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Apostolo D, D’Onghia D, Nerviani A, Ghirardi GM, Sola D, Perazzi M, Tonello S, Colangelo D, Sainaghi PP, Bellan M. Could Gas6/TAM Axis Provide Valuable Insights into the Pathogenesis of Systemic Sclerosis? Curr Issues Mol Biol 2024; 46:7486-7504. [PMID: 39057085 PMCID: PMC11275301 DOI: 10.3390/cimb46070444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2024] [Revised: 07/09/2024] [Accepted: 07/12/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Systemic sclerosis (SSc) is a connective tissue disorder characterized by microvascular injury, extracellular matrix deposition, autoimmunity, inflammation, and fibrosis. The clinical complexity and high heterogeneity of the disease make the discovery of potential therapeutic targets difficult. However, the recent progress in the comprehension of its pathogenesis is encouraging. Growth Arrest-Specific 6 (Gas6) and Tyro3, Axl, and MerTK (TAM) receptors are involved in multiple biological processes, including modulation of the immune response, phagocytosis, apoptosis, fibrosis, inflammation, cancer development, and autoimmune disorders. In the present manuscript, we review the current evidence regarding SSc pathogenesis and the role of the Gas6/TAM system in several human diseases, suggesting its likely contribution in SSc and highlighting areas where further research is necessary to fully comprehend the role of TAM receptors in this condition. Indeed, understanding the involvement of TAM receptors in SSc, which is currently unknown, could provide valuable insights for novel potential therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daria Apostolo
- Department of Translational Medicine, University of Piemonte Orientale (UPO), 28100 Novara, Italy; (D.A.); (D.D.); (D.S.); (M.P.); (S.T.); (P.P.S.); (M.B.)
- Centre for Experimental Medicine and Rheumatology, Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, William Harvey Research Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London E1 4NS, UK;
| | - Davide D’Onghia
- Department of Translational Medicine, University of Piemonte Orientale (UPO), 28100 Novara, Italy; (D.A.); (D.D.); (D.S.); (M.P.); (S.T.); (P.P.S.); (M.B.)
| | - Alessandra Nerviani
- Centre for Experimental Medicine and Rheumatology, Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, William Harvey Research Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London E1 4NS, UK;
| | - Giulia Maria Ghirardi
- Centre for Experimental Medicine and Rheumatology, Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, William Harvey Research Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London E1 4NS, UK;
| | - Daniele Sola
- Department of Translational Medicine, University of Piemonte Orientale (UPO), 28100 Novara, Italy; (D.A.); (D.D.); (D.S.); (M.P.); (S.T.); (P.P.S.); (M.B.)
- IRCCS Istituto Auxologico Italiano, UO General Medicine, 28824 Oggebbio, Italy
| | - Mattia Perazzi
- Department of Translational Medicine, University of Piemonte Orientale (UPO), 28100 Novara, Italy; (D.A.); (D.D.); (D.S.); (M.P.); (S.T.); (P.P.S.); (M.B.)
- Internal Medicine and Rheumatology Unit, A.O.U. Maggiore della Carità, 28100 Novara, Italy
| | - Stelvio Tonello
- Department of Translational Medicine, University of Piemonte Orientale (UPO), 28100 Novara, Italy; (D.A.); (D.D.); (D.S.); (M.P.); (S.T.); (P.P.S.); (M.B.)
| | - Donato Colangelo
- Department of Health Sciences, Pharmacology, University of Piemonte Orientale (UPO), 28100 Novara, Italy;
| | - Pier Paolo Sainaghi
- Department of Translational Medicine, University of Piemonte Orientale (UPO), 28100 Novara, Italy; (D.A.); (D.D.); (D.S.); (M.P.); (S.T.); (P.P.S.); (M.B.)
- Internal Medicine and Rheumatology Unit, A.O.U. Maggiore della Carità, 28100 Novara, Italy
- Center on Autoimmune and Allergic Diseases (CAAD), University of Piemonte Orientale, 28100 Novara, Italy
| | - Mattia Bellan
- Department of Translational Medicine, University of Piemonte Orientale (UPO), 28100 Novara, Italy; (D.A.); (D.D.); (D.S.); (M.P.); (S.T.); (P.P.S.); (M.B.)
- Internal Medicine and Rheumatology Unit, A.O.U. Maggiore della Carità, 28100 Novara, Italy
- Center on Autoimmune and Allergic Diseases (CAAD), University of Piemonte Orientale, 28100 Novara, Italy
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2
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Li F, Xu L, Li C, Hu F, Su Y. Immunological role of Gas6/TAM signaling in hemostasis and thrombosis. Thromb Res 2024; 238:161-171. [PMID: 38723521 DOI: 10.1016/j.thromres.2024.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2024] [Revised: 04/26/2024] [Accepted: 05/02/2024] [Indexed: 05/21/2024]
Abstract
The immune system is an emerging regulator of hemostasis and thrombosis. The concept of immunothrombosis redefines the relationship between coagulation and immunomodulation, and the Gas6/Tyro3-Axl-MerTK (TAM) signaling pathway builds the bridge across them. During coagulation, Gas6/TAM signaling pathway not only activates platelets, but also promotes thrombosis through endothelial cells and vascular smooth muscle cells involved in inflammatory responses. Thrombosis appears to be a common result of a Gas6/TAM signaling pathway-mediated immune dysregulation. TAM TK and its ligands have been found to be involved in coagulation through the PI3K/AKT or JAK/STAT pathway in various systemic diseases, providing new perspectives in the understanding of immunothrombosis. Gas6/TAM signaling pathway serves as a breakthrough target for novel therapeutic strategies to improve disease management. Many preclinical and clinical studies of TAM receptor inhibitors are in process, confirming the pivotal role of Gas6/TAM signaling pathway in immunothrombosis. Therapeutics targeting the TAM receptor show potential both in anticoagulation management and immunotherapy. Here, we review the immunological functions of the Gas6/TAM signaling pathway in coagulation and its multiple mechanisms in diseases identified to date, and discuss the new clinical strategies that may generated by these roles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fanshu Li
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, Peking University People's Hospital & Beijing Key Laboratory for Rheumatism Mechanism and Immune Diagnosis (BZ0135), Beijing, China
| | - Liling Xu
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, Peking University People's Hospital & Beijing Key Laboratory for Rheumatism Mechanism and Immune Diagnosis (BZ0135), Beijing, China.
| | - Chun Li
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, Peking University People's Hospital & Beijing Key Laboratory for Rheumatism Mechanism and Immune Diagnosis (BZ0135), Beijing, China
| | - Fanlei Hu
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, Peking University People's Hospital & Beijing Key Laboratory for Rheumatism Mechanism and Immune Diagnosis (BZ0135), Beijing, China; State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China; Department of Integration of Chinese and Western Medicine, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China.
| | - Yin Su
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, Peking University People's Hospital & Beijing Key Laboratory for Rheumatism Mechanism and Immune Diagnosis (BZ0135), Beijing, China; Peking University People's Hospital, Qingdao, China
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Miao YR, Rankin EB, Giaccia AJ. Therapeutic targeting of the functionally elusive TAM receptor family. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2024; 23:201-217. [PMID: 38092952 PMCID: PMC11335090 DOI: 10.1038/s41573-023-00846-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/02/2023] [Indexed: 03/07/2024]
Abstract
The TAM receptor family of TYRO3, AXL and MERTK regulates tissue and immune homeostasis. Aberrant TAM receptor signalling has been linked to a range of diseases, including cancer, fibrosis and viral infections. Specifically, the dysregulation of TAM receptors can enhance tumour growth and metastasis due to their involvement in multiple oncogenic pathways. For example, TAM receptors have been implicated in the epithelial-mesenchymal transition, maintaining the stem cell phenotype, immune modulation, proliferation, angiogenesis and resistance to conventional and targeted therapies. Therapeutically, multiple TAM receptor inhibitors are in preclinical and clinical development for cancers and other indications, with those targeting AXL being the most clinically advanced. Although there has been notable clinical advancement in recent years, challenges persist. This Review aims to provide both biological and clinical insights into the current therapeutic landscape of TAM receptor inhibitors, and evaluates their potential for the treatment of cancer and non-malignant diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Rebecca Miao
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Erinn B Rankin
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
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Zhao HD, Sun JJ, Liu HL. Potential clinical biomarkers in monitoring the severity of Hantaan virus infection. Cytokine 2023; 170:156340. [PMID: 37607412 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2023.156340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2023] [Revised: 08/13/2023] [Accepted: 08/17/2023] [Indexed: 08/24/2023]
Abstract
Hantavirus, which causes hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) is almost prevalent worldwide. While Hantaan virus (HTNV) causes the most severe form of HFRS with typical clinical manifestations of thrombocytopenia, increased vascular permeability, and acute kidney injury. Although the knowledge of the pathogenesis of HFRS is still limited, immune dysfunction and pathological damage caused by disorders of immune regulation are proposed to play a vital role in the development of the disorder, and the endothelium is considered to be the primary target of hantaviruses. Here, we reviewed the production and function of multiple molecules, mainly focusing on their role in immune response, endothelium, vascular permeability regulation, and platelet and coagulation activation which are closely related to the pathogenesis of HTNV infection. meanwhile, the relationship between these molecules and characteristics of HTNV infection including the hospital duration, immune dysfunction, thrombocytopenia, leukocytosis, and acute kidney injury are also presented, to provide a novel insight into the potential role of these molecules as monitoring markers for HTNV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Han-Dong Zhao
- Central Laboratory of Virology, Shaanxi Provincial Hospital of Infectious Diseases, The Eighth Hospital Affiliated to Medical College of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710061, China
| | - Ju-Jun Sun
- Clinical Laboratory Center, XD Group Hospital, Xi'an 710077, China
| | - Hong-Li Liu
- Clinical Laboratory Center, Xi'an People's Hospital (Xi'an Fourth Hospital) Guang-Ren Hospital Affiliated to Xi'an Jiaotong University Health Science Center, Xi'an 710004, China.
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Yong J, Elisabeth Groeger S, Ruf S, Ruiz-Heiland G. Influence of leptin and compression in GAS-6 mediated homeostasis of periodontal ligament cell. Oral Dis 2023; 29:1172-1183. [PMID: 34861742 DOI: 10.1111/odi.14092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2021] [Revised: 11/21/2021] [Accepted: 12/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Growth arrest-specific protein 6 (GAS-6) regulates immunomodulatory and inflammatory mechanisms in periodontium and may participate in obesity predisposition. This study aimed to determine whether GAS-6 is associated with the homeostasis of periodontal ligament (SV-PDL) cells in the presence of adipokines or compressive forces. The SV-PDL cell line was used. Western blots were employed for TAM receptors detection. Cells were stimulated using different concentrations of GAS-6. The migration, viability, and proliferation were measured by a standard scratch test, MTS assay, and immunofluorescent staining. The mRNA expression was analyzed by RT-PCR. Release of TGF-β1, GAS-6, and Axl were verified by ELISA. Western blot shows that TAM receptors are expressed in SV-PDL cells. GAS-6 has a promoting effect on cell migration and proliferation. RT-PCR analysis showed that GAS-6 induces Collagen-1, Collagen-3, Periostin, and TGF-β1 mRNA expression whereas it reduces Caspase-3, Caspase-8, Caspase-9, and IL-6 mRNA expression. Further, secreted GAS-6 in SV-PDL is reduced in response to both compressive forces and leptin and upregulated by IL-6. Additionally, ADAM-10 inhibition reduces GAS-6 and Axl release on SV-PDL cells. TAM receptors especially Axl are identified as the receptors of GAS-6. GAS-6/TAM interactions contribute to periodontal ligament cells homeostasis. Leptin inhibits the GAS-6 release independently of ADAM-10 metalloprotease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiawen Yong
- Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Medicine, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Sabine Elisabeth Groeger
- Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Medicine, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Sabine Ruf
- Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Medicine, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Gisela Ruiz-Heiland
- Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Medicine, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
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Li D, Xiao CS, Chen L, Wu Y, Jiang W, Jiang SL. SERPINE1 Gene Is a Reliable Molecular Marker for the Early Diagnosis of Aortic Dissection. EVIDENCE-BASED COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE : ECAM 2022; 2022:5433868. [PMID: 35836829 PMCID: PMC9276487 DOI: 10.1155/2022/5433868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2022] [Revised: 05/26/2022] [Accepted: 06/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
With the acceleration of population aging, the detection rate of aortic dissection has increased. The incidence rate of aortic dissection has increased year by year and has become a serious threat to human health. However, the current clinical treatment of aortic dissection is mainly limited to surgery (including intracavity), but the complexity of the disease and the high risk of surgery seriously affect the overall treatment effect of the disease. Therefore, an in-depth study of the pathogenesis of aortic dissection and the development of early diagnosis methods is not only expected to control the development of aortic dissection but also to improve the existing clinical treatment effect. Based on the bioinformatics analysis of the related mRNA sequence data of aortic dissection in GEO database, the gene expression regulatory network of aortic dissection was constructed. Through the screening of key node genes, the key factors (molecular markers) that may affect the occurrence of aortic dissection were obtained, and their functions were tested in human aortic smooth muscle cells (HAoSMC). Finally, it was concluded that SERPINE1 gene is a reliable molecular marker for the early diagnosis of aortic dissection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong Li
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, The First Medical Center of Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing 100853, China
| | - Cang-Song Xiao
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, The First Medical Center of Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing 100853, China
| | - Lei Chen
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, The First Medical Center of Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing 100853, China
| | - Yang Wu
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, The First Medical Center of Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing 100853, China
| | - Wei Jiang
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, The First Medical Center of Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing 100853, China
| | - Sheng-Li Jiang
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, The First Medical Center of Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing 100853, China
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7
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Abstract
Extensive interest in cancer immunotherapy is reported according to the clinical importance of CTLA-4 and (PD-1/PD-L1) [programmed death (PD) and programmed death-ligand (PD-L1)] in immune checkpoint therapies. AXL is a receptor tyrosine kinase expressed in different types of cancer and in relation to resistance against various anticancer therapeutics due to poor clinical prognosis. AXL and its ligand, i.e., growth arrest-specific 6 (GAS6) proteins, are expressed on many cancer cells, and the GAS6/AXL pathway is reported to promote cancer cell proliferation, survival, migration, invasion, angiogenesis, and immune evasion. AXL is an attractive and novel therapeutic target for impairing tumor progression from immune cell contracts in the tumor microenvironment. The GAS6/AXL pathway is also of interest immunologically because it targets fewer antitumor immune responses. In effect, several targeted therapies are selective and nonselective for AXL, which are in preclinical and clinical development in multiple cancer types. Therefore, this review focuses on the role of the GAS6/AXL signaling pathway in triggering the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment as immune evasion. This includes regulating its composition and activating T-cell exclusion with the immune-suppressive activity of regulatory T cells, which is related to one of the hallmarks of cancer survival. Finally, this article discusses the GAS6/AXL signaling pathway in the context of several immune responses such as NK cell activation, apoptosis, and tumor-specific immunity, especially PD-1/PDL-1 signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hye-Youn Son
- Department of Breast and Endocrine Surgery, Center for Medical Innovation, Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Hwan-Kyu Jeong
- School of Biosystems and Biomedical Sciences, Korea University, Seoul, South Korea
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Kim BM, Lee YJ, Choi YH, Park EM, Kang JL. Gas6 Ameliorates Inflammatory Response and Apoptosis in Bleomycin-Induced Acute Lung Injury. Biomedicines 2021; 9:1674. [PMID: 34829903 PMCID: PMC8615678 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines9111674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2021] [Revised: 11/07/2021] [Accepted: 11/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Acute lung injury (ALI) is characterized by alveolar damage, lung edema, and exacerbated inflammatory response. Growth arrest-specific protein 6 (Gas6) mediates many different functions, including cell survival, proliferation, inflammatory signaling, and apoptotic cell clearance (efferocytosis). The role of Gas6 in bleomycin (BLM)-induced ALI is unknown. We investigated whether exogenous administration of mouse recombinant Gas6 (rGas6) has anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic effects on BLM-induced ALI. Compared to mice treated with only BLM, the administration of rGas6 reduced the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-1β, and macrophage inflammatory protein-2, and increased the secretion of hepatocyte growth factor in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid. rGas6 administration also reduced BLM-induced inflammation and apoptosis as evidenced by reduced neutrophil recruitment into the lungs, total protein levels in BAL fluid, caspase-3 activity, and TUNEL-positive lung cells in lung tissue. Apoptotic cell clearance by alveolar macrophages was also enhanced in mice treated with both BLM and rGas6 compared with mice treated with only BLM. rGas6 also had pro-resolving and anti-apoptotic effects in mouse bone marrow-derived macrophages and alveolar epithelial cell lines stimulated with BLM in vitro. These findings indicate that rGas6 may play a protective role in BLM-induced ALI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo-Min Kim
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 07804, Korea; (B.-M.K.); (Y.-J.L.); (Y.-H.C.)
- Inflammation-Cancer Microenvironment Research Center, College of Medicine, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 07804, Korea
| | - Ye-Ji Lee
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 07804, Korea; (B.-M.K.); (Y.-J.L.); (Y.-H.C.)
- Inflammation-Cancer Microenvironment Research Center, College of Medicine, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 07804, Korea
| | - Youn-Hee Choi
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 07804, Korea; (B.-M.K.); (Y.-J.L.); (Y.-H.C.)
- Inflammation-Cancer Microenvironment Research Center, College of Medicine, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 07804, Korea
| | - Eun-Mi Park
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 07804, Korea;
| | - Jihee Lee Kang
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 07804, Korea; (B.-M.K.); (Y.-J.L.); (Y.-H.C.)
- Inflammation-Cancer Microenvironment Research Center, College of Medicine, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 07804, Korea
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Intrinsic and Extrinsic Control of Hepatocellular Carcinoma by TAM Receptors. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13215448. [PMID: 34771611 PMCID: PMC8582520 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13215448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2021] [Revised: 10/22/2021] [Accepted: 10/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Tyro3, Axl, and MerTK are receptor tyrosine kinases of the TAM family, which are activated by their ligands Gas6 and Protein S. TAM receptors have large physiological implications, including the removal of dead cells, activation of immune cells, and prevention of bleeding. In the last decade, TAM receptors have been suggested to play a relevant role in liver fibrogenesis and the development of hepatocellular carcinoma. The understanding of TAM receptor functions in tumor cells and their cellular microenvironment is of utmost importance to advances in novel therapeutic strategies that conquer chronic liver disease including hepatocellular carcinoma. Abstract Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the major subtype of liver cancer, showing high mortality of patients due to limited therapeutic options at advanced stages of disease. The receptor tyrosine kinases Tyro3, Axl and MerTK—belonging to the TAM family—exert a large impact on various aspects of cancer biology. Binding of the ligands Gas6 or Protein S activates TAM receptors causing homophilic dimerization and heterophilic interactions with other receptors to modulate effector functions. In this context, TAM receptors are major regulators of anti-inflammatory responses and vessel integrity, including platelet aggregation as well as resistance to chemotherapy. In this review, we discuss the relevance of TAM receptors in the intrinsic control of HCC progression by modulating epithelial cell plasticity and by promoting metastatic traits of neoplastic hepatocytes. Depending on different etiologies of HCC, we further describe the overt role of TAM receptors in the extrinsic control of HCC progression by focusing on immune cell infiltration and fibrogenesis. Additionally, we assess TAM receptor functions in the chemoresistance against clinically used tyrosine kinase inhibitors and immune checkpoint blockade in HCC progression. We finally address the question of whether inhibition of TAM receptors can be envisaged for novel therapeutic strategies in HCC.
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Novoyatleva T, Rai N, Kojonazarov B, Veeroju S, Ben-Batalla I, Caruso P, Shihan M, Presser N, Götz E, Lepper C, Herpel S, Manaud G, Perros F, Gall H, Ghofrani HA, Weissmann N, Grimminger F, Wharton J, Wilkins M, Upton PD, Loges S, Morrell NW, Seeger W, Schermuly RT. Deficiency of Axl aggravates pulmonary arterial hypertension via BMPR2. Commun Biol 2021; 4:1002. [PMID: 34429509 PMCID: PMC8385080 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-021-02531-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2020] [Accepted: 08/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH), is a fatal disease characterized by a pseudo-malignant phenotype. We investigated the expression and the role of the receptor tyrosine kinase Axl in experimental (i.e., monocrotaline and Su5416/hypoxia treated rats) and clinical PAH. In vitro Axl inhibition by R428 and Axl knock-down inhibited growth factor-driven proliferation and migration of non-PAH and PAH PASMCs. Conversely, Axl overexpression conferred a growth advantage. Axl declined in PAECs of PAH patients. Axl blockage inhibited BMP9 signaling and increased PAEC apoptosis, while BMP9 induced Axl phosphorylation. Gas6 induced SMAD1/5/8 phosphorylation and ID1/ID2 increase were blunted by BMP signaling obstruction. Axl association with BMPR2 was facilitated by Gas6/BMP9 stimulation and diminished by R428. In vivo R428 aggravated right ventricular hypertrophy and dysfunction, abrogated BMPR2 signaling, elevated pulmonary endothelial cell apoptosis and loss. Together, Axl is a key regulator of endothelial BMPR2 signaling and potential determinant of PAH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatyana Novoyatleva
- Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Excellence Cluster Cardio-Pulmonary System (ECCPS), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Giessen, Germany.
| | - Nabham Rai
- Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Excellence Cluster Cardio-Pulmonary System (ECCPS), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Baktybek Kojonazarov
- Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Excellence Cluster Cardio-Pulmonary System (ECCPS), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
- Institute for Lung Health, Giessen, Germany
| | - Swathi Veeroju
- Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Excellence Cluster Cardio-Pulmonary System (ECCPS), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Isabel Ben-Batalla
- Department of Oncology, Hematology and Bone Marrow Transplantation with section Pneumology, Hubertus Wald University Comprehensive Cancer Center Hamburg, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
- Department of Tumor Biology, Center of Experimental Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Paola Caruso
- Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Mazen Shihan
- Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Excellence Cluster Cardio-Pulmonary System (ECCPS), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Nadine Presser
- Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Excellence Cluster Cardio-Pulmonary System (ECCPS), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Elsa Götz
- Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Excellence Cluster Cardio-Pulmonary System (ECCPS), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Carina Lepper
- Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Excellence Cluster Cardio-Pulmonary System (ECCPS), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Sebastian Herpel
- Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Excellence Cluster Cardio-Pulmonary System (ECCPS), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Grégoire Manaud
- Université Paris-Saclay, AP-HP, INSERM UMR_S 999, Service de Pneumologie et Soins Intensifs Respiratoires, Hôpital de Bicêtre, Le Kremlin Bicêtre, France
| | - Frédéric Perros
- Université Paris-Saclay, AP-HP, INSERM UMR_S 999, Service de Pneumologie et Soins Intensifs Respiratoires, Hôpital de Bicêtre, Le Kremlin Bicêtre, France
| | - Henning Gall
- Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Excellence Cluster Cardio-Pulmonary System (ECCPS), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Hossein Ardeschir Ghofrani
- Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Excellence Cluster Cardio-Pulmonary System (ECCPS), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Norbert Weissmann
- Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Excellence Cluster Cardio-Pulmonary System (ECCPS), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Friedrich Grimminger
- Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Excellence Cluster Cardio-Pulmonary System (ECCPS), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - John Wharton
- Centre for Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Martin Wilkins
- Centre for Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Paul D Upton
- Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Sonja Loges
- Department of Oncology, Hematology and Bone Marrow Transplantation with section Pneumology, Hubertus Wald University Comprehensive Cancer Center Hamburg, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
- Department of Tumor Biology, Center of Experimental Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | | | - Werner Seeger
- Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Excellence Cluster Cardio-Pulmonary System (ECCPS), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
- Max Planck Institute for Heart and Lung Research, Bad Nauheim, Germany
| | - Ralph T Schermuly
- Universities of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), Excellence Cluster Cardio-Pulmonary System (ECCPS), Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Giessen, Germany.
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11
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Walsh AD, Johnson LJ, Harvey AJ, Kilpatrick TJ, Binder MD. Identification and Characterisation of cis-Regulatory Elements Upstream of the Human Receptor Tyrosine Kinase Gene MERTK. Brain Plast 2021; 7:3-16. [PMID: 34631417 PMCID: PMC8461731 DOI: 10.3233/bpl-200102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND: MERTK encodes a receptor tyrosine kinase that regulates immune homeostasis via phagocytosis of apoptotic cells and cytokine-mediated immunosuppression. MERTK is highly expressed in the central nervous system (CNS), specifically in myeloid derived innate immune cells and its dysregulation is implicated in CNS pathologies including the autoimmune disease multiple sclerosis (MS). OBJECTIVE: While the cell types and tissues that express MERTK have been well described, the genetic elements that define the gene’s promoter and regulate specific transcription domains remain unknown. The primary objective of this study was to define and characterise the human MERTK promoter region. METHODS: We cloned and characterized the 5’ upstream region of MERTK to identify cis-acting DNA elements that promote gene transcription in luciferase reporter assays. In addition, promoter regions were tested for sensitivity to the anti-inflammatory glucocorticoid dexamethasone. RESULTS: This study identified identified both proximal and distal-acting DNA elements that promote transcription. The strongest promoter activity was identified in an ∼850 bp region situated 3 kb upstream of the MERTK transcription start site. Serial deletions of this putative enhancer revealed that the entire region is essential for expression activity. Using in silico analysis, we identified several candidate transcription factor binding sites. Despite a well-established upregulation of MERTK in response to anti-inflammatory glucocorticoids, no DNA region within the 5 kb putative promoter was found to directly respond to dexamethasone treatment. CONCLUSIONS: Elucidating the genetic mechanisms that regulate MERTK expression gives insights into gene regulation during homeostasis and disease, providing potential targets for therapeutic modulation of MERTK transcription.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander D. Walsh
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Parkville, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Laura J. Johnson
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Parkville, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Alexandra J. Harvey
- School of BioSciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Trevor J. Kilpatrick
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Parkville, Melbourne, Australia
- The Florey Department of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Michele D. Binder
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Parkville, Melbourne, Australia
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Melbourne, Australia
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12
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Rothlin CV, Ghosh S. Lifting the innate immune barriers to antitumor immunity. J Immunother Cancer 2021; 8:jitc-2020-000695. [PMID: 32273348 PMCID: PMC7254113 DOI: 10.1136/jitc-2020-000695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The immune system evolved for adequate surveillance and killing of pathogens while minimizing host damage, such as due to chronic or exaggerated inflammation and autoimmunity. This is achieved by negative regulators and checkpoints that limit the magnitude and time course of the immune response. Tumor cells often escape immune surveillance and killing. Therefore, disrupting the brakes built into the immune system should effectively boost the anticancer immune response. The success of anti-CTLA4, anti-PD-1 and anti-PD-L1 have firmly established this proof of concept. Since the response rate of anti-CTLA4, anti-PD-1 and anti-PD-L1 is still limited, there is an intense effort for the identification of new targets and development of approaches that can expand the benefits of immunotherapy to a larger patient pool. Additional T cell checkpoints are obvious targets; however, here we focus on the unusual suspects—cells that function to initiate and guide T cell activity. Innate immunity is both an obligate prerequisite for the initiation of adaptive immune responses and a requirement for the recruitment of activated T cells to the site of action. We discuss some of the molecules present in innate immune cells, including natural killer cells, dendritic cells, macrophages, myeloid-derived suppressor cells, endothelial cells and stromal cells, that can activate or enhance innate immune cell functions, and more importantly, the inhibitors or checkpoints present in these cells that restrain their functions. Boosting innate immunity, either by enhancing activator functions or, preferably, by blocking the inhibitors, may represent a new anticancer treatment modality or at least function as adjuvants to T cell checkpoint inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla V Rothlin
- Immunobiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06519, United States .,Pharmacology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06519, United States
| | - Sourav Ghosh
- Pharmacology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06519, United States .,Neurology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06519, United States
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13
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Hirschi KM, Tsai KYF, Davis T, Clark JC, Knowlton MN, Bikman BT, Reynolds PR, Arroyo JA. Growth arrest-specific protein-6/AXL signaling induces preeclampsia in rats†. Biol Reprod 2021; 102:199-210. [PMID: 31347670 DOI: 10.1093/biolre/ioz140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2019] [Revised: 07/06/2019] [Accepted: 07/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Preeclampsia (PE) is a complicated obstetric complication characterized by increased blood pressure, decreased trophoblast invasion, and inflammation. The growth arrest-specific 6 (Gas6) protein is known to induce dynamic cellular responses and is elevated in PE. Gas6 binds to the AXL tyrosine kinase receptor and AXL-mediated signaling is implicated in proliferation and migration observed in several tissues. Our laboratory utilized Gas6 to induce preeclamptic-like conditions in pregnant rats. Our objective was to determine the role of Gas6/AXL signaling as a possible model of PE. Briefly, pregnant rats were divided into three groups that received daily intraperitoneal injections (from gestational day 7.5 to 17.5) of phosphate buffered saline (PBS), Gas6, or Gas6 + R428 (an AXL inhibitor administered from gestational day 13.5 to 17.5). Animals dispensed Gas6 experienced elevated blood pressure, increased proteinuria, augmented caspase-3-mediated placental apoptosis, and diminished trophoblast invasion. Gas6 also enhanced expression of several PE-related genes and a number of inflammatory mediators. Gas6 further enhanced placental oxidative stress and impaired mitochondrial respiration. Each of these PE-related characteristics was ameliorated in dams and/or their placentae when AXL inhibition by R428 occurred in tandem with Gas6 treatment. We conclude that Gas6 signaling is capable of inducing PE and that inhibition of AXL prevents disease progression in pregnant rats. These results provide insight into pathways associated with PE that could be useful in the clarification of potential therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelsey M Hirschi
- Lung and Placenta Laboratory, Department of Physiology and Developmental Biology, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, USA
| | - Kary Y F Tsai
- Lung and Placenta Laboratory, Department of Physiology and Developmental Biology, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, USA
| | - Taylor Davis
- Lung and Placenta Laboratory, Department of Physiology and Developmental Biology, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, USA
| | - J Christian Clark
- Lung and Placenta Laboratory, Department of Physiology and Developmental Biology, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, USA
| | - M Nekel Knowlton
- Lung and Placenta Laboratory, Department of Physiology and Developmental Biology, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, USA
| | - Benjamin T Bikman
- Laboratory of Obesity and Metabolism, Department of Physiology and Developmental Biology, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, USA
| | - Paul R Reynolds
- Lung and Placenta Laboratory, Department of Physiology and Developmental Biology, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, USA
| | - Juan A Arroyo
- Lung and Placenta Laboratory, Department of Physiology and Developmental Biology, Brigham Young University, Provo, Utah, USA
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14
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Xiao H, Chen J, Duan L, Li S. Role of emerging vitamin K‑dependent proteins: Growth arrest‑specific protein 6, Gla‑rich protein and periostin (Review). Int J Mol Med 2021; 47:2. [PMID: 33448308 PMCID: PMC7834955 DOI: 10.3892/ijmm.2020.4835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2020] [Accepted: 10/21/2020] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Vitamin K‑dependent proteins (VKDPs) are a group of proteins that need vitamin K to conduct carboxylation. Thus far, scholars have identified a total of 17 VKDPs in the human body. In this review, we summarize three important emerging VKDPs: Growth arrest‑specific protein 6 (Gas 6), Gla‑rich protein (GRP) and periostin in terms of their functions in physiological and pathological conditions. As examples, carboxylated Gas 6 and GRP effectively protect blood vessels from calcification, Gas 6 protects from acute kidney injury and is involved in chronic kidney disease, GRP contributes to bone homeostasis and delays the progression of osteoarthritis, and periostin is involved in all phases of fracture healing and assists myocardial regeneration in the early stages of myocardial infarction. However, periostin participates in the progression of cardiac fibrosis, idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis and airway remodeling of asthma. In addition, we discuss the relationship between vitamin K, VKDPs and cancer, and particularly the carboxylation state of VKDPs in cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huiyu Xiao
- Department of Physiology, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, Liaoning 116044
| | - Jiepeng Chen
- Sungen Bioscience Co., Ltd., Shantou, Guangdong 515071, P.R. China
| | - Lili Duan
- Sungen Bioscience Co., Ltd., Shantou, Guangdong 515071, P.R. China
| | - Shuzhuang Li
- Department of Physiology, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, Liaoning 116044
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15
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Msaouel P, Genovese G, Gao J, Sen S, Tannir NM. TAM kinase inhibition and immune checkpoint blockade- a winning combination in cancer treatment? Expert Opin Ther Targets 2021; 25:141-151. [PMID: 33356674 DOI: 10.1080/14728222.2021.1869212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Introduction: Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) have shown great promise in a wide spectrum of malignancies. However, responses are not always durable, and this mode of treatment is only effective in a subset of patients. As such, there exists an unmet need for novel approaches to bolster ICI efficacy.Areas covered: We review the role of the Tyro3, Axl, and Mer (TAM) receptor tyrosine kinases in promoting tumor-induced immune suppression and discuss the benefits that may be derived from combining ICI with TAM kinase-targeted tyrosine kinase inhibitors. We searched the MEDLINE Public Library of Medicine (PubMed) and EMBASE databases and referred to ClinicalTrials.gov for relevant ongoing studies.Expert opinion: Targeting of TAM kinases may improve the efficacy of immune checkpoint blockade. However, it remains to be determined whether this effect will be better achieved by the selective targeting of each TAM receptor, depending on the context, or by multi-receptor TAM inhibitors. Triple inhibition of all TAM receptors is more likely to be associated with an increased risk for adverse events. Clinical trial designs should use high-resolution clinical endpoints and proper control arms to determine the synergistic effects of combining TAM inhibition with immune checkpoint blockade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pavlos Msaouel
- Department of Genitourinary Medical Oncology, Division of Cancer Medicine, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Giannicola Genovese
- Department of Genitourinary Medical Oncology, Division of Cancer Medicine, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Jianjun Gao
- Department of Genitourinary Medical Oncology, Division of Cancer Medicine, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
| | | | - Nizar M Tannir
- Department of Genitourinary Medical Oncology, Division of Cancer Medicine, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, USA
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16
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Treatment with Atorvastatin During Vascular Remodeling Promotes Pericyte-Mediated Blood-Brain Barrier Maturation Following Ischemic Stroke. Transl Stroke Res 2021; 12:905-922. [PMID: 33423214 DOI: 10.1007/s12975-020-00883-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2020] [Revised: 12/21/2020] [Accepted: 12/22/2020] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
We previously showed that newly formed vessels in ischemic rat brain have high blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability at 3 weeks after stroke due to a lack of major endothelial tight junction proteins (TJPs), which may exacerbate edema in stroke patients. Atorvastatin was suggested a dose-dependent pro-angiogenic effect and ameliorating BBB permeability beyond its cholesterol-lowering effects. This study examined our hypothesis that, during vascular remodeling after stroke, treatment with atorvastatin could facilitate BBB maturation in remodeling vasculature in ischemic brain. Adult spontaneously hypertensive rats underwent middle cerebral artery occlusion with reperfusion (MCAO/RP). Atorvastatin, at dose of 3 mg/kg, was delivered daily starting at 14 days after MCAO/RP onset for 7 days. The rats were studied at multiple time points up to 8 weeks with multimodal-MRI, behavior tests, immunohistochemistry, and biochemistry. The delayed treatment of atorvastatin significantly reduced infarct size and BBB permeability, restored cerebral blood flow, and improved the neurological outcome at 8 weeks after MCAO/RP. Postmortem studies showed that atorvastatin promoted angiogenesis and stabilized the newly formed vessels in peri-infarct areas. Importantly, atorvastatin facilitated maturation of BBB properties in the new vessels by promoting endothelial tight junction (TJ) formation. Further in vivo and in vitro studies demonstrated that proliferating peri-vascular pericytes expressing neural-glial antigen 2 (NG2) mediated the role of atorvastatin on BBB maturation through regulating endothelial TJ strand formations. Our results suggested a therapeutic potential of atorvastatin in facilitating a full BBB integrity and functional stroke recovery, and an essential role for pericyte-mediated endothelial TJ formation in remodeling vasculature.
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17
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Goto S, Setoguchi S, Nagata-Akaho N, Terada K, Watase D, Yamakawa H, Toki E, Koga M, Matsunaga K, Karube Y, Takata J. Ester derivatives of phyllohydroquinone effectively deliver the active form of vitamin K 1 topically, owing to their non-photosensitivity. Eur J Pharm Sci 2020; 155:105519. [PMID: 32822810 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2020.105519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2020] [Revised: 08/12/2020] [Accepted: 08/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Topical application of phylloquinone (PK) is beneficial to the skin; however, its topical use is limited in Europe owing to its photosensitive properties such as photodegradation and phototoxicity. We evaluated the suitability of ester derivatives of phyllohydroquinone (PKH), the active form of PK, for topical application to overcome the abovementioned problems of PK. We used the PKH derivatives PKH-1,4-bis-N,N-dimethylglycinate hydrochloride (PKH-DMG) and PKH-1,4-bis-hemisuccinate (PKH-SUC) for our studies. Photostability was determined by measuring the residual concentration after irradiation with artificial sunlight and multi-wavelength light. Phototoxicity after ultraviolet A (UVA) irradiation was assessed by measuring drug-induced singlet oxygen and intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, and cell viability of a human epidermal keratinocyte cell line (HaCaT). Delivery of PKH into HaCaT cells was assessed by measuring PK epoxide (PKO) levels. The PKH derivatives showed higher photostability than PK. After UVA irradiation, PK induced high singlet oxygen levels and intracellular ROS generation, and reduced cell viability, whereas the PKH derivatives showed no effects. The PKH derivatives increased intracellular PKO levels. AUCPKO(0-72 h) values after PKH-DMG and PKH-SUC treatments were 0.741- and 22.9-fold higher than that after PK treatment, respectively. In conclusion, PKH derivatives act as PKH prodrugs and are suitable for topical application without the need for special protection from light.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shotaro Goto
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Fukuoka University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Shuichi Setoguchi
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Fukuoka University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Nami Nagata-Akaho
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Fukuoka University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Kazuki Terada
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Fukuoka University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Daisuke Watase
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Fukuoka University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Hirofumi Yamakawa
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Fukuoka University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Erina Toki
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Fukuoka University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Mitsuhisa Koga
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Fukuoka University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | | | - Yoshiharu Karube
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Fukuoka University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Jiro Takata
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Fukuoka University, Fukuoka, Japan.
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18
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Yang Y, Torbey MT. Angiogenesis and Blood-Brain Barrier Permeability in Vascular Remodeling after Stroke. Curr Neuropharmacol 2020; 18:1250-1265. [PMID: 32691713 PMCID: PMC7770645 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x18666200720173316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2020] [Revised: 05/27/2020] [Accepted: 07/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Angiogenesis, the growth of new blood vessels, is a natural defense mechanism helping to restore oxygen and nutrient supply to the affected brain tissue following an ischemic stroke. By stimulating vessel growth, angiogenesis may stabilize brain perfusion, thereby promoting neuronal survival, brain plasticity, and neurologic recovery. However, therapeutic angiogenesis after stroke faces challenges: new angiogenesis-induced vessels have a higher than normal permeability, and treatment to promote angiogenesis may exacerbate outcomes in stroke patients. The development of therapies requires elucidation of the precise cellular and molecular basis of the disease. Microenvironment homeostasis of the central nervous system is essential for its normal function and is maintained by the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Tight junction proteins (TJP) form the tight junction (TJ) between vascular endothelial cells (ECs) and play a key role in regulating the BBB permeability. We demonstrated that after stroke, new angiogenesis-induced vessels in peri-infarct areas have abnormally high BBB permeability due to a lack of major TJPs in ECs. Therefore, promoting TJ formation and BBB integrity in the new vessels coupled with speedy angiogenesis will provide a promising and safer treatment strategy for improving recovery from stroke. Pericyte is a central neurovascular unite component in vascular barriergenesis and are vital to BBB integrity. We found that pericytes also play a key role in stroke-induced angiogenesis and TJ formation in the newly formed vessels. Based on these findings, in this article, we focus on regulation aspects of the BBB functions and describe cellular and molecular special features of TJ formation with an emphasis on role of pericytes in BBB integrity during angiogenesis after stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Yang
- Department of Neurology, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center; Albuquerque, New Mexico, 87131, United States
| | - Michel T Torbey
- Department of Neurology, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center; Albuquerque, New Mexico, 87131, United States
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19
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Recent advancements in role of TAM receptors on efferocytosis, viral infection, autoimmunity, and tissue repair. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2020; 357:1-19. [PMID: 33234241 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ircmb.2020.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Evolutionarily conserved highly regulated process of apoptosis has been a major physiological process throughout the entire evolutionary history of living beings that has impacted the process of evolution itself. One of the key features of this highly researched field of science is the process of phosphatidylserine (PS) externalization by the different membrane bound enzymes. The process is a result of series of biological events and is associated with various biological outcomes depending on the proper recognition of this ligand. In this review, we will briefly summarize the recent advancement in the field pertaining to the set of receptors, known as TAM (Tyro3, Axl and Mertk) receptors, for their influence in the recognition of various PS externalization events and mediation of pathological outcomes such as autoimmunity, cancer, and tissue repair.
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20
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Sesti F, Pofi R, Minnetti M, Tenuta M, Gianfrilli D, Isidori AM. Late-onset hypogonadism: Reductio ad absurdum of the cardiovascular risk-benefit of testosterone replacement therapy. Andrology 2020; 8:1614-1627. [PMID: 32737921 DOI: 10.1111/andr.12876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2020] [Revised: 07/20/2020] [Accepted: 07/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Low testosterone (T) level is considered a marker of poor cardiovascular health. Ten years ago, the Testosterone in Older Men with Mobility Limitations (TOM) trial was discontinued due to a higher number of adverse events in men receiving T compared with placebo. Since then, several studies have investigated the risks of T replacement therapy (TRT) in late-onset hypogonadism (LOH). OBJECTIVE To review the mechanism by which TRT could damage the cardiovascular system. MATERIALS AND METHODS Comprehensive literature search of recent clinical and experimental studies. RESULTS The mechanisms of T-mediated coronary vasodilation were reviewed with emphasis on calcium-activated and ATP-sensitive potassium ion channels. We showed how T regulates endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) and phosphoinositide 3-kinase/protein kinase B/eNOS signaling pathways in vessel walls and its direct effects on cardiomyocytes via β1-adrenergic and ryanodine receptors and provided data on myocardial infarction and heart failure. Vascular smooth muscle senescence could be explained by the modulation of growth factors, matrix metalloproteinase-2, and angiotensin II by T. Furthermore, leukocyte trafficking, facilitated by changes in TNF-α, could explain some of the effects of T on atheromatous plaques. Conflicting data on prothrombotic risk linked to platelet aggregation inhibition via NO-triggered arachidonate synthesis or increased aggregability due to enhanced thromboxane A in human platelets provide evidence regarding the hypotheses on plaque maturation and rupture risk. The effects of T on cardiac electrophysiology and oxygen delivery were also reviewed. DISCUSSION The effects of TRT on the cardiovascular system are complex. Although molecular studies suggest a potential benefit, several clinical observations reveal neutral or occasionally detrimental effects, mostly due to confounding factors. CONCLUSIONS Attempts to demonstrate that TRT damages the cardiovascular system via systematic analysis of the putative mechanisms led to the contradiction of the initial hypothesis. Current evidence indicates that TRT is safe once other comorbidities are addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franz Sesti
- Department of Experimental Medicine, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Riccardo Pofi
- Department of Experimental Medicine, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Marianna Minnetti
- Department of Experimental Medicine, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Marta Tenuta
- Department of Experimental Medicine, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Daniele Gianfrilli
- Department of Experimental Medicine, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Andrea M Isidori
- Department of Experimental Medicine, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Rome, Italy
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21
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Zhao W, Fan J, Kulic I, Koh C, Clark A, Meuller J, Engkvist O, Barichievy S, Raynoschek C, Hicks R, Maresca M, Wang Q, Brown DG, Lok A, Parro C, Robert J, Chou HY, Zuhl AM, Wood MW, Brandon NJ, Wellington CL. Axl receptor tyrosine kinase is a regulator of apolipoprotein E. Mol Brain 2020; 13:66. [PMID: 32366277 PMCID: PMC7197143 DOI: 10.1186/s13041-020-00609-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2019] [Accepted: 04/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD), the leading cause of dementia, is a chronic neurodegenerative disease. Apolipoprotein E (apoE), which carries lipids in the brain in the form of lipoproteins, plays an undisputed role in AD pathophysiology. A high-throughput phenotypic screen was conducted using a CCF-STTG1 human astrocytoma cell line to identify small molecules that could upregulate apoE secretion. AZ7235, a previously discovered Axl kinase inhibitor, was identified to have robust apoE activity in brain microglia, astrocytes and pericytes. AZ7235 also increased expression of ATP-binding cassette protein A1 (ABCA1), which is involved in the lipidation and secretion of apoE. Moreover, AZ7235 did not exhibit Liver-X-Receptor (LXR) activity and stimulated apoE and ABCA1 expression in the absence of LXR. Target validation studies using AXL-/- CCF-STTG1 cells showed that Axl is required to mediate AZ7235 upregulation of apoE and ABCA1. Intriguingly, apoE expression and secretion was significantly attenuated in AXL-deficient CCF-STTG1 cells and reconstitution of Axl or kinase-dead Axl significantly restored apoE baseline levels, demonstrating that Axl also plays a role in maintaining apoE homeostasis in astrocytes independent of its kinase activity. Lastly, these effects may require human apoE regulatory sequences, as AZ7235 exhibited little stimulatory activity toward apoE and ABCA1 in primary murine glia derived from neonatal human APOE3 targeted-replacement mice. Collectively, we identified a small molecule that exhibits robust apoE and ABCA1 activity independent of the LXR pathway in human cells and elucidated a novel relationship between Axl and apoE homeostasis in human astrocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenchen Zhao
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, 2215 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Jianjia Fan
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, 2215 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Iva Kulic
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, 2215 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Cheryl Koh
- Mechanistic Biology & Profiling, Discovery Sciences, R&D, AstraZeneca, Boston, USA
| | - Amanda Clark
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, 2215 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Johan Meuller
- Mechanistic Biology & Profiling, Discovery Sciences, R&D, AstraZeneca, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Ola Engkvist
- Hit Discovery, Discovery Sciences, R&D, AstraZeneca, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | | | - Carina Raynoschek
- Discovery Biology, Discovery Sciences, R&D, AstraZeneca, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Ryan Hicks
- Discovery Biology, Discovery Sciences, R&D, AstraZeneca, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Marcello Maresca
- Discovery Biology, Discovery Sciences, R&D, AstraZeneca, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Qi Wang
- Neuroscience, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Boston, USA
| | - Dean G Brown
- Hit Discovery, Discovery Sciences, R&D, AstraZeneca, Boston, USA
| | - Alvin Lok
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, 2215 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Cameron Parro
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, 2215 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Jerome Robert
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, 2215 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Hsien-Ya Chou
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, 2215 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Andrea M Zuhl
- Discovery Biology, Discovery Sciences, R&D, AstraZeneca, Boston, USA
| | - Michael W Wood
- Neuroscience, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Boston, USA
| | | | - Cheryl L Wellington
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, 2215 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z3, Canada.
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Sirtuin-1 and Its Relevance in Vascular Calcification. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21051593. [PMID: 32111067 PMCID: PMC7084838 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21051593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2020] [Revised: 02/23/2020] [Accepted: 02/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Vascular calcification (VC) is highly associated with cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality in patients with chronic kidney disease. Dysregulation of endothelial cells and vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) is related to VC. Sirtuin-1 (Sirt1) deacetylase encompasses a broad range of transcription factors that are linked to an extended lifespan. Sirt1 enhances endothelial NO synthase and upregulates FoxOs to activate its antioxidant properties and delay cell senescence. Sirt1 reverses osteogenic phenotypic transdifferentiation by influencing RUNX2 expression in VSMCs. Low Sirt1 hardly prevents acetylation by p300 and phosphorylation of β-catenin that, following the facilitation of β-catenin translocation, drives osteogenic phenotypic transdifferentiation. Hyperphosphatemia induces VC by osteogenic conversion, apoptosis, and senescence of VSMCs through the Pit-1 cotransporter, which can be retarded by the sirt1 activator resveratrol. Proinflammatory adipocytokines released from dysfunctional perivascular adipose tissue (PVAT) mediate medial calcification and arterial stiffness. Sirt1 ameliorates release of PVAT adipokines and increases adiponectin secretion, which interact with FoxO 1 against oxidative stress and inflammatory arterial insult. Conclusively, Sirt1 decelerates VC by means of influencing endothelial NO bioavailability, senescence of ECs and VSMCs, osteogenic phenotypic transdifferentiation, apoptosis of VSMCs, ECM deposition, and the inflammatory response of PVAT. Factors that aggravate VC include vitamin D deficiency-related macrophage recruitment and further inflammation responses. Supplementation with vitamin D to adequate levels is beneficial in improving PVAT macrophage infiltration and local inflammation, which further prevents VC.
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Jung J, Yang K, Kim HJ, Lee YJ, Kim M, Choi YH, Kang JL. RhoA-Dependent HGF and c-Met Mediate Gas6-Induced Inhibition of Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition, Migration, and Invasion of Lung Alveolar Epithelial Cells. Biomolecules 2019; 9:biom9100565. [PMID: 31590238 PMCID: PMC6843420 DOI: 10.3390/biom9100565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2019] [Revised: 10/03/2019] [Accepted: 10/03/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Previously, we demonstrated that growth arrest-specific protein 6 (Gas6)/Axl or Mer signaling inhibited the transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1-induced epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) in lung epithelial cells. Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) has also been shown to inhibit TGF-β1-induced changes in EMT markers. Here, we examined whether Gas6 signaling can induce the production of HGF and c-Met in lung alveolar epithelial cells to mediate the inhibition of EMT and to inhibit the migration and invasion of epithelial cells. The inhibition of the RhoA/Rho kinase pathway, using either a RhoA-targeted small interfering RNA (siRNA) or the Rho kinase pharmacologic inhibitor Y27362, prevented the inhibition of TGF-β1-induced EMT in LA-4 cells and primary alveolar type II (AT II) epithelial cells. The c-Met antagonist PHA-665752 also blocked the anti-EMT effects associated with Gas6. Moreover, treatment with Y27362 or PHA-665752 prevented the Gas6-mediated inhibition of TGF-β1-induced migration and invasion. Our data provided evidence that the RhoA-dependent production of HGF and c-Met mediated the Gas6-induced inhibition of EMT, migration and invasion in lung alveolar epithelial cells. Thus, Gas6/Axl and Mer/RhoA signaling may be necessary for the maintenance of homeostasis in the alveolar epithelium, via HGF and c-Met.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jihye Jung
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 07804, Korea.
- Tissue Injury Defense Research Center, College of Medicine, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 07804, Korea.
| | - Kyungwon Yang
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 07804, Korea.
| | - Hee-Ja Kim
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 07804, Korea.
| | - Ye-Ji Lee
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 07804, Korea.
- Tissue Injury Defense Research Center, College of Medicine, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 07804, Korea.
| | - Minsuk Kim
- Tissue Injury Defense Research Center, College of Medicine, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 07804, Korea.
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 07804, Korea.
| | - Youn-Hee Choi
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 07804, Korea.
- Tissue Injury Defense Research Center, College of Medicine, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 07804, Korea.
| | - Jihee Lee Kang
- Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 07804, Korea.
- Tissue Injury Defense Research Center, College of Medicine, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 07804, Korea.
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24
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Vitamin K as a Powerful Micronutrient in Aging and Age-Related Diseases: Pros and Cons from Clinical Studies. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20174150. [PMID: 31450694 PMCID: PMC6747195 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20174150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2019] [Revised: 08/19/2019] [Accepted: 08/22/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Vitamin K is a multifunctional micronutrient implicated in age-related diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, osteoarthritis and osteoporosis. Although vitamin K-dependent proteins (VKDPs) are described to have a crucial role in the pathogenesis of these diseases, novel roles have emerged for vitamin K, independently of its role in VKDPs carboxylation. Vitamin K has been shown to act as an anti-inflammatory by suppressing nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) signal transduction and to exert a protective effect against oxidative stress by blocking the generation of reactive oxygen species. Available clinical evidences indicate that a high vitamin K status can exert a protective role in the inflammatory and mineralization processes associated with the onset and progression of age-related diseases. Also, vitamin K involvement as a protective super-micronutrient in aging and ‘inflammaging’ is arising, highlighting its future use in clinical practice. In this review we summarize current knowledge regarding clinical data on vitamin K in skeletal and cardiovascular health, and discuss the potential of vitamin K supplementation as a health benefit. We describe the clinical evidence and explore molecular aspects of vitamin K protective role in aging and age-related diseases, and its involvement as a modulator in the interplay between pathological calcification and inflammation processes.
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25
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McShane L, Tabas I, Lemke G, Kurowska-Stolarska M, Maffia P. TAM receptors in cardiovascular disease. Cardiovasc Res 2019; 115:1286-1295. [PMID: 30980657 PMCID: PMC6587925 DOI: 10.1093/cvr/cvz100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2019] [Revised: 02/28/2019] [Accepted: 04/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The TAM receptors are a distinct family of three receptor tyrosine kinases, namely Tyro3, Axl, and MerTK. Since their discovery in the early 1990s, they have been studied for their ability to influence numerous diseases, including cancer, chronic inflammatory and autoimmune disorders, and cardiovascular diseases. The TAM receptors demonstrate an ability to influence multiple aspects of cardiovascular pathology via their diverse effects on cells of both the vasculature and the immune system. In this review, we will explore the various functions of the TAM receptors and how they influence cardiovascular disease through regulation of vascular remodelling, efferocytosis and inflammation. Based on this information, we will suggest areas in which further research is required and identify potential targets for therapeutic intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucy McShane
- Centre for Immunobiology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Sir Graeme Davies Building, 120 University Place, Glasgow, UK,Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Ira Tabas
- Departments of Medicine, Physiology, and Cell Biology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Greg Lemke
- Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA, USA,Immunobiology and Microbial Pathogenesis Laboratory, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Mariola Kurowska-Stolarska
- Rheumatoid Arthritis Pathogenesis Centre of Excellence (RACE), Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Sir Graeme Davies Building, 120 University Place, Glasgow, UK,Corresponding authors. Tel: +44 141 330 7142; E-mail: (P.M.) Tel: +44 141 330 6085; E-mail: (M.K.-S.)
| | - Pasquale Maffia
- Centre for Immunobiology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Sir Graeme Davies Building, 120 University Place, Glasgow, UK,Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK,Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy,Corresponding authors. Tel: +44 141 330 7142; E-mail: (P.M.) Tel: +44 141 330 6085; E-mail: (M.K.-S.)
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26
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Petsophonsakul P, Furmanik M, Forsythe R, Dweck M, Schurink GW, Natour E, Reutelingsperger C, Jacobs M, Mees B, Schurgers L. Role of Vascular Smooth Muscle Cell Phenotypic Switching and Calcification in Aortic Aneurysm Formation. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2019; 39:1351-1368. [PMID: 31144989 DOI: 10.1161/atvbaha.119.312787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 197] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Aortic aneurysm is a vascular disease whereby the ECM (extracellular matrix) of a blood vessel degenerates, leading to dilation and eventually vessel wall rupture. Recently, it was shown that calcification of the vessel wall is involved in both the initiation and progression of aneurysms. Changes in aortic wall structure that lead to aneurysm formation and vascular calcification are actively mediated by vascular smooth muscle cells. Vascular smooth muscle cells in a healthy vessel wall are termed contractile as they maintain vascular tone and remain quiescent. However, in pathological conditions they can dedifferentiate into a synthetic phenotype, whereby they secrete extracellular vesicles, proliferate, and migrate to repair injury. This process is called phenotypic switching and is often the first step in vascular pathology. Additionally, healthy vascular smooth muscle cells synthesize VKDPs (vitamin K-dependent proteins), which are involved in inhibition of vascular calcification. The metabolism of these proteins is known to be disrupted in vascular pathologies. In this review, we summarize the current literature on vascular smooth muscle cell phenotypic switching and vascular calcification in relation to aneurysm. Moreover, we address the role of vitamin K and VKDPs that are involved in vascular calcification and aneurysm. Visual Overview- An online visual overview is available for this article.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ploingarm Petsophonsakul
- From the Department of Biochemistry, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht, Maastricht University, the Netherlands (P.P., M.F., C.R., L.S.)
| | - Malgorzata Furmanik
- From the Department of Biochemistry, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht, Maastricht University, the Netherlands (P.P., M.F., C.R., L.S.)
| | - Rachael Forsythe
- Centre for Cardiovascular Science, University of Edinburgh, United Kingdom (R.F., M.D.)
| | - Marc Dweck
- Centre for Cardiovascular Science, University of Edinburgh, United Kingdom (R.F., M.D.)
| | - Geert Willem Schurink
- Department of Vascular Surgery (G.W.S., M.J., B.M.), Maastricht University Medical Center (MUMC), Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Ehsan Natour
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery (E.N.), Maastricht University Medical Center (MUMC), Maastricht, the Netherlands.,European Vascular Center Aachen-Maastricht, Maastricht, the Netherlands (E.N., M.J., B.M.)
| | - Chris Reutelingsperger
- From the Department of Biochemistry, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht, Maastricht University, the Netherlands (P.P., M.F., C.R., L.S.)
| | - Michael Jacobs
- Department of Vascular Surgery (G.W.S., M.J., B.M.), Maastricht University Medical Center (MUMC), Maastricht, the Netherlands.,European Vascular Center Aachen-Maastricht, Maastricht, the Netherlands (E.N., M.J., B.M.)
| | - Barend Mees
- Department of Vascular Surgery (G.W.S., M.J., B.M.), Maastricht University Medical Center (MUMC), Maastricht, the Netherlands.,European Vascular Center Aachen-Maastricht, Maastricht, the Netherlands (E.N., M.J., B.M.)
| | - Leon Schurgers
- From the Department of Biochemistry, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht, Maastricht University, the Netherlands (P.P., M.F., C.R., L.S.)
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27
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Chaudhari S, Cushen SC, Osikoya O, Jaini PA, Posey R, Mathis KW, Goulopoulou S. Mechanisms of Sex Disparities in Cardiovascular Function and Remodeling. Compr Physiol 2018; 9:375-411. [PMID: 30549017 DOI: 10.1002/cphy.c180003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Epidemiological studies demonstrate disparities between men and women in cardiovascular disease prevalence, clinical symptoms, treatments, and outcomes. Enrollment of women in clinical trials is lower than men, and experimental studies investigating molecular mechanisms and efficacy of certain therapeutics in cardiovascular disease have been primarily conducted in male animals. These practices bias data interpretation and limit the implication of research findings in female clinical populations. This review will focus on the biological origins of sex differences in cardiovascular physiology, health, and disease, with an emphasis on the sex hormones, estrogen and testosterone. First, we will briefly discuss epidemiological evidence of sex disparities in cardiovascular disease prevalence and clinical manifestation. Second, we will describe studies suggesting sexual dimorphism in normal cardiovascular function from fetal life to older age. Third, we will summarize and critically discuss the current literature regarding the molecular mechanisms underlying the effects of estrogens and androgens on cardiac and vascular physiology and the contribution of these hormones to sex differences in cardiovascular disease. Fourth, we will present cardiovascular disease risk factors that are positively associated with the female sex, and thus, contributing to increased cardiovascular risk in women. We conclude that inclusion of both men and women in the investigation of the role of estrogens and androgens in cardiovascular physiology will advance our understanding of the mechanisms underlying sex differences in cardiovascular disease. In addition, investigating the role of sex-specific factors in the development of cardiovascular disease will reduce sex and gender disparities in the treatment and diagnosis of cardiovascular disease. © 2019 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 9:375-411, 2019.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarika Chaudhari
- Department of Physiology and Anatomy, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, Texas, USA
| | - Spencer C Cushen
- Department of Physiology and Anatomy, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, Texas, USA
| | - Oluwatobiloba Osikoya
- Department of Physiology and Anatomy, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, Texas, USA
| | - Paresh A Jaini
- Department of Physiology and Anatomy, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, Texas, USA
| | - Rachel Posey
- Department of Physiology and Anatomy, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, Texas, USA
| | - Keisa W Mathis
- Department of Physiology and Anatomy, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, Texas, USA
| | - Styliani Goulopoulou
- Department of Physiology and Anatomy, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, Texas, USA
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28
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Law LA, Graham DK, Di Paola J, Branchford BR. GAS6/TAM Pathway Signaling in Hemostasis and Thrombosis. Front Med (Lausanne) 2018; 5:137. [PMID: 29868590 PMCID: PMC5954114 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2018.00137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2018] [Accepted: 04/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The GAS6/TYRO3-AXL-MERTK (TAM) signaling pathway is essential for full and sustained platelet activation, as well as thrombus stabilization. Inhibition of this pathway decreases platelet aggregation, shape change, clot retraction, aggregate formation under flow conditions, and surface expression of activation markers. Transgenic mice deficient in GAS6, or any of the TAM family of receptors that engage this ligand, exhibit in vivo protection against arterial and venous thrombosis but do not demonstrate either spontaneous or prolonged bleeding compared to their wild-type counterparts. Comparable results are observed in wild-type mice treated with pharmacological inhibitors of the GAS6-TAM pathway. Thus, GAS6/TAM inhibition offers an attractive novel therapeutic option that may allow for a moderate reduction in platelet activation and decreased thrombosis while still permitting the primary hemostatic function of platelet plug formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luke A Law
- Department of Anesthesiology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States
| | - Douglas K Graham
- Section of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Pediatrics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Jorge Di Paola
- Section of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, United States.,University of Colorado Hemophilia and Thrombosis Center, Aurora, CO, United States
| | - Brian R Branchford
- Section of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, United States.,University of Colorado Hemophilia and Thrombosis Center, Aurora, CO, United States
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29
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Fu X, Qiu R, Tang C, Wang X, Cheng X, Yin M. Effects of GGCX overexpression on anterior cruciate ligament transection-induced osteoarthritis in rabbits. Mol Med Rep 2018; 17:3821-3828. [PMID: 29257344 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2017.8304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2016] [Accepted: 10/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Effective therapeutic methods for osteoarthritis (OA) are lacking. γ‑glutamyl carboxylase (GGCX) is a key enzyme that regulates carboxylation of cartilage matrix Gla protein (MGP). Whether GGCX overexpression protects against OA remains unknown. The aim of the present study was to explore the effects of GGCX overexpression on anterior cruciate ligament transection (ACLT)‑induced OA and its mechanisms in Japanese white rabbits. ACLT surgery was used to establish an OA model in rabbits. A total of 48 rabbits were randomly divided into 4 groups: Sham, OA model + GGCX overexpression plasmid, OA model + saline and OA model + empty vector. The expression of uncarboxylated MGP (ucMGP), carboxylated MGP (cMGP), matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)‑13, collagen type X, collagen type II, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)‑α and interleukin (IL)‑1β were detected by ELISA, immunohistochemistry, reverse transcription‑quantitative polymerase chain reaction and western blotting. Morphological changes to tibial cartilage were assessed by Giemsa and safranin O‑fast green staining, respectively. Compared with the Sham control, GGCX expression was significantly decreased in the OA Model group. GGCX expression was increased by injection of a lentivirus‑carried overexpression plasmid that encoded GGCX. GGCX overexpression ameliorated ATLC‑induced damage in articular cartilage. OA Model rabbits exhibited significantly decreased expression levels of cMGP and collagen type II, and increased expression of ucMGP, collagen type X, MMP‑13, IL‑1β and TNF‑α. Notably, these expression levels were reversed by GGCX overexpression in OA Model rabbits. Results from the present study indicated that GGCX expression was decreased in OA Model rabbits, whereas overexpression of GGCX was able to promote carboxylation of MGP, reduce inflammation, decrease MMP‑13 expression and regulate collagen expression. The results also indicated that GGCX may serve as a therapeutic target for OA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoling Fu
- Department of Orthopedics, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330006, P.R. China
| | - Ruiyun Qiu
- College of Information Engineering, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330031, P.R. China
| | - Chunfang Tang
- Department of Orthopedics, The First Affiliated Hospital of Gannan Medical University, Nanchang, Jiangxi 341099, P.R. China
| | - Xiaomei Wang
- Department of Orthopedics, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330006, P.R. China
| | - Xigao Cheng
- Department of Orthopedics, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330006, P.R. China
| | - Ming Yin
- Department of Orthopedics, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330006, P.R. China
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30
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Wu G, Ma Z, Cheng Y, Hu W, Deng C, Jiang S, Li T, Chen F, Yang Y. Targeting Gas6/TAM in cancer cells and tumor microenvironment. Mol Cancer 2018; 17:20. [PMID: 29386018 PMCID: PMC5793417 DOI: 10.1186/s12943-018-0769-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2017] [Accepted: 01/17/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Growth arrest-specific 6, also known as Gas6, is a human gene encoding the Gas6 protein, which was originally found to be upregulated in growth-arrested fibroblasts. Gas6 is a member of the vitamin K-dependent family of proteins expressed in many human tissues and regulates several biological processes in cells, including proliferation, survival and migration, by binding to its receptors Tyro3, Axl and Mer (TAM). In recent years, the roles of Gas6/TAM signalling in cancer cells and the tumour microenvironment have been studied, and some progress has made in targeted therapy, providing new potential directions for future investigations of cancer treatment. In this review, we introduce the Gas6 and TAM receptors and describe their involvement in different cancers and discuss the roles of Gas6 in cancer cells, the tumour microenvironment and metastasis. Finally, we introduce recent studies on Gas6/TAM targeting in cancer therapy, which will assist in the experimental design of future analyses and increase the potential use of Gas6 as a therapeutic target for cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guiling Wu
- 0000 0004 1761 5538grid.412262.1Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education. Faculty of Life Sciences, Northwest University, 229 Taibai North Road, Xi’an, 710069 China ,0000 0004 1761 4404grid.233520.5Department of Aerospace Medicine, The Fourth Military Medical University, 169 Changle West Road, Xi’an, 710032 China
| | - Zhiqiang Ma
- 0000 0004 1791 6584grid.460007.5Department of Thoracic Surgery, Tangdu Hospital, The Fourth Military Medical University, 1 Xinsi Road, Xi’an, 710038 China
| | - Yicheng Cheng
- 0000 0004 1765 1045grid.410745.3Department of Stomatology, Bayi Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210002 China
| | - Wei Hu
- 0000 0004 1761 4404grid.233520.5Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Fourth Military Medical University, 169 Changle West Road, Xi’an, 710032 China
| | - Chao Deng
- grid.452438.cDepartment of Cardiovascular Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi’an Jiaotong University, 277 Yanta West Road, Xi’an, Shaanxi 710061 China
| | - Shuai Jiang
- 0000 0004 1761 4404grid.233520.5Department of Aerospace Medicine, The Fourth Military Medical University, 169 Changle West Road, Xi’an, 710032 China
| | - Tian Li
- 0000 0004 1765 1045grid.410745.3Department of Stomatology, Bayi Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210002 China
| | - Fulin Chen
- 0000 0004 1761 5538grid.412262.1Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education. Faculty of Life Sciences, Northwest University, 229 Taibai North Road, Xi’an, 710069 China
| | - Yang Yang
- 0000 0004 1761 5538grid.412262.1Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education. Faculty of Life Sciences, Northwest University, 229 Taibai North Road, Xi’an, 710069 China ,0000 0004 1761 4404grid.233520.5Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Fourth Military Medical University, 169 Changle West Road, Xi’an, 710032 China
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31
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Gao L, Millstein J, Siegmund KD, Dubeau L, Maguire R, Gilliland FD, Murphy SK, Hoyo C, Breton CV. Epigenetic regulation of AXL and risk of childhood asthma symptoms. Clin Epigenetics 2017; 9:121. [PMID: 29177020 PMCID: PMC5688797 DOI: 10.1186/s13148-017-0421-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2017] [Accepted: 11/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Background AXL is one of the TAM (TYRO3, AXL and MERTK) receptor tyrosine kinases and may affect numerous immune-related health conditions. However, the role for AXL in asthma, including its epigenetic regulation, has not been extensively studied. Methods We investigated the association between AXL DNA methylation at birth and risk of childhood asthma symptoms at age 6 years. DNA methylation of multiple CpG loci across the regulatory regions of AXL was measured in newborn bloodspots using the Illumina HumanMethylation450 array on a subset of 246 children from the Children's Health Study (CHS). Logistic regression models were fitted to assess the association between asthma symptoms and DNA methylation. Findings were evaluated for replication in a separate population of 1038 CHS subjects using Pyrosequencing on newborn bloodspot samples. AXL genotypes were extracted from genome-wide data. Results Higher average methylation of CpGs in the AXL gene at birth was associated with higher risk of parent-reported wheezing, and the association was stronger in girls than in boys. This relationship reflected the methylation status of the gene-body region near the 5' end, for which a 1% higher methylation level was significantly associated with a 72% increased risk of ever having wheezed by 6 years. The association of one CpG locus, cg00360107 was replicated using Pyrosequencing. Increased AXL methylation was also associated with lower mRNA expression level of this gene in lung tissue from the Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) dataset. Furthermore, AXL DNA methylation was strongly linked to underlying genetic polymorphisms. Conclusions AXL DNA methylation at birth was associated with higher risk for asthma-related symptoms in early childhood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Gao
- 0000 0001 2156 6853grid.42505.36Department of Preventive Medicine, USC Keck School of Medicine, 2001 N. Soto Street, Los Angeles, CA 90032 USA
| | - Joshua Millstein
- 0000 0001 2156 6853grid.42505.36Department of Preventive Medicine, USC Keck School of Medicine, 2001 N. Soto Street, Los Angeles, CA 90032 USA
| | - Kimberly D. Siegmund
- 0000 0001 2156 6853grid.42505.36Department of Preventive Medicine, USC Keck School of Medicine, 2001 N. Soto Street, Los Angeles, CA 90032 USA
| | - Louis Dubeau
- 0000 0001 2156 6853grid.42505.36Department of Preventive Medicine, USC Keck School of Medicine, 2001 N. Soto Street, Los Angeles, CA 90032 USA
| | - Rachel Maguire
- 0000 0001 2173 6074grid.40803.3fDepartment of Biological Sciences, Center for Human Health and the Environment, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695 USA
| | - Frank D. Gilliland
- 0000 0001 2156 6853grid.42505.36Department of Preventive Medicine, USC Keck School of Medicine, 2001 N. Soto Street, Los Angeles, CA 90032 USA
| | - Susan K. Murphy
- 0000 0004 1936 7961grid.26009.3dDivision of Gynecologic Oncology, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710 USA
| | - Cathrine Hoyo
- 0000 0001 2173 6074grid.40803.3fDepartment of Biological Sciences, Center for Human Health and the Environment, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695 USA
| | - Carrie V. Breton
- 0000 0001 2156 6853grid.42505.36Department of Preventive Medicine, USC Keck School of Medicine, 2001 N. Soto Street, Los Angeles, CA 90032 USA
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32
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Expression and role of TYRO3 and AXL as potential therapeutical targets in leiomyosarcoma. Br J Cancer 2017; 117:1787-1797. [PMID: 29024938 PMCID: PMC5729471 DOI: 10.1038/bjc.2017.354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2017] [Revised: 07/31/2017] [Accepted: 09/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Leiomyosarcoma (LMS) are 15% of adult sarcomas and remain seldom curable in metastatic phase. The TAM receptors and their ligands are overexpressed or activated in multiple malignancies, including LMS. Methods: The TAM receptor and ligand expression was evaluated in LMS cell lines and 358 sarcoma samples by either gene expression or immunohistochemistry. TYRO3 and AXL were knocked down. Crizotinib and foretinib were investigated in vitro. Results: High expression of TYRO3 and AXL was detected in LMS cell lines. TYRO3 or AXL gene knockdown reduced cell proliferation/colony formation. Crizotinib and foretinib decreased TYRO3 and AXL phosphorylation, apoptosis, G2/arrest and reduced colony formation. Immunohistochemistry performed in 107 sarcomas showed higher expression of TYRO3 and GAS6 in LMS vs other sarcomas and nuclear TYRO3 only in LMS. Microarray gene expression performed in 251 sarcomas revealed significantly higher expression of TYRO3 and GAS6 in LMS than other sarcomas. Leiomyosarcoma patients with high expression of GAS6 or PROS1 present a significantly worse PFS. Conclusions: Leiomyosarcoma patients, especially those whom develop metastasis, express higher levels of TYRO3 and GAS6. Crizotinib and foretinib showed effective antitumour activity in LMS through TYRO3 and AXL deactivation indicating that clinical trials using TYRO3 and AXL inhibitors are warranted in advanced LMS.
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Abstract
The principle steroidal androgens are testosterone and its metabolite 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT), which is converted from testosterone by the enzyme 5α-reductase. Through the classic pathway with androgens crossing the plasma membrane and binding to the androgen receptor (AR) or via mechanisms independent of the ligand-dependent transactivation function of nuclear receptors, testosterone induces genomic and non-genomic effects respectively. AR is widely distributed in several tissues, including vascular endothelial and smooth muscle cells. Androgens are essential for many developmental and physiological processes, especially in male reproductive tissues. It is now clear that androgens have multiple actions besides sex differentiation and sexual maturation and that many physiological systems are influenced by androgens, including regulation of cardiovascular function [nitric oxide (NO) release, Ca2+ mobilization, vascular apoptosis, hypertrophy, calcification, senescence and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation]. This review focuses on evidence indicating that interplay between genomic and non-genomic actions of testosterone may influence cardiovascular function.
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Qiu C, Zheng H, Tao H, Yu W, Jiang X, Li A, Jin H, Lv A, Li H. Vitamin K2 inhibits rat vascular smooth muscle cell calcification by restoring the Gas6/Axl/Akt anti-apoptotic pathway. Mol Cell Biochem 2017; 433:149-159. [PMID: 28386842 DOI: 10.1007/s11010-017-3023-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2016] [Accepted: 04/01/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Vascular calcification is associated with cardiovascular disease as a complication of hypertension, hyperlipidemia, diabetes mellitus, and chronic kidney disease. Vitamin K2 (VK2) delays vascular calcification by an unclear mechanism. Moreover, apoptosis modulates vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) calcification. This paper aimed to study VK2-modified VSMC calcification and survival cell signaling mediated by growth arrest-specific gene 6 (Gas6) and its tyrosine kinase receptor Axl. Primary-cultured VSMCs were dose-dependently treated with VK2 in the presence of calcification medium for 8 days, or pre-treated for 1 h with/without the Axl inhibitor R428 (2 μmol/L) or the caspase inhibitor Z-VAD-fmk (20 μmol/L) followed by treatment with VK2 (10 μmol/L) or rmGas6 (200 nmol/L) in calcification medium for 8 days. Calcium deposition was determined by the o-cresolphthalein complexone assay and Alizarin Red S staining. Apoptosis was determined by TUNEL and flow cytometry using Annexin V-FITC and propidium iodide staining. Western blotting detected the expressions of Axl, Gas6, p-Akt, Akt, and Bcl2. VK2 significantly inhibited CaCl2- and β-sodium glycerophosphate (β-GP)-induced VSMC calcification and apoptosis, which was dependent on restored Gas6 expression and activated downstream signaling by Axl, p-Akt, and Bcl2. Z-VAD-fmk significantly inhibited CaCl2- and β-GP-induced VSMC calcification and apoptosis. Augmented recombinant mouse Gas6 protein (rmGas6) expression significantly reduced VSMC calcification and apoptosis. Furthermore, the Gas6/Axl interaction was inhibited by R428, which abolished the preventive effect of VK2 on CaCl2- and β-GP-induced apoptosis and calcification. These results suggest that Gas6 is critical in VK2-mediated functions that attenuate CaCl2- and β-GP-induced VSMC calcification by blocking apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cuiting Qiu
- Department of Cardiology, Jiao Zuo People's Hospital, Henan, 454000, China.,Department of Cardiology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Haijun Zheng
- Department of Cardiology, Jiao Zuo People's Hospital, Henan, 454000, China
| | - Huiren Tao
- Department of Orthopedics, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Wenjun Yu
- Department of Cardiology, 306th Hospital of CPLA, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Xiaoyu Jiang
- Department of Cardiology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Aiqin Li
- Department of Cardiology, Jiao Zuo People's Hospital, Henan, 454000, China
| | - Hui Jin
- Department of Cardiology, Jiao Zuo People's Hospital, Henan, 454000, China
| | - Anlin Lv
- Department of Cardiology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China.
| | - Huan Li
- Department of Cardiology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China.
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Lee CH, Hung YJ, Shieh YS, Chien CY, Hsu YJ, Lin CY, Chiang CF, Huang CL, Hsieh CH. Cilostazol inhibits uremic toxin–induced vascular smooth muscle cell dysfunction: role of Axl signaling. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2017; 312:F398-F406. [DOI: 10.1152/ajprenal.00258.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2016] [Revised: 11/28/2016] [Accepted: 12/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is associated with increased cardiovascular mortality, and vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) dysfunction plays a pivotal role in uremic atherosclerosis. Axl signaling is involved in vascular injury and is highly expressed in VSMCs. Recent reports have shown that cilostazol, a phosphodiesterase type 3 inhibitor (PDE3), can regulate various stages of the atherosclerotic process. However, the role of cilostazol in uremic vasculopathy remains unclear. This study aimed to identify the effect of cilostazol in VSMCs in the experimental CKD and to investigate whether the regulatory mechanism occurs through Axl signaling. We investigated the effect of P-cresol and cilostazol on Axl signaling in A7r5 rat VSMCs and the rat and human CKD models. From the in vivo CKD rats and patients, aortic tissue exhibited significantly decreased Axl expression after cilostazol treatment. P-cresol increased Axl, proliferating of cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), focal adhesion kinase (FAK), and matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) expressions, decreased caspase-3 expression, and was accompanied by increased cell viability and migration. Cilostazol significantly reversed P-cresol-induced Axl, downstream gene expressions, and cell functions. Along with the increased Axl expression, P-cresol activated PLCγ, Akt, and ERK phosphorylation and cilostazol significantly suppressed the effect of P-cresol. Axl knockdown significantly reversed the expressions of P-cresol-induced Axl-related gene expression and cell functions. Cilostazol with Axl knockdown have additive changes in downstream gene expression and cell functions in P-cresol culture. Both in vitro and in vivo experimental CKD models elucidate a new signal transduction of cilostazol-mediated protection against uremic toxin-related VSMCs dysfunction and highlight the involvement of the Axl signaling and downstream pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chien-Hsing Lee
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Jen Hung
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Shing Shieh
- School of Dentistry, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
- Department of Oral Diagnosis and Pathology, Tri-Service General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chu-Yen Chien
- Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Juei Hsu
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Internal Medicine, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan; and
| | - Chih-Yuan Lin
- Division of Cardiovascular Surgery, Department of Surgery, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chi-Fu Chiang
- Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chia-Luen Huang
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chang-Hsun Hsieh
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, Taipei, Taiwan
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Roberts CM, Tran MA, Pitruzzello MC, Wen W, Loeza J, Dellinger TH, Mor G, Glackin CA. TWIST1 drives cisplatin resistance and cell survival in an ovarian cancer model, via upregulation of GAS6, L1CAM, and Akt signalling. Sci Rep 2016; 6:37652. [PMID: 27876874 PMCID: PMC5120297 DOI: 10.1038/srep37652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2016] [Accepted: 11/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) is the most deadly gynaecologic malignancy due to late onset of symptoms and propensity towards drug resistance. Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) has been linked to the development of chemoresistance in other cancers, yet little is known regarding its role in EOC. In this study, we sought to determine the role of the transcription factor TWIST1, a master regulator of EMT, on cisplatin resistance in an EOC model. We created two Ovcar8-derived cell lines that differed only in their TWIST1 expression. TWIST1 expression led to increased tumour engraftment in mice, as well as cisplatin resistance in vitro. RNA sequencing analysis revealed that TWIST1 expression resulted in upregulation of GAS6 and L1CAM and downregulation of HMGA2. Knockdown studies of these genes demonstrated that loss of GAS6 or L1CAM sensitized cells to cisplatin, but that loss of HMGA2 did not give rise to chemoresistance. TWIST1, in part via GAS6 and L1CAM, led to higher expression and activation of Akt upon cisplatin treatment, and inhibition of Akt activation sensitized cells to cisplatin. These results suggest TWIST1- and EMT-driven increase in Akt activation, and thus tumour cell proliferation, as a potential mechanism of drug resistance in EOC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cai M Roberts
- Department of Developmental and Stem Cell Biology, 1500 E. Duarte Road Duarte, CA 91010, USA.,Irell and Manella Graduate School of Biological Sciences, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Michelle A Tran
- Department of Developmental and Stem Cell Biology, 1500 E. Duarte Road Duarte, CA 91010, USA
| | - Mary C Pitruzzello
- Division of Reproductive Sciences, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Wei Wen
- Department of Surgery, Division of Gynaecologic Oncology, City of Hope Medical Center, 1500 E. Duarte Road, Duarte, CA 91010, USA
| | - Joana Loeza
- California State University, Los Angeles, 5151 State University Drive, Los Angeles, CA 90032, USA
| | - Thanh H Dellinger
- Department of Surgery, Division of Gynaecologic Oncology, City of Hope Medical Center, 1500 E. Duarte Road, Duarte, CA 91010, USA
| | - Gil Mor
- Division of Reproductive Sciences, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Carlotta A Glackin
- Department of Developmental and Stem Cell Biology, 1500 E. Duarte Road Duarte, CA 91010, USA
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Qu X, Liu J, Zhong X, Li X, Zhang Q. Role of AXL expression in non-small cell lung cancer. Oncol Lett 2016; 12:5085-5091. [PMID: 28105215 PMCID: PMC5228461 DOI: 10.3892/ol.2016.5356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2015] [Accepted: 10/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study aimed to investigate the expression profile of AXL in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) and its clinical significance. The current study included 257 NSCLC patients, tyrosine-protein kinase receptor UFO (AXL) expression in paired lung cancer and adjacent normal lung tissues of NSCLC patients were compared by immunohistochemistry, western blot analysis and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). These methods were used to detect the expression of the AXL gene and protein in fresh tissues from 35 patients. Small interfering RNA (siRNA) was transfected into the H1299 lung cancer cell line to knock down AXL expression; the effects of AXL-siRNA on cell proliferation and migration were examined by MTT and Transwell migration assay, respectively. It was found that AXL staining density in lung cancer tissues was significantly increased compared with adjacent normal lung tissues (55.25 vs. 26.85%; P<0.01); and the expression level of AXL in NSCLC patients was significantly associated with the degree of tumor differentiation (P<0.01) and the clinical stage of disease (P<0.01). Western blotting and qPCR showed that AXL expression was significantly higher in cancer tissues compared with that in adjacent lung tissue (P<0.05). Additionally, the current study also showed that AXL-siRNA inhibited H1299 cell proliferation and migration in vitro. The present study demonstrates the association between increased expression of AXL in NSCLC and the low differentiation phenotype, and its effects on cell proliferation and migration, suggesting its potential clinical values for the prognosis of NSCLC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaohan Qu
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110001, P.R. China
| | - Jinlu Liu
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110034, P.R. China
| | - Xinwen Zhong
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110001, P.R. China
| | - Xi Li
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110001, P.R. China
| | - Qigang Zhang
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, The First Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110001, P.R. China
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The Gas6/TAM System and Multiple Sclerosis. Int J Mol Sci 2016; 17:ijms17111807. [PMID: 27801848 PMCID: PMC5133808 DOI: 10.3390/ijms17111807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2016] [Revised: 10/22/2016] [Accepted: 10/26/2016] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Growth arrest specific 6 (Gas6) is a multimodular circulating protein, the biological actions of which are mediated by the interaction with three transmembrane tyrosine kinase receptors: Tyro3, Axl, and MerTK, collectively named TAM. Over the last few decades, many progresses have been done in the understanding of the biological activities of this highly pleiotropic system, which plays a role in the regulation of immune response, inflammation, coagulation, cell growth, and clearance of apoptotic bodies. Recent findings have further related Gas6 and TAM receptors to neuroinflammation in general and, specifically, to multiple sclerosis (MS). In this paper, we review the biology of the Gas6/TAM system and the current evidence supporting its potential role in the pathogenesis of MS.
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The Role of TAM Family Receptors in Immune Cell Function: Implications for Cancer Therapy. Cancers (Basel) 2016; 8:cancers8100097. [PMID: 27775650 PMCID: PMC5082387 DOI: 10.3390/cancers8100097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2016] [Revised: 10/13/2016] [Accepted: 10/14/2016] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
The TAM receptor protein tyrosine kinases-Tyro3, Axl, and Mer-are essential regulators of immune homeostasis. Guided by their cognate ligands Growth arrest-specific gene 6 (Gas6) and Protein S (Pros1), these receptors ensure the resolution of inflammation by dampening the activation of innate cells as well as by restoring tissue function through promotion of tissue repair and clearance of apoptotic cells. Their central role as negative immune regulators is highlighted by the fact that deregulation of TAM signaling has been linked to the pathogenesis of autoimmune, inflammatory, and infectious diseases. Importantly, TAM receptors have also been associated with cancer development and progression. In a cancer setting, TAM receptors have a dual regulatory role, controlling the initiation and progression of tumor development and, at the same time, the associated anti-tumor responses of diverse immune cells. Thus, modulation of TAM receptors has emerged as a potential novel strategy for cancer treatment. In this review, we discuss our current understanding of how TAM receptors control immunity, with a particular focus on the regulation of anti-tumor responses and its implications for cancer immunotherapy.
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Abstract
The interaction between Axl receptor tyrosine kinase and its main ligand Gas6 has been implicated in the progression of a wide number of malignancies. More recently, overexpression of Axl has emerged as a key molecular determinant underlying the development of acquired resistance to targeted anticancer agents. The activation of Axl is overexpression-dependent and controls a number of hallmarks of cancer progression including proliferation, migration, resistance to apoptosis and survival through a complex network of intracellular second messengers. Axl has been noted to influence clinically meaningful end points including metastatic recurrence and survival in the vast majority of tumour types. With Axl inhibitors having gained momentum as novel anticancer therapies, we provide an overview of the biological and clinical relevance of this molecular pathway, outlining the main directions of research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Brown
- Department of Surgery and Cancer, Imperial College London, Hammersmith Hospital Campus, London, UK
| | - James R M Black
- Department of Surgery and Cancer, Imperial College London, Hammersmith Hospital Campus, London, UK
| | - Rohini Sharma
- Department of Surgery and Cancer, Imperial College London, Hammersmith Hospital Campus, London, UK
| | - Justin Stebbing
- Department of Surgery and Cancer, Imperial College London, Hammersmith Hospital Campus, London, UK
| | - David J Pinato
- Department of Surgery and Cancer, Imperial College London, Hammersmith Hospital Campus, London, UK
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41
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Leem J, Lee IK. Mechanisms of Vascular Calcification: The Pivotal Role of Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Kinase 4. Endocrinol Metab (Seoul) 2016; 31:52-61. [PMID: 26996423 PMCID: PMC4803561 DOI: 10.3803/enm.2016.31.1.52] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2016] [Revised: 02/19/2016] [Accepted: 02/23/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Vascular calcification, abnormal mineralization of the vessel wall, is frequently associated with aging, atherosclerosis, diabetes mellitus, and chronic kidney disease. Vascular calcification is a key risk factor for many adverse clinical outcomes, including ischemic cardiac events and subsequent cardiovascular mortality. Vascular calcification was long considered to be a passive degenerative process, but it is now recognized as an active and highly regulated process similar to bone formation. However, despite numerous studies on the pathogenesis of vascular calcification, the mechanisms driving this process remain poorly understood. Pyruvate dehydrogenase kinases (PDKs) play an important role in the regulation of cellular metabolism and mitochondrial function. Recent studies show that PDK4 is an attractive therapeutic target for the treatment of various metabolic diseases. In this review, we summarize our current knowledge regarding the mechanisms of vascular calcification and describe the role of PDK4 in the osteogenic differentiation of vascular smooth muscle cells and development of vascular calcification. Further studies aimed at understanding the molecular mechanisms of vascular calcification will be critical for the development of novel therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaechan Leem
- Department of Immunology, Catholic University of Daegu School of Medicine, Daegu, Korea
| | - In Kyu Lee
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Department of Internal Medicine, Kyungpook National University School of Medicine, Daegu, Korea
- BK21 PLUS KNU Biomedical Convergence Program, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Korea.
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Abstract
Growth arrest-specific gene 6 (Gas6) binds Tyro3, Axl, and Mertk (TAM) receptors and exerts prominent effects in many diseases, but little is known about its role in asthma. Herein, we examined the role of Gas6 and TAM receptors differentially in an experimental asthma model driven by Aspergillus fumigatus. A. fumigatus-sensitized mice were challenged with live A. fumigatus conidia, and airway hyperresponsiveness and airway remodeling were determined 28 days later. When administered to mice from Days 14 to 28 after conidia challenge, anti-Axl monoclonal antibody, but not anti-Mertk monoclonal antibody, treatment significantly inhibited airway hyperresponsiveness and airway remodeling compared with the appropriate control IgG group. These results demonstrate that Gas6 has modulatory functions in fungal asthma via Axl receptor activation in immune and nonimmune cells.
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Ji R, Meng L, Li Q, Lu Q. TAM receptor deficiency affects adult hippocampal neurogenesis. Metab Brain Dis 2015; 30:633-44. [PMID: 25487541 PMCID: PMC4414696 DOI: 10.1007/s11011-014-9636-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2014] [Accepted: 11/17/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The Tyro3, Axl and Mertk (TAM) subfamily of receptor protein tyrosine kinases functions in cell growth, differentiation, survival, and most recently found, in the regulation of immune responses and phagocytosis. All three receptors and their ligands, Gas6 (growth arrest-specific gene 6) and protein S, are expressed in the central nervous system (CNS). TAM receptors play pivotal roles in adult hippocampal neurogenesis. Loss of these receptors causes a comprised neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus of adult hippocampus. TAM receptors have a negative regulatory effect on microglia and peripheral antigen-presenting cells, and play a critical role in preventing overproduction of pro-inflammatory cytokines detrimental to the proliferation, differentiation, and survival of adult neuronal stem cells (NSCs). Besides, these receptors also play an intrinsic trophic function in supporting NSC survival, proliferation, and differentiation into immature neurons. All these events collectively ensure a sustained neurogenesis in adult hippocampus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Ji
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, KY 40202, USA
- Department of Anatomical Sciences and Neurobiology, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, KY 40202, USA
| | - Lingbin Meng
- Department of Anatomical Sciences and Neurobiology, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, KY 40202, USA
| | - Qiutang Li
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, KY 40202, USA
| | - Qingxian Lu
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, KY 40202, USA
- Department of Anatomical Sciences and Neurobiology, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, KY 40202, USA
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Ozakpinar OB, Sahin S, Verimli N, Simsek GG, Maurer AM, Eroglu M, Tetik S, Uras F. Association between the growth arrest-specific 6 (Gas6) gene polymorphism c.834 + 7G>A and preeclampsia. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2015; 29:1149-53. [PMID: 25915719 DOI: 10.3109/14767058.2015.1038516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Ozlem Bingol Ozakpinar
- a Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy , Marmara University , Istanbul , Turkey
| | - Sadık Sahin
- b Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Division of Perinatology , Zeynep Kamil Maternity and Children's Hospital , Istanbul , Turkey
| | - Nihan Verimli
- a Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy , Marmara University , Istanbul , Turkey
| | | | | | - Mustafa Eroglu
- b Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Division of Perinatology , Zeynep Kamil Maternity and Children's Hospital , Istanbul , Turkey
| | - Sermin Tetik
- a Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy , Marmara University , Istanbul , Turkey
| | - Fikriye Uras
- a Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy , Marmara University , Istanbul , Turkey
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Morbidities related to atherosclerosis, such as acute coronary syndrome (ACS), remain the leading cause of mortality. Axl is a receptor tyrosine kinase that is expressed in mammalian vascular and immune cells. Axl signaling is involved in the regulation of the inflammatory response. A considerable amount of evidence indicates that inflammation is responsible for the development of atherosclerosis in patients with ACS. METHODS To assess the relation of Axl and ACS, