic treatment in men compared to women suggests the involvement of sex hormones in these processes. This article aims to draw attention to the possible relationship between testosterone and some clinical features in male schizophrenic patients and discuss the complex nature of these phenomena based on data from the literature. PubMed, Web of Science, and Google Scholar databases were searched to select the papers without limiting the time of the publications. Hormone levels in the body are regulated by many organs and systems, and take place through the neuroendocrine, hormonal, neural, and metabolic pathways. Sex hormones play an important role in the development and function of the organism. Besides their impact on secondary sex characteristics, they influence brain development and function, mood, and cognition. In men with schizophrenia, altered testosterone levels were noted. In many cases, evidence from available single studies gave contradictory results. However, it seems that the testosterone level in men affected by schizophrenia may differ depending on the phase of the disease, types of clinical symptoms, and administered therapy. The etiology of testosterone level disturbances may be very complex. Besides the impact of the illness (schizophrenia), stress, and antipsychotic drug-induced hyperprolactinemia, testosterone levels may be influenced by, i.a., obesity, substances of abuse (e.g., ethanol), or liver damage.

Estradiol regulates voltage-gated potassium currents in corticotropin-releasing hormone neurons

Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) neurons are the primary neural population controlling the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and the secretion of adrenal stress hormones. Previous work has demonstrated that stress hormone secretion can be regulated by circulating levels of estradiol. However, the effect of estradiol on CRH neuron excitability is less clear. Here, we show that chronic estradiol replacement following ovariectomy increases two types of potassium channel currents in CRH neurons: fast inactivating voltage-gated A-type K+ channel currents (IA) and non-inactivating M-type K+ channel currents (IM). Despite the increase in K+ currents following estradiol replacement, there was no overall change in CRH neuron spiking excitability assessed with either frequency-current curves or current ramps. Together, these data reveal a complex picture whereby ovariectomy and estradiol replacement differentially modulate distinct aspects of CRH neuron and HPA axis function.

'Toxic Masculinity': What Is Known about the Role of Androgen Receptors in Head and Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC), the most prevalent cancer in the head and neck region, develops from the mucosal epithelium of the upper aerodigestive tract. Its development directly correlates with alcohol and/or tobacco consumption and infection with human papillomavirus. Interestingly, the relative risk for HNSCC is up to five times higher in males, so it is considered that the endocrine microenvironment is another risk factor. A gender-specific risk for HNSCC suggests either the existence of specific risk factors that affect only males or that females have defensive hormonal and metabolic features. In this review, we summarized the current knowledge about the role of both nuclear and membrane androgen receptors (nAR and mARs, respectively) in HNSCC. As expected, the significance of nAR is much better known; it was shown that increased nAR expression was observed in HNSCC, while treatment with dihydrotestosterone increased proliferation, migration, and invasion of HNSCC cells. For only three out of five currently known mARs-TRPM8, CaV1.2, and OXER1-it was shown either their increased expression in various types of HNSCC or that their increased activity enhanced the migration and invasion of HNSCC cells. The primary treatments for HNSCC are surgery and radiotherapy, but targeted immunotherapies are on the rise. On the other hand, given the evidence of elevated nAR expression in HNSCC, this receptor represents a potential target for antiandrogen therapy. Moreover, there is still plenty of room for further examination of mARs' role in HNSCC diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment.

Acute exposure to microcystins affects hypothalamic-pituitary axes of male rats

Microcystins (MCs) produced by some cyanobacteria can cause toxicity in animals and humans. In recent years, growing evidence suggests that MCs can act as endocrine disruptors. This research systematically investigated effects of microcystin-LR (MC-LR) on endocrine organs, biosynthesis of hormones and positive/negative feedback of the endocrine system in rats. Male, Sprague-Dawley rats were acutely administrated MC-LR by a single intraperitoneal injection at doses of 45, 67.5 or 90 μg MC-LR/kg body mass (bm), and then euthanized 24 h after exposure. In exposed rats, histological damage of hypothalamus, pituitary, adrenal, testis and thyroid were observed. Serum concentrations of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and corticosterone (CORT), expressions of genes and proteins for biosynthesis of hormones were lesser, which indicated an overall suppression of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Along the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis, lesser concentrations of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and testosterone (T), but greater concentrations of luteinizing hormone (LH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and estradiol (E2) were observed. Except for greater transcription of cyp19a1 in testes, transcriptions of genes and proteins for T and E2 biosynthesis along the HPG axis were lesser. As for the hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis, after MCs treatment, greater concentrations of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), but lesser concentrations of free tri-iodothyronine (fT3) were observed in serum. Concentrations of free tetra-iodothyronine (fT4) were greater in rats dosed with 45 μg MCs/kg, bm, but lesser in rats dosed with 67.5 or 90 μg MCs/kg, bm. Transcripts of genes for biosynthesis of hormones and receptors along the HPT axis and expressions of proteins for biosynthesis of tetra-iodothyronine (T4) and tri-iodothyronine (T3) in thyroid were significantly altered. Cross-talk among the HPA, HPG and HPT axes probably occurred. It was concluded that MCs caused an imbalance of positive and negative feedback of hormonal regulatory axes, blocked biosynthesis of key hormones and exhibited endocrine-disrupting effects.

Evidence for progesterone acting as an inhibitor of stress axis via stimulating pituitary neuropeptide B/W receptor 2 (NPBWR2) expression in chickens

In vertebrates, the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal gland (HPA) axis is the main endocrine pathway regulating the stress response, thus also called the stress axis. It has been well-accepted that the stress axis is tightly controlled by both hypothalamic stimulators and inhibitors [e.g. corticotropin (ACTH)-releasing inhibitory factor (CRIF)]. However, the identity of authentic CRIF remains unclear for decades. Recently, neuropeptide W (NPW) was proved to be the physiological CRIF in chickens. Together with its functional receptor (NPBWR2), they play critical roles in attenuating the activity of the chicken stress axis. Because increasing pieces of evidence suggested that sex steroids could regulate the stress axis, using chicken as a model, we investigated whether the newly identified CRIF and its receptor are under the control of sex steroids in this study. Our results showed that: (1) expression of NPW-NPBWR2 in the hypothalamus-pituitary axis was sexually dimorphic and developmental stage-dependent; (2) progesterone (P₄), rather than 17β-estradiol (E₂) and dihydrotestosterone (DHT), could dose- and time-dependently upregulate NPBWR2 expression, which was accompanied with the decrease of ACTH synthesis and secretion, in cultured pituitary cells; (3) intraperitoneal injection of P₄ could elevate the mRNA level of pituitary NPBWR2; (4) P₄-stimulated NPBWR2 expression was relevant to both nPR-mediated genomic action and mPRs-triggered nongenomic route associated with MEK/ERK, PI3K/AKT cascade, and calcium influx. To our knowledge, our results discover a novel route of sex steroids in modulating the stress axis of chickens, which lays a foundation to reveal the complicated interaction network between reproduction and stress axes in chickens.

Alterations in the activation of corticotropin-releasing factor neurons in the paraventricular nucleus following a single or multiple days of sleep restriction

Sleep disturbances are common among disorders associated with hypothalamic pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction, such as depression and anxiety. This comorbidity may partly be the result of the intersection between the role of the HPA axis in mediating the stress response and its involvement in sleep-wake cyclicity. Our previous work has shown that following 20 h of sleep restriction, mice show a blunting of the HPA axis in response to an acute stressor. Furthermore, these responses differ in a sex-dependent manner. This study sought to examine the effect of sleep restriction on corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF)-containing neurons in the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of the hypothalamus. Male and female Crf-IRES-Cre: Ai14 (Tdtomato) reporter mice were sleep restricted for 20 h daily for either a single or three consecutive days using the modified multiple platform method. These mice allowed the visualization of CRF+ neurons throughout the brain. Animals were subjected to acute restraint stress, and their brains were collected to assess PVN neuronal activation via c-Fos immunohistochemistry. Analyses of cell counts revealed an ablation of the restraint-induced increase in both CRF/c-Fos colocalization and overall c-Fos expression in female mice following both a single day and three days of sleep restriction. Males showed an overall decrease in restraint-induced c-Fos levels following a single day of sleep restriction. However, male mice examined after three days of sleep restriction showed a recovery in PVN-CRF and overall PVN neuronal activation. These data suggest the sex dependent dysregulation in CRF function following sleep restriction.

How Different Factors in Combination Change Fear Extinction Learning: The Case of Sex and Stress Hormones

Effects of a specific factor on fear extinction or exposure therapy have revealed promising results, for example how sex or stress hormones exert the capability to critically change extinction learning and consolidation processes. However, we must acknowledge that in real life these factors do not operate in isolation, they go hand in hand. In this chapter, the available evidence regarding interactions of sex and stress hormones on extinction processes and exposure therapy will be integrated and discussed. First hints exist that these factors in combination critically target extinction learning and consolidation processes, calling for more detailed research on the exact underlying mechanisms. In addition to experiments with high sample sizes, we must aim for a collaborative effort of laboratories across the whole world to be able to identify critical combinations of factors associated with improved, but also impaired extinction processes and exposure therapy success. We expect that the revelation of further relevant factors will not only be limited to the interplay between sex and stress hormones but will include factors such as sleep and exercise as well. In the long run, uncovering the most important interaction effects will give us critical hints for differential treatment options to be realized in the sense of a personalized medicine approach.

Estrogen - A key neurosteroid in the understanding and treatment of mental illness in women

The commentary is an invited brief about my contribution to Psychiatry Research. My work has built on the "estrogen hypothesis", as stated by Hafner, Riecher-Rossler and Seeman in the 1990's. This hypothesis was that estrogen provides 'protection' against the early onset of severe schizophrenia in women, and with decreasing brain estrogens at the menopause, mental ill health worsens in women. In this paper, results from clinical trials conducted over many decades, that involved administering exogenous estrogen in different types and doses, show an overall positive impact - with improved symptoms of schizophrenia in women. This led to the conduct of further successful clinical trials of gonadal hormone treatment in women with PMDD and menopausal depression, plus understanding more about depression caused by hormone contraceptives. The role of estrogens in stress vulnerability is reflected in the sex-dependent reaction to childhood trauma, which has led to our new work in the neurobiological effects of early life trauma in women.

Enduring impact of childhood adversity: Affective modulation of acoustic startle response during pregnancy and postpartum

BACKGROUND

Women with a history of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) enter pregnancy and the postpartum with a physiologic system programmed by early life stress, potentially reflected in psychophysiologic reactivity.

METHODS

We enrolled pregnant, psychiatrically healthy women ≥18 years old. Using the ACE Questionnaire, women were categorized as high (≥2 ACEs; n = 77) or low ACE (<2 ACEs; n = 72). Participants completed an affective modulation of acoustic startle response (ASR) task during pregnancy and postpartum, in which ASR magnitude was measured while participants viewed pleasant, unpleasant, and neutral pictures. Two types of control trials were included (habituation trials presented at baseline and intertrial interval trials presented when no picture was present).

RESULTS

Among high ACE women, ASR was significantly higher postpartum compared with pregnancy in the unpleasant (p = 0.002, β = 0.46, 95% CI [0.18, 0.74], χ2 = 10.12, z = 3.18) and intertrial interval trials (p = 0.002, β = 0.44, 95% CI [0.16, 0.73], χ2 = 9.25, z = 3.04), accounting for multiple comparisons using a Bonferroni correction at p < 0.005. Among low ACE women, ASR was similar in pregnancy and postpartum.

CONCLUSIONS

Physiological reactivity increased in high ACE women from pregnancy to postpartum, but no change was observed in low ACE women.

Sexual dimorphism in spatial learning and brain metabolism after exposure to a western diet and early life stress in rats

Prolonged daily intake of Western-type diet rich in saturated fats and sugars, and exposure to early life stress have been independently linked to impaired neurodevelopment and behaviour in animal models. However, sex-specific effects of both environmental factors combined on spatial learning and memory, behavioural flexibility, and brain oxidative capacity have still not been addressed. The current study aimed to evaluate the impact of maternal and postnatal exposure to a high-fat and high-sugar diet (HFS), and exposure to early life stress by maternal separation in adult male and female Wistar rats. For this purpose, spatial learning and memory and behavioural flexibility were evaluated in the Morris water maze, and regional brain oxidative capacity and oxidative stress levels were measured in the hippocampus and medial prefrontal cortex. Spatial memory, regional brain oxidative metabolism, and levels of oxidative stress differed between females and males, suggesting sexual dimorphism in the effects of a HFS diet and early life stress. Males fed the HFS diet performed better than all other experimental groups independently of early life stress exposure. However, behavioural flexibility evaluated in the spatial reversal leaning task was impaired in males fed the HFS diet. In addition, exposure to maternal separation or the HFS diet increased the metabolic capacity of the prefrontal cortex and dorsal hippocampus in males and females. Levels of oxidative stress measured in the latter brain regions were also increased in groups fed the HFS diet, but maternal separation seemed to dampen regional brain oxidative stress levels. Therefore, these results suggest a compensatory effect resulting from the interaction between prolonged exposure to a HFS diet and early life stress.

Cortisol awakening response and testosterone jointly affect adolescents' theory of mind

Adolescence is a critical period for the maturation of neurobiological processes and hormone secretion. Recent studies on the dual-hormone hypothesis have indicated that basal cortisol and testosterone jointly affect dominant and aggressive behavior among adolescents and adults. Whether this hypothesis applies to prosocial-related understanding of others' mental states remains unclear. The present study investigated associations between basal testosterone, basal cortisol (and cortisol awakening response [CAR]), and the cognitive/affective theory of mind (ToM) in 243 adolescents (67.9 % male, aged 14 to 17 years, M_age = 16.09, standard deviation = 0.62). Cognitive ToM (cToM) and affective ToM (aToM) were assessed with a cartoon story reasoning task: In the cToM condition, participants viewed a comic strip story and needed to predict what would happen based on a character's intentions, and in the aToM condition, they viewed a comic strip of two characters interacting and needed to think about what would make the protagonist feel better. The results showed that basal testosterone and basal cortisol did not interact with each other to affect the performance of ToM, either in terms of ToM accuracy or response speed. However, under the condition of low CAR, testosterone is associated with the fast performance of cToM, although the interaction of testosterone and CAR occurred only in female adolescents. Overall, our data provide new evidence for the dual-hormone hypothesis and further extend the hypothesis to social understanding.

Hair levels of steroid, endocannabinoid, and the ratio biomarkers predict viral suppression among people living with HIV/AIDS in China

BACKGROUND

Predicting viral suppression early is crucial to improving treatment outcomes among people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWH) in clinics. Viral suppression is affected by stress, making stress indicators a potential predictive factor. Most of previous studies used the self-report questionnaire as stress indicators, but there were great drawbacks due to its subjective. In contrast, end products of neuroendocrine systems such as hypothalamic-pituitaryadrenal (HPA) and hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axes and endogenous cannabinoid system (ECS) that involved in regulating stress as objective stress indicators are urgently needed to predict viral suppression. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate whether neuroendocrine indictors can strongly predict viral suppression among PLWH in China.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study recruited 1198 PLWH on antiretroviral therapy (ART) in Guangxi, China. The concentrations of steroids (i.e., cortisol, cortisone, dehydroepiandrosterone, testosterone and progesterone) and endocannabinoids (i.e., N-arachidonoyl-ethanolamine and 1-arachidonyl glycerol) in hair were quantitated using the LC-APCI+-MS/MS method. To screen biomarkers that were used to predict viral suppression, association between hair biomarkers and viral suppression was examined by Mann-Whitney U test and partial correlation analyses. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves and binary logistic regression based on the optimal classification threshold determined with ROC curves were used to estimate the prediction effects of the screened biomarkers on viral suppression (HIV-1 RNA < 200 copies/mL).

RESULTS

Hair levels of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), and N-arachidonoyl-ethanolamine (AEA), and the cortisol to DHEA ratio exhibited significant intergroup differences (ps < 0.05) and were correlated with HIV viral load (ps < 0.05). Hair DHEA concentrations strongly predicted viral suppression, showing good classification performance (area under the ROC curve = 0.651, p < 0.01) and strong predictive utility (adjusted odd ratio = 2.324, 95 % confidence interval = 1.211-4.899, p < 0.05) with an optimal threshold of 10.5 pg/mg. A hair AEA concentration of 2.4 pg/mg was the optimal threshold for predicting viral suppression based on good classification performance (area under the ROC curve = 0.598, p < 0.05) and predictive power (adjusted odd ratio = 2.124, 95 % confidence interval = 1.045-4.244, p < 0.05). In hair levels of cortisol to DHEA, viral suppression was observed to be highly predictive, with a threshold of 10.5 pg/mg being optimal for classification (area under the ROC curve = 0.624, p < 0.05) and prediction (adjusted odd ratio = 0.421, 95 % confidence interval = 0.201-0.785, p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Hair levels of DHEA, and AEA and the cortisol to DHEA ratio were screened and verified to have significant predictive power with optimal thresholds for predicting viral suppression in a large-scale cohort. The data may provide new insights into predictors of successful virological outcomes and inform public health intervention and clinical practice to assist PLWH in achieving and sustaining viral suppression.

Hormonal contraceptive usage influences stress hormone effects on cognition and emotion

Men and women partially differ in how they respond to stress and how stress in return affects their cognition and emotion. The influence of hormonal contraceptives (HCs) on this interaction has received little attention, which is surprising given the prevalence of HC usage. This selective review illustrates how HC usage modulates the effects of stress hormones on cognition and emotion. As three examples, we discuss stress hormone effects on episodic memory, fear conditioning and cognitive emotion regulation. The identified studies revealed that stress effects on cognitive-emotional processes in women using HCs were at times reduced or even absent when compared to men or naturally cycling women. Especially striking were the few examples of reversed effects in HC women. As underlying neuroendocrine mechanisms, we discuss influences of HCs on the neuroendocrine stress response and effects of HCs on central glucocorticoid sensitivity. The summarized findings emphasize the need for additional translational research.

Relations among CRFR1 and FKBP5 genotype, cortisol, and cognitive function in aging humans: A Project FRONTIER study

Here we use the glucocorticoid cascade hypothesis framework to address the role of baseline cortisol on changes in cognitive function over a 3-year span in non-demented rural Americans. We also determine if genotype at 4 different single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) relates to change in cognitive function. We predicted 1) over time, increases in baseline cortisol will be associated with decline in cognitive function, 2) individuals homozygous for 3 CRFR1 SNP rare alleles (AA rs110402, TT rs7209436, and TT rs242924 vs. others) will show less cognitive decline and this will be particularly pronounced in those with lower baseline cortisol, and 3) FKBP5 T carriers (TT or CT vs. CC homozygotes) will have decreased cognitive performance and this will be particularly pronounced in individuals with higher baseline cortisol. Collectively, our data do not robustly support the glucocorticoid cascade hypothesis. In several cases, higher baseline cortisol related to better cognitive performance over time, but within individuals, increased cortisol over time related to decreased performance on some cognitive domains over time. Contrary to our predictions, individuals with the rare CRFR1 haplotype (AA, TT, TT) performed worse than individuals with the common haplotype across multiple domains of cognitive function. FKBP5 genotype status had minimal impacts on cognitive outcomes. Genotype effects were largely not dependent on cortisol. The Project FRONTIER dataset is supported by Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center Garrison Institute on Aging.

Patterns of faecal glucocorticoid metabolite levels in captive roan antelope (Hippotragus equinus) in relation to reproductive status and season

Populations of roan antelope (Hippotragus equinus) in southern Africa have experienced a drastic decline over the past few decades and this situation has led to the development of intensive breeding programmes to support conservation efforts. However, little is known about related welfare aspects, including stress-related physiological biomarkers. The present study set out to establish a non-invasive method to monitor faecal glucocorticoid metabolite (fGCM) concentrations as a measure of stress and determine fGCM concentrations in relation to male reproductive activity and female reproductive status in the roan antelope. An adrenocorticotrophic hormone challenge was performed using two adult roan antelope (one male and one female) at Lapalala Wilderness Nature Reserve, South Africa, to determine the suitability of five enzyme immunoassays (EIA) for monitoring adrenocortical function in roan antelope. An 11-oxoaetiocholanolone I EIA detecting 11,17 dioxoandrostanes performed best showing 17-20 folds increases in fGCM concentrations after 12 h-17 h post-injection. The identified EIA was then used to monitor fGCM concentrations during active and non-active reproductive periods in males (n = 3), and during periods of cyclicity, gestation, and postpartum in females (n = 10). Males showed an overall 80% increase in fGCM concentrations when reproductively active and females showed a progressively significant increase in fGCM levels throughout pregnancy, with overall fGCM concentrations being 1.5 to 2.6-fold higher than the respective fGCM concentrations during periods of postpartum and cyclicity, respectively. Furthermore, fGCM concentrations remained above baseline for up to 21 days post-partum. A correlation between ecological parameters (rainfall and temperature) and fGCM concentrations revealed elevated fGCM concentrations during the dry season for males, but not females. The non-invasive method validated in this study provides a valuable tool to quantify stress-related biomarkers in roan antelope, and findings can be used to support management decisions in conservation breeding facilities.

Sex differences in autonomic responses to stress: implications for cardiometabolic physiology

Chronic stress is a significant risk factor for negative health outcomes. Furthermore, imbalance of autonomic nervous system control leads to dysregulation of physiological responses to stress and contributes to the pathogenesis of cardiometabolic and psychiatric disorders. However, research on autonomic stress responses has historically focused on males, despite evidence that females are disproportionality affected by stress-related disorders. Accordingly, this mini-review focuses on the influence of biological sex on autonomic responses to stress in humans and rodent models. The reviewed literature points to sex differences in the consequences of chronic stress, including cardiovascular and metabolic disease. We also explore basic rodent studies of sex-specific autonomic responses to stress with a focus on sex hormones and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis regulation of cardiovascular and metabolic physiology. Ultimately, emerging evidence of sex differences in autonomic-endocrine integration highlights the importance of sex-specific studies to understand and treat cardiometabolic dysfunction.

Dietary Supplementation With Tinospora cordifolia Improves Anxiety-Type Behavior and Cognitive Impairments in Middle-Aged Acyclic Female Rats

The midlife transition period in women marks the progressive flattening of neurological health along with increased adiposity, dyslipidemia, frailty, and inflammatory responses mainly attributed to the gradual decline in estrogen levels. Conflicting reports of hormone replacement therapy (HRT) necessitate the exploration of novel therapeutic interventions using bioactive natural products having the least toxicity and a holistic mode of action for the preservation of metabolic homeodynamics with aging in women. The present study was planned to investigate the effects of aging and/or a high-fat diet (HFD) on cognitive impairments and anxiety and further their management by dietary supplement with the Tinospora cordifolia stem powder (TCP). Acyclic female rats were included in this study as the model system of the perimenopause phase of women along with young 3-4 months old rats as controls. Rats were fed on with and without TCP supplemented normal chow or HFD for 12 weeks. Animals fed on a TCP supplemented normal chow showed consistent management of body weight over a 12-week regimen although their calorie intake was much higher in comparison to their age-matched controls. Post-regimen, neurobehavioral tests, such as novel object recognition and elevated plus maze, performed on these animals showed improvement in their learning and memory abilities as well as the anxiety-like behavior. Furthermore, due to the presence of multiple components, TCP was observed to modulate the expression of key marker proteins to ameliorate neuroinflammation and apoptosis and promote cell survival and synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus and the prefrontal cortex (PFC) regions of the brain. These findings suggest that TCP supplementation in diet during the midlife transition period in women may be a potential interventional strategy for the management of menopause-associated anxiety and cognitive impairments and healthy aging.

Gene Dysregulation in the Adult Rat Paraventricular Nucleus and Amygdala by Prenatal Exposure to Dexamethasone

Fetal programming is the concept that maternal stressors during critical periods of fetal development can alter offspring phenotypes postnatally. Excess glucocorticoids can interact with the fetus to effect genetic and epigenetic changes implicated in adverse developmental outcomes. The present study investigates how chronic exposure to the synthetic glucocorticoid dexamethasone during late gestation alters the expression of genes related to behavior in brain areas relevant to the regulation and function of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis. Pregnant Wistar Kyoto rats received subcutaneous injections of dexamethasone (100 μg/kg) daily from gestational day 15–21 or vehicle only as sham controls. The amygdala and paraventricular nucleus (PVN) were micro-punched to extract mRNA for reverse transcription and quantitative polymerase chain reaction for the analysis of the expression of specific genes. In the PVN, the expression of the glucocorticoid receptor NR3C1 was downregulated in female rats in response to programming. The expression of CACNA1C encoding the Ca_v1.2 pore subunit of L-type voltage-gated calcium channels was downregulated in male and female rats prenatally exposed to dexamethasone. Collectively, the results suggest that prenatal exposure to elevated levels of glucocorticoids plays a role in the dysregulation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis and potentially learning and memory by altering the expression of specific genes within the amygdala and PVN.

HPA axis activity across the menstrual cycle - a systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies

Differential HPA axis function has been proposed to underlie sex-differences in mental disorders; however, the impact of fluctuating sex hormones across the menstrual cycle on HPA axis activity is still unclear. This meta-analysis investigated basal cortisol concentrations as a marker for HPA axis activity across the menstrual cycle. Through a systematic literature search of five databases, 121 longitudinal studies were included, summarizing data of 2641 healthy, cycling participants between the ages of 18 and 45. The meta-analysis showed higher cortisol concentrations in the follicular vs. luteal phase (d_SMC = 0.12, p =.004, [0.04 - 0.20]). Comparisons between more precise cycle phases were mostly insignificant, aside from higher concentrations in the menstrual vs. premenstrual phase (d_SMC = 0.17, [0.02 - 0.33], p =.03). In all included studies, nine samples used established cortisol parameters to indicate HPA axis function, specifically diurnal profiles (k = 4) and the cortisol awakening response (CAR) (k = 5). Therefore, the meta-analysis highlights the need for more rigorous investigation of HPA axis activity and menstrual cycle phase.

The Effects of Chronic Variable Stress and Photoperiod Alteration on the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis Response and Behavior of Mice

The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis mediates the physiological response to stressors and also synchronizes different physiological systems to environmental cues. Changes in day length (i.e., photoperiod) as well as chronic exposure to stressors are known to impact the HPA axis activity regulating the levels of glucocorticoid hormones. Over-exposure to inappropriate levels of glucocorticoids has been implicated in increased disease risk. In the present study, we examined the impact of chronic stress, using a chronic variable stress (CVS) paradigm, in combination with changes in photoperiod on physiological and behavioral measures, as well as on the reactivity and regulation of the HPA axis, in male and female mice. Six weeks of CVS, regardless of the photoperiod condition, decreased the body weight and attenuated the HPA axis reactivity to an acute stressor in both sexes. The attenuated HPA axis reactivity observed in stressed animals was related to reduced Pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) mRNA levels in the pituitary of females. The gene expression analyses of key regulators of the HPA axis also indicated a sex-dependent effect with opposite patterns in the pituitary and adrenal glands. CVS effects on behavior were limited and related to an anxiety-like phenotype in both sexes, regardless of photoperiod condition. Our findings highlight sex-specific differences in the HPA axis and also sex-dependent effects of CVS on physiological parameters.

Sex Differences in Acute Neuroendocrine Responses to Stressors in Rodents and Humans

Sex differences in the neuroendocrine response to acute stress occur in both animals and humans. In rodents, stressors such as restraint and novelty induce a greater activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) in females compared to males. The nature of this difference arises from steroid actions during development (organizational effects) and adulthood (activational effects). Androgens decrease HPA stress responsivity to acute stress, while estradiol increases it. Androgenic down-regulation of HPA responsiveness is mediated by the binding of testosterone (T) and dihydrotestosterone (DHT) to the androgen receptor, as well as the binding of the DHT metabolite, 3β-diol, to the β form of the estrogen receptor (ERβ). Estradiol binding to the α form of the estrogen receptor (ERα) increases HPA responsivity. Studies of human sex differences are relatively few and generally employ a psychosocial paradigm to measure stress-related HPA activation. Men consistently show greater HPA reactivity than women when being evaluated for achievement. Some studies have found greater reactivity in women when being evaluated for social performance. The pattern is inconsistent with rodent studies but may involve the differential nature of the stressors employed. Psychosocial stress is nonphysical and invokes a significant degree of top-down processing that is not easily comparable to the types of stressors employed in rodents. Gender identity may also be a factor based on recent work showing that it influences the neural processing of positive and negative emotional stimuli independent of genetic sex. Comparing different types of stressors and how they interact with gender identity and genetic sex will provide a better understanding of sex steroid influences on stress-related HPA reactivity.

Modulation of innate immune response to viruses including SARS-CoV-2 by progesterone

Whether and how innate antiviral response is regulated by humoral metabolism remains enigmatic. We show that viral infection induces progesterone via the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in mice. Progesterone induces downstream antiviral genes and promotes innate antiviral response in cells and mice, whereas knockout of the progesterone receptor PGR has opposite effects. Mechanistically, stimulation of PGR by progesterone activates the tyrosine kinase SRC, which phosphorylates the transcriptional factor IRF3 at Y107, leading to its activation and induction of antiviral genes. SARS-CoV-2-infected patients have increased progesterone levels, and which are co-related with decreased severity of COVID-19. Our findings reveal how progesterone modulates host innate antiviral response, and point to progesterone as a potential immunomodulatory reagent for infectious and inflammatory diseases.