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Koert A, Ploeger A, Bockting CL, Schmidt MV, Lucassen PJ, Schrantee A, Mul JD. The social instability stress paradigm in rat and mouse: A systematic review of protocols, limitations, and recommendations. Neurobiol Stress 2021; 15:100410. [PMID: 34926732 PMCID: PMC8648958 DOI: 10.1016/j.ynstr.2021.100410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2021] [Revised: 09/27/2021] [Accepted: 10/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Social stress is an important environmental risk factor for the development of psychiatric disorders, including depression and anxiety disorders. Social stress paradigms are commonly used in rats and mice to gain insight into the pathogenesis of these disorders. The social instability stress (SIS) paradigm entails frequent (up to several times a week) introduction of one or multiple unfamiliar same-sex home-cage partners. The subsequent recurring formation of a new social hierarchy results in chronic and unpredictable physical and social stress. PURPOSE We compare and discuss the stress-related behavioral and physiological impact of SIS protocols in rat and mouse, and address limitations due to protocol variability. We further provide practical recommendations to optimize reproducibility of SIS protocols. METHODS We conducted a systematic review in accordance with the PRISMA statement in the following three databases: PubMed, Web of Science and Scopus. Our search strategy was not restricted to year of publication but was limited to articles in English that were published in peer-reviewed journals. Search terms included "social* instab*" AND ("animal" OR "rodent" OR "rat*" OR "mice" OR "mouse"). RESULTS Thirty-three studies met our inclusion criteria. Fifteen articles used a SIS protocol in which the composition of two cage mates is altered daily for sixteen days (SIS16D). Eleven articles used a SIS protocol in which the composition of four cage mates is altered twice per week for 49 days (SIS49D). The remaining seven studies used SIS protocols that differed from these two protocols in experiment duration or cage mate quantity. Behavioral impact of SIS was primarily assessed by quantifying depressive-like, anxiety-like, social-, and cognitive behavior. Physiological impact of SIS was primarily assessed using metabolic parameters, hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis activity, and the assessment of neurobiological parameters such as neuroplasticity and neurogenesis. CONCLUSION Both shorter and longer SIS protocols induce a wide range of stress-related behavioral and physiological impairments that are relevant for the pathophysiology of depression and anxiety disorders. To date, SIS16D has only been reported in rats, whereas SIS49D has only been reported in mice. Given this species-specific application as well as variability in reported SIS protocols, additional studies should determine whether SIS effects are protocol duration- or species-specific. We address several issues, including a lack of consistency in the used SIS protocols, and suggest practical, concrete improvements in design and reporting of SIS protocols to increase standardization and reproducibility of this etiologically relevant preclinical model of social stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amber Koert
- Brain Plasticity Group, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Centre for Urban Mental Health, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Annemie Ploeger
- Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Claudi L.H. Bockting
- Centre for Urban Mental Health, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Department of Psychiatry, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Mathias V. Schmidt
- Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Research Group Neurobiology of Stress Resilience, Munich, Germany
| | - Paul J. Lucassen
- Brain Plasticity Group, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Centre for Urban Mental Health, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Anouk Schrantee
- Centre for Urban Mental Health, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Joram D. Mul
- Brain Plasticity Group, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Centre for Urban Mental Health, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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Methods and Challenges in Investigating Sex-Specific Consequences of Social Stressors in Adolescence in Rats: Is It the Stress or the Social or the Stage of Development? Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2021; 54:23-58. [PMID: 34455576 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2021_245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Adolescence is a time of social learning and social restructuring that is accompanied by changes in both the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. The activation of these axes by puberty and stressors, respectively, shapes adolescent development. Models of social stress in rats are used to understand the consequences of perturbations of the social environment for ongoing brain development. This paper reviews the challenges in investigating the sex-specific consequences of social stressors, sex differences in the models of social stress used in rats and the sex-specific effects on behaviour and provides an overview of sex differences in HPA responding to stressors, the variability in pubertal development and in strains of rats that require consideration in conducting such research, and directions for future research.
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Hudson R, Green M, Wright DJ, Renard J, Jobson CEL, Jung T, Rushlow W, Laviolette SR. Adolescent nicotine induces depressive and anxiogenic effects through ERK 1-2 and Akt-GSK-3 pathways and neuronal dysregulation in the nucleus accumbens. Addict Biol 2021; 26:e12891. [PMID: 32135573 DOI: 10.1111/adb.12891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2019] [Revised: 02/11/2020] [Accepted: 02/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Long-term tobacco dependence typically develops during adolescence and neurodevelopmental nicotine exposure is associated with affective disturbances that manifest as a variety of neuropsychiatric comorbidities in clinical and preclinical studies, including mood and anxiety-related disorders. The nucleus accumbens shell (NASh) is critically involved in regulating emotional processing, and both molecular and neuronal disturbances in this structure are associated with mood and anxiety-related pathologies. In the present study, we used a rodent model of adolescent neurodevelopmental nicotine exposure to examine the expression of several molecular biomarkers associated with mood/anxiety-related phenotypes. We report that nicotine exposure during adolescence (but not adulthood) induces profound upregulation of the ERK 1-2 and Akt-GSK-3 signalling pathways directly within the NASh, as well as downregulation of local D1R expression that persists into adulthood. These adaptations were accompanied by decreases in τ, α, β, and γ-band oscillatory states, hyperactive medium spiny neuron activity with depressed bursting rates, and anxiety and depressive-like behavioural abnormalities. Pharmacologically targeting these molecular and neuronal adaptations revealed that selective inhibition of local ERK 1-2 and Akt-GSK-3 signalling cascades rescued nicotine-induced high-γ-band oscillatory signatures and phasic bursting rates in the NASh, suggesting that they are involved in mediating adolescent nicotine-induced depressive and anxiety-like neuropathological trajectories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roger Hudson
- Addiction Research Group, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Western Ontario London, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Matthew Green
- Addiction Research Group, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Western Ontario London, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Daniel J Wright
- Addiction Research Group, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Western Ontario London, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Justine Renard
- Addiction Research Group, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Western Ontario London, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Christina E L Jobson
- Addiction Research Group, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Western Ontario London, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Tony Jung
- Addiction Research Group, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Western Ontario London, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Walter Rushlow
- Addiction Research Group, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Western Ontario London, London, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Psychiatry, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario London, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Steven R Laviolette
- Addiction Research Group, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Western Ontario London, London, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Psychiatry, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario London, London, Ontario, Canada
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Bendersky CJ, Milian AA, Andrus MD, De La Torre U, Walker DM. Long-Term Impacts of Post-weaning Social Isolation on Nucleus Accumbens Function. Front Psychiatry 2021; 12:745406. [PMID: 34616326 PMCID: PMC8488119 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.745406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2021] [Accepted: 08/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Adolescence is a period of incredible change, especially within the brain's reward circuitry. Stress, including social isolation, during this time has profound effects on behaviors associated with reward and other neuropsychiatric disorders. Because the Nucleus Accumbens (NAc), is crucial to the integration of rewarding stimuli, the NAc is especially sensitive to disruptions by adolescent social isolation stress. This review highlights the long-term behavioral consequences of adolescent social isolation rearing on the NAc. It will discuss the cellular and molecular changes within the NAc that might underlie the long-term effects on behavior. When available sex-specific effects are discussed. Finally by mining publicly available data we identify, for the first time, key transcriptional profiles induced by adolescence social isolation in genes associated with dopamine receptor 1 and 2 medium spiny neurons and genes associated with cocaine self-administration. Together, this review provides a comprehensive discussion of the wide-ranging long-term impacts of adolescent social isolation on the dopaminergic system from molecules through behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cari J Bendersky
- Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health and Science and University, Portland, OR, United States
| | - Allison A Milian
- Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health and Science and University, Portland, OR, United States
| | - Mason D Andrus
- Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health and Science and University, Portland, OR, United States
| | - Ubaldo De La Torre
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, United States
| | - Deena M Walker
- Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health and Science and University, Portland, OR, United States
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5
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Cognitive functions associated with developing prefrontal cortex during adolescence and developmental neuropsychiatric disorders. Neurobiol Dis 2019; 131:104322. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2018.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2017] [Revised: 09/24/2018] [Accepted: 11/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
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Emmerson MG, Spencer KA, Brown GR. Social experience during adolescence in female rats increases 50 kHz ultrasonic vocalizations in adulthood, without affecting anxiety-like behavior. Dev Psychobiol 2019; 62:212-223. [PMID: 31429082 DOI: 10.1002/dev.21906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2019] [Revised: 07/01/2019] [Accepted: 07/16/2019] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Adolescents are highly motivated to engage in social interactions, and researchers have hypothesized that positive social relationships during adolescence can have long term, beneficial effects on stress reactivity and mental well-being. Studies of laboratory rodents provide the opportunity to investigate the relationship between early social experiences and later behavioral and physiological responses to stressors. In this study, female Lister-hooded rats (N = 12 per group) were either (a) provided with short, daily encounters (10 min/day) with a novel partner during mid-adolescence (postnatal day 34-45; "social experience," SE, subjects) or (b) underwent the same protocol with a familiar cagemate during mid-adolescence ("control experience," CE, subjects), or (c) were left undisturbed in the home cage (non-handled "control," C, subjects). When tested in adulthood, the groups did not differ in behavioral responses to novel environments (elevated plus maze, open field, and light-dark box) or in behavioral and physiological (urinary corticosterone) responses to novel social partners. However, SE females emitted significantly more 50 kHz ultrasonic vocalizations than control subjects both before and after social separation from a familiar social partner, which is consistent with previous findings in male rats. Thus, enhanced adolescent social experience appears to have long-term effects on vocal communication and could potentially modulate adult social relationships.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Karen A Spencer
- School of Psychology & Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK
| | - Gillian R Brown
- School of Psychology & Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK
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Walker DM, Cunningham AM, Gregory JK, Nestler EJ. Long-Term Behavioral Effects of Post-weaning Social Isolation in Males and Females. Front Behav Neurosci 2019; 13:66. [PMID: 31031604 PMCID: PMC6470390 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2019.00066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2018] [Accepted: 03/14/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Adolescence is a developmental period associated with vast neural and behavioral changes which are accompanied by altered sensitivity to stimuli, both stressful and rewarding. Perturbations, especially stressful stimuli, during this period have been shown to alter behavior in adulthood. Social isolation rearing is one such perturbation. This review highlights the long-term behavioral consequences of adolescent social isolation rearing in rodents with a specific focus on anxiety- and addiction-related behaviors. Sex-specific effects are discussed where data are available. We then consider changes in monoaminergic neurotransmission as one possible mechanism for the behavioral effects described. This research on both normative and perturbed adolescent development is crucial to understanding and treating the increased vulnerability to psychiatric disorders seen in humans during this life stage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deena M Walker
- Department of Neuroscience and Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
| | - Ashley M Cunningham
- Department of Neuroscience and Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
| | - Jill K Gregory
- Academic IT: Instructional Technology Group, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
| | - Eric J Nestler
- Department of Neuroscience and Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, United States
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Hodges TE, Louth EL, Bailey CDC, McCormick CM. Adolescent social instability stress alters markers of synaptic plasticity and dendritic structure in the medial amygdala and lateral septum in male rats. Brain Struct Funct 2018; 224:643-659. [DOI: 10.1007/s00429-018-1789-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2018] [Accepted: 11/03/2018] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Hodges TE, Baumbach JL, McCormick CM. Predictors of social instability stress effects on social interaction and anxiety in adolescent male rats. Dev Psychobiol 2018; 60:651-663. [DOI: 10.1002/dev.21626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2017] [Accepted: 02/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Cheryl M. McCormick
- Department of Psychology; Brock University; Ontario Canada
- Centre for Neuroscience; Brock University; Ontario Canada
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Novati A, Yu-Taeger L, Gonzalez Menendez I, Quintanilla Martinez L, Nguyen HP. Sexual behavior and testis morphology in the BACHD rat model. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0198338. [PMID: 29883458 PMCID: PMC5993248 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0198338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2018] [Accepted: 05/17/2018] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Huntington disease (HD) is an autosomal dominant neurodegenerative disorder caused by a mutation in the huntingtin (HTT) gene, which results in brain neurodegeneration and peripheral pathology affecting different organs including testis. Patients with HD suffer from motor and cognitive impairment, and multiple psychiatric symptoms. Among behavioral abnormalities in HD, sexual disturbances have often been reported, but scarcely investigated in animal models. The BACHD rat model of HD carries the human full-length mutated HTT (mHTT) genomic sequence with 97 CAG-CAA repeats and displays HD-like alterations at neuropathological and behavioral level. OBJECTIVE This study aims to phenotype the BACHD rats' sexual behavior and performance as well as testis morphology because alterations in these aspects have been associated to HD. METHODS Two rat cohorts at the age of 3 and 7 months were subjected to mating tests to assess different parameters of sexual behavior. Histological analyses for testis morphology were performed in different rat cohorts at 1.5, 7 and 12 months of age whereas immunohistochemical analyses were carried out at 7 and 12 months of age to visualize the presence of mHTT in testicular tissue. Furthermore, western blot analyses were used to assess HTT and mHTT expression levels in striatum and testis at three months of age. RESULTS At 3 months, BACHD rats showed a decreased time exploring the female anogenital area (AGA), decreased latency to mount, increased number of intromissions and ejaculations and enhanced hit rate. At 7 months, all sexual parameters were comparable between genotypes with the exception that BACHD rats explored the AGA less than wild type rats. Testis analyses did not reveal any morphological alteration at any of the examined ages, but showed presence of mHTT limited to Sertoli cells in transgenic rats at both 7 and 12 months. BACHD rat HTT and mHTT expression levels in testis were lower than striatum at 3 months of age. CONCLUSIONS The testis phenotype in the BACHD rat model does not mimic the changes observed in human HD testis. The altered sexual behavior in BACHD rats at three months of age could be to a certain extent representative of and share common underlying pathways with some of the sexual disturbances in HD patients. Further investigating the biological causes of the sexual phenotype in BACHD rats may therefore contribute to clarifying the mechanisms at the base of sexual behavior changes in HD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arianna Novati
- Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Centre for Rare Diseases, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Libo Yu-Taeger
- Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Centre for Rare Diseases, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Irene Gonzalez Menendez
- Institute of Pathology and Neuropathology and Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Leticia Quintanilla Martinez
- Institute of Pathology and Neuropathology and Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Huu Phuc Nguyen
- Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Centre for Rare Diseases, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Department of Human Genetics, University of Bochum, Bochum, Germany
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11
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Green MR, Marcolin ML, McCormick CM. The effects of ovarian hormones on stressor-induced hormonal responses, glucocorticoid receptor expression and translocation, and genes related to receptor signaling in adult female rats. Stress 2018; 21:90-100. [PMID: 29189098 DOI: 10.1080/10253890.2017.1409719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Estradiol potentiates hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal activity and delays the return of glucocorticoid secretion to baseline after a stressor exposure in female rats; we investigated whether estradiol effects involve actions on glucocorticoid receptor (GR) translocation and expression of receptor co-chaperones. In Experiment 1 intact females and ovariectomized (OVX) females were treated for four days with vehicle (VEH), 17β-estradiol benzoate (EB), or EB and progesterone (EB + P). Samples were taken from rats in the home cage (baseline) or after 30 min of restraint stress in a plastic restrainer (post-restraint) (n = 10/group). OVX-VEH treatment reduced baseline and post-restraint plasma concentrations of corticosterone versus all other treatments. Western blots indicated that OVX-VEH treated rats had greater hippocampal cytosolic GR expression than other treatments. Stress increased hippocampal nuclear GR expression, but without treatment differences. In Experiment 2 OVX rats were treated daily with VEH, EB, or EB + P (n = 8/group). OVX-VEH rats showed a lower stimulation of corticosterone secretion by restraint stress than other treatments and OVX-EB + P treated rats had lower concentrations than the OVX-EB group, suggesting progesterone mitigated estradiol effects. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction experiments indicated that stress increased Fkbp5 mRNA in the ventral hippocampus, with no effect of stress or treatment on Nr3c1 (GR), Nr3c2 (MR), Fkbp4, Bag1, or Ncoa1 (SRC-1) expression. Thus, the hypothesis is that estradiol effects on negative feedback are mediated by altered expression of receptor co-chaperones or co-modulators in the hippocampus was not supported. Estradiol may blunt feedback by limiting the availability of cytosolic GR protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew R Green
- a Psychology Department , Brock University , St Catharines , Canada
| | - Marina L Marcolin
- b Biological Sciences Department , Brock University , St Catharines , Canada
| | - Cheryl M McCormick
- a Psychology Department , Brock University , St Catharines , Canada
- b Biological Sciences Department , Brock University , St Catharines , Canada
- c Centre for Neuroscience , Brock University , St Catharines , Canada
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Pellis SM, Burke CJ, Kisko TM, Euston DR. 50-kHz Vocalizations, Play and the Development of Social Competence. HANDBOOK OF ULTRASONIC VOCALIZATION - A WINDOW INTO THE EMOTIONAL BRAIN 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-809600-0.00011-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/09/2023]
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14
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Solomon MB. Evaluating social defeat as a model for psychopathology in adult female rodents. J Neurosci Res 2017; 95:763-776. [PMID: 27870445 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.23971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2016] [Revised: 09/20/2016] [Accepted: 09/27/2016] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Social conflict is a predominant stressor in humans and is associated with increased risk for developing psychological illnesses including depression and anxiety. Overwhelmingly, more women suffer from these disorders, which may be due to increased stress sensitivity. Like humans, rodents experience a myriad of physiological and behavioral sequelae due to prolonged stress exposure. Although the motivation for social conflict may differ between humans and rodents, female rodents may provide an opportunity to explore the underlying mechanisms by which stress confers risk for psychopathology in women. Because most female rodents do not express spontaneous aggression, the majority of basic research examines the physiological and behavioral outcomes of social conflict in male rodents. However, there are instances where female rodents exhibit territorial (California mice and Syrian hamsters) and maternal aggression (rats, mice, and hamsters) creating a venue to examine sex differences in physiology and behavior in response to stress. While many studies rely upon nonsocial behavioral assays (e.g., elevated plus maze, forced swim test) to assess the impact of stress on emotionality, here we primarily focus on behavioral outcomes in social-based assays in rodents. This is critically important given that disruptions in social relationships can be a cause and consequence of neuropsychiatric diseases. Next, we briefly discuss how sex differences in the recruitment of neural circuitry and/or neurochemistry in response to stress may underlie sex differences in neuroendocrine and behavioral stress responses. Finally, the translational value of females in rodent stress models and considerations regarding behavioral interpretations of these models are discussed. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matia B Solomon
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio
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15
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Social instability stress in adolescent male rats reduces social interaction and social recognition performance and increases oxytocin receptor binding. Neuroscience 2017; 359:172-182. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2017.07.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2017] [Revised: 07/05/2017] [Accepted: 07/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Burke AR, McCormick CM, Pellis SM, Lukkes JL. Impact of adolescent social experiences on behavior and neural circuits implicated in mental illnesses. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2017; 76:280-300. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.01.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2016] [Revised: 11/11/2016] [Accepted: 01/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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17
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McCormick CM, Cameron NM, Thompson MA, Cumming MJ, Hodges TE, Langett M. The sexual preference of female rats is influenced by males' adolescent social stress history and social status. Horm Behav 2017; 89:30-37. [PMID: 27956227 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2016.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2016] [Revised: 11/21/2016] [Accepted: 12/06/2016] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Ongoing development of brain systems for social behaviour renders these systems susceptible to the influence of stressors in adolescence. We previously found that adult male rats that underwent social instability stress (SS) in mid-adolescence had decreased sexual performance compared with control males (CTL). Here, we test the hypotheses that SS in adolescence decreases the "attractiveness" of male rats as sexual partners compared with CTL rats and that dominance status is a protective factor against the effects of SS. The main prediction was that females would spend more time with CTL males than SS males, and that this bias would be greater for submissive than for dominant rats. Among dominant pairs (n=16), females preferred SS males, spending more time with and visiting more often SS than CTL males (each pair tested 5×), and SS males had shorter latencies to ejaculation, shorter inter-ejaculation intervals, and made more ejaculations compared with CTL males. Among submissive pairs (n=16), females spent more time with, visited more often, and displayed more paracopulatory behaviour with CTL than with SS males, and differences in sexual performance between SS and CTL males were modest and in the opposite direction from that in dominant pairs. The heightened motivation of SS males relative to CTL males for natural rewards may have attenuated differences in sexual performance in a paced mating context. In sum, the experience of stress in adolescence leads to long-lasting changes in males that are perceptible to females, are moderated by social status, and influence sexual behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheryl M McCormick
- Department of Psychology, Brock University, Canada; Centre for Neuroscience, Brock University, Canada.
| | - Nicole M Cameron
- Department of Psychology and Center for Developmental and Behavioral Neuroscience, Binghamton University, Canada
| | | | | | | | - Marissa Langett
- Department of Psychology and Center for Developmental and Behavioral Neuroscience, Binghamton University, Canada
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McCormick CM, Green MR, Simone JJ. Translational relevance of rodent models of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal function and stressors in adolescence. Neurobiol Stress 2017; 6:31-43. [PMID: 28229107 PMCID: PMC5314422 DOI: 10.1016/j.ynstr.2016.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2016] [Revised: 08/18/2016] [Accepted: 08/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Elevations in glucocorticoids that result from environmental stressors can have programming effects on brain structure and function when the exposure occurs during sensitive periods that involve heightened neural development. In recent years, adolescence has gained increasing attention as another sensitive period of development, a period in which pubertal transitions may increase the vulnerability to stressors. There are similarities in physical and behavioural development between humans and rats, and rats have been used effectively as an animal model of adolescence and the unique plasticity of this period of ontogeny. This review focuses on benefits and challenges of rats as a model for translational research on hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) function and stressors in adolescence, highlighting important parallels and contrasts between adolescent rats and humans, and we review the main stress procedures that are used in investigating HPA stress responses and their consequences in adolescence in rats. We conclude that a greater focus on timing of puberty as a factor in research in adolescent rats may increase the translational relevance of the findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheryl M. McCormick
- Department of Psychology, Brock University, 1812 Sir Isaac Brock Way, St. Catharines, ON, L2S 3A1, Canada
- Department of Biological Sciences, Brock University, 1812 Sir Isaac Brock Way, St. Catharines, ON, L2S 3A1, Canada
| | - Matthew R. Green
- Department of Psychology, Brock University, 1812 Sir Isaac Brock Way, St. Catharines, ON, L2S 3A1, Canada
| | - Jonathan J. Simone
- Department of Biological Sciences, Brock University, 1812 Sir Isaac Brock Way, St. Catharines, ON, L2S 3A1, Canada
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19
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Harrell CS, Gillespie CF, Neigh GN. Energetic stress: The reciprocal relationship between energy availability and the stress response. Physiol Behav 2016; 166:43-55. [PMID: 26454211 PMCID: PMC4826641 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2015.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2015] [Revised: 09/17/2015] [Accepted: 10/06/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The worldwide epidemic of metabolic syndromes and the recognized burden of mental health disorders have driven increased research into the relationship between the two. A maladaptive stress response is implicated in both mental health disorders and metabolic disorders, implicating the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis as a key mediator of this relationship. This review explores how an altered energetic state, such as hyper- or hypoglycemia, as may be manifested in obesity or diabetes, affects the stress response and the HPA axis in particular. We propose that changes in energetic state or energetic demands can result in "energetic stress" that can, if prolonged, lead to a dysfunctional stress response. In this review, we summarize the role of the hypothalamus in modulating energy homeostasis and then briefly discuss the relationship between metabolism and stress-induced activation of the HPA axis. Next, we examine seven mechanisms whereby energetic stress interacts with neuroendocrine stress response systems, including by glucocorticoid signaling both within and beyond the HPA axis; by nutrient-induced changes in glucocorticoid signaling; by impacting the sympathetic nervous system; through changes in other neuroendocrine factors; by inducing inflammatory changes; and by altering the gut-brain axis. Recognizing these effects of energetic stress can drive novel therapies and prevention strategies for mental health disorders, including dietary intervention, probiotics, and even fecal transplant.
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Affiliation(s)
- C S Harrell
- Department of Physiology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - C F Gillespie
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - G N Neigh
- Department of Physiology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA;; Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
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20
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Long-Term and Transgenerational Effects of Stress Experienced during Different Life Phases in Chickens (Gallus gallus). PLoS One 2016; 11:e0153879. [PMID: 27105229 PMCID: PMC4841578 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0153879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2015] [Accepted: 04/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Stress in animals causes not only immediate reactions, but may affect their biology for long periods, even across generations. Particular interest has been paid to perinatal stress, but also adolescence has been shown to be a sensitive period in mammals. So far, no systematic study has been performed of the relative importance of stress encountered during different life phases. In this study, groups of chickens were exposed to a six-day period of repeated stress during three different life phases: early (two weeks), early puberty (eight weeks) and late puberty (17 weeks), and the effects were compared to an unstressed control group. The short-term effects were assessed by behaviour, and the long-term and transgenerational effects were determined by effects on behavior and corticosterone secretion, as well as on hypothalamic gene expression. Short-term effects were strongest in the two week group and the eight week group, whereas long-term and transgenerational effects were detected in all three stress groups. However, stress at different ages affected different aspects of the biology of the chickens, and it was not possible to determine a particularly sensitive life phase. The results show that stress during puberty appears to be at least equally critical as the previously studied early life phase. These findings may have important implications for animal welfare in egg production, since laying hens are often exposed to stress during the three periods pinpointed here.
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21
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Rana S, Nam H, Glover ME, Akil H, Watson SJ, M.Clinton S, Kerman IA. Protective effects of chronic mild stress during adolescence in the low-novelty responder rat. Stress 2016; 19:133-8. [PMID: 26473581 PMCID: PMC4903024 DOI: 10.3109/10253890.2015.1108304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Stress-elicited behavioral and physiologic responses vary widely across individuals and depend on a combination of environmental and genetic factors. Adolescence is an important developmental period when neural circuits that guide emotional behavior and stress reactivity are still maturing. A critical question is whether stress exposure elicits contrasting effects when it occurs during adolescence versus adulthood. We previously found that Sprague-Dawley rats selectively bred for low-behavioral response to novelty (bred Low Responders; bLRs) are particularly sensitive to chronic unpredictable mild stress (CMS) exposure in adulthood, which exacerbates their typically high levels of spontaneous depressive- and anxiety-like behavior. Given developmental processes known to occur during adolescence, we sought to determine whether the impact of CMS on bLR rats is equivalent when they are exposed to it during adolescence as compared with adulthood. Young bLR rats were either exposed to CMS or control condition from postnatal days 35-60. As adults, we found that CMS-exposed bLRs maintained high levels of sucrose preference and exhibited increased social exploration along with decreased immobility on the forced swim test compared with bLR controls. These data indicate a protective effect of CMS exposure during adolescence in bLR rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samir Rana
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurobiology
- Cell, Molecular, and Developmental Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Hyungwoo Nam
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurobiology
- Cell, Molecular, and Developmental Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Matthew E. Glover
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurobiology
- Neuroscience, Graduate Biomedical Sciences, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA
| | - Huda Akil
- Molecular and Behavioral Neuroscience Institute, University of Michigan Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Stanley J. Watson
- Molecular and Behavioral Neuroscience Institute, University of Michigan Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | | | - Ilan A. Kerman
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurobiology
- Corresponding author at: Sparks Center 743, 1720 7 Avenue South, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurobiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, voice: (205)975-0310,
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22
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Lee TTY, Hill MN, Hillard CJ, Gorzalka BB. Disruption of peri-adolescent endocannabinoid signaling modulates adult neuroendocrine and behavioral responses to stress in male rats. Neuropharmacology 2015; 99:89-97. [PMID: 26192544 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2015.07.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2015] [Revised: 07/14/2015] [Accepted: 07/16/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The endocannabinoid (eCB) system is known to regulate neural, endocrine and behavioral responses to stress in adults; however there is little knowledge regarding how this system governs the development and maturation of these responses. Previous work has reported dynamic and time-specific changes in CB1 receptor expression, N-arachidonylethanolamine (AEA) content and fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) activity within corticolimbic structures throughout the peri-adolescent period. To examine whether fluctuations in adolescent eCB activity contribute to the development of adult stress responsivity and emotionality, we treated male Sprague-Dawley rats daily with the CB1R antagonist, AM-251 (5 mg/kg), or vehicle between post-natal days (PND) 35-45. Following this treatment, emotional behavior, HPA axis stress reactivity and habituation to repeated restraint stress, as well as corticolimbic eCB content were examined in adulthood (PND 75). Behaviorally, AM-251-treated males exhibited more active stress-coping behavior in the forced swim test, greater risk assessment behavior in the elevated plus maze and no significant differences in general motor activity. Peri-adolescent AM-251 treatment modified corticosterone habituation to repeated restraint exposure compared to vehicle. Peri-adolescent CB1R antagonism induced moderate changes in adult corticolimbic eCB signaling, with a significant decrease in amygdalar AEA, an increase in hypothalamic AEA and an increase in prefrontal cortical CB1R expression. Together, these data indicate that peri-adolescent endocannabinoid signaling contributes to the maturation of adult neurobehavioral responses to stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiffany T-Y Lee
- Dept. of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Matthew N Hill
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Dept. of Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Cecilia J Hillard
- Dept. of Pharmacology and Toxicology and Neuroscience Research Center, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA
| | - Boris B Gorzalka
- Dept. of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, V6T 1Z4, Canada.
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Gulevich R, Shikhevich S, Konoshenko M, Kozhemyakina R, Herbeck Y, Prasolova L, Oskina I, Plyusnina I. The influence of social environment in early life on the behavior, stress response, and reproductive system of adult male Norway rats selected for different attitudes to humans. Physiol Behav 2015; 144:116-23. [DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2015.03.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2014] [Revised: 03/12/2015] [Accepted: 03/13/2015] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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McCormick CM, Hodges TE, Simone JJ. Peer pressures: social instability stress in adolescence and social deficits in adulthood in a rodent model. Dev Cogn Neurosci 2015; 11:2-11. [PMID: 24830945 PMCID: PMC6989754 DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2014.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2014] [Revised: 04/10/2014] [Accepted: 04/11/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Studies in animal models generate and test hypotheses regarding developmental stage-specific vulnerability that might inform research questions about human development. In both rats and humans, peer relationships are qualitatively different in adolescence than at other stages of development, and social experiences in adolescence are considered important determinants of adult social function. This review describes our adolescent rat social instability stress model and the long-lasting effects social instability has on social behaviour in adulthood as well as the possible neural underpinnings. Effects of other adolescent social stress experiences in rats on social behaviours in adulthood also are reviewed. We discuss the role of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) function and glucocorticoid release in conferring differential susceptibility to social experiences in adolescents compared to adults. We propose that although differential perception of social experiences rather than immature HPA function may underlie the heightened vulnerability of adolescents to social instability, the changes in the trajectory of brain development and resultant social deficits likely are mediated by the heightened glucocorticoid release in response to repeated social stressors in adolescence compared to in adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheryl M McCormick
- Department of Psychology, Brock University, Canada; Department of Biological Sciences, Brock University, Canada.
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Limón-Morales O, Soria-Fregozo C, Arteaga-Silva M, González MH, Vázquez-Palacios G, Bonilla-Jaime H. Hormone replacement with 17β-estradiol plus dihydrotestosterone restores male sexual behavior in rats treated neonatally with clomipramine. Horm Behav 2014; 66:820-7. [PMID: 25449595 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2014.09.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2013] [Revised: 09/18/2014] [Accepted: 09/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Male sexual behavior (MSB) in rodents, in both its consummatory and motivational components, is regulated by hormones such as testosterone, 17β-estradiol and 5-α-dihydrotestosterone. In experiments, neonatal treatment with clomipramine (CMI; a serotonin reuptake inhibitor) reproduces some of the signs of depression in adult age, including reduced sexual behavior manifested in a lower percentage of subjects that mount, intromit and ejaculate, although their testosterone levels were not altered. However, the effect of this treatment on estrogen levels and the consequences of hormone substitution using 17β-estradiol and 5-α-dihydrotestosterone on the expression of male sexual behavior are still unknown. Therefore, the objective of the present study was to analyze the effect of neonatal treatment with CMI on plasma testosterone and 17β-estradiol levels, and the role of testosterone, 17β-estradiol and 5-α-dihydrotestosterone in altering the consummatory and motivational components of sexual behavior in male rats. To this end, it analyzed the copulatory parameters and sexual incentive motivation (SIM) of rats treated with CMI under two conditions: basal and post-hormone replacements. Neonatal treatment with CMI did not affect plasma testosterone or 17β-estradiol concentrations, but did decrease both the consummatory component and sexual motivation according to the results of the SIM test. These aspects were recovered after administering 17β-estradiol +5-α-dihydrotestosterone, but not testosterone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ofelia Limón-Morales
- Posgrado en Biología Experimental, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana-Iztapalapa. Apartado, Postal 55 535, C.P. 09340, D.F. México
| | - Cesar Soria-Fregozo
- Laboratorio de Psicobiologia, Centro Universitario de los Lagos, Universidad de Guadalajara, México
| | - Marcela Arteaga-Silva
- Departamento de Biología de la Reproducción, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana-Iztapalapa. Apartado Postal 55 535, C.P. 09340, D.F. México
| | - Marisela Hernández González
- Instituto de Neurociencias, Universidad de Guadalajara, Francisco de Quevedo 180, Col. Arcos de Vallarta, CP 44130, Guadalajara, Jalisco, México
| | - Gonzalo Vázquez-Palacios
- Colegio De Ciencia y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México-San Lorenzo Tezonco, Av. Prolongación San Isidro 151, Col. San Lorenzo Tezonco, Deleg, Iztapalapa CP 09790, México
| | - Herlinda Bonilla-Jaime
- Departamento de Biología de la Reproducción, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana-Iztapalapa. Apartado Postal 55 535, C.P. 09340, D.F. México.
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Cumming MJ, Thompson MA, McCormick CM. Adolescent social instability stress increases aggression in a food competition task in adult male Long-Evans rats. Dev Psychobiol 2014; 56:1575-88. [PMID: 25176514 DOI: 10.1002/dev.21252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2014] [Accepted: 08/05/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Adolescent social instability stress (SS; daily 1 hr isolation + new cage partners postnatal days 30-45; thereafter with original cage partner, also in the SS condition) and control (CTL) rats competed for access to a preferred food in five sessions against their cage partner. In the first session, SS pairs displayed more aggression (face whacks, p = .02; rear attacks, p = .03), were less likely to relinquish access to the food voluntarily (p = .03), spent more time at the feeder than CTL pairs (p = .06), but did not differ in latency to access the feeder (p = .41). Pairs were considered in dominant-submissive relationships (DSR) if one rat spent significantly more time at the feeder than the other; 8 of 12 SS and 8 of 12 CTL pairs displayed DSRs (remaining: no-DSR). Aggression increased from the 1st to 5th session (p < .001), was greater in no-DSR than DSR pairs (p = .04; consistent with the proposed function of DSRs to be the reduction of aggression in groups), and was higher in SS than CTL pairs (p = .05). Because the increased aggression of SS compared with CTL pairs did not result in a significant increase in their time at the feeder, the increased aggression may be considered maladaptive, and may reflect an increased motivation for food reward. These results add to evidence that SS in adolescence modifies the adult social repertoire of rats and highlight the importance of adolescent social experiences for adult behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark J Cumming
- Centre for Neuroscience, Brock University, 500 Glenridge Avenue, St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada, L2S 3A1
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27
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah-Jayne Blakemore
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College London, London, WC1N 3HT United Kingdom;
| | - Kathryn L. Mills
- Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, University College London, London, WC1N 3HT United Kingdom;
- Child Psychiatry Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
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28
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Holder MK, Blaustein JD. Puberty and adolescence as a time of vulnerability to stressors that alter neurobehavioral processes. Front Neuroendocrinol 2014; 35:89-110. [PMID: 24184692 PMCID: PMC3946873 DOI: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2013.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 155] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2013] [Revised: 10/03/2013] [Accepted: 10/23/2013] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Puberty and adolescence are major life transitions during which an individual's physiology and behavior changes from that of a juvenile to that of an adult. Here we review studies documenting the effects of stressors during pubertal and adolescent development on the adult brain and behavior. The experience of complex or compound stressors during puberty/adolescence generally increases stress reactivity, increases anxiety and depression, and decreases cognitive performance in adulthood. These behavioral changes correlate with decreased hippocampal volumes and alterations in neural plasticity. Moreover, stressful experiences during puberty disrupt behavioral responses to gonadal hormones both in sexual performance and on cognition and emotionality. These behavioral changes correlate with altered estrogen receptor densities in some estrogen-concentrating brain areas, suggesting a remodeling of the brain's response to hormones. A hypothesis is presented that activation of the immune system results in chronic neuroinflammation that may mediate the alterations of hormone-modulated behaviors in adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary K Holder
- Neuroscience and Behavior Program, Tobin Hall, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003-9271, USA; Center for Neuroendocrine Studies, Tobin Hall, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003-9271, USA.
| | - Jeffrey D Blaustein
- Neuroscience and Behavior Program, Tobin Hall, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003-9271, USA; Center for Neuroendocrine Studies, Tobin Hall, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003-9271, USA.
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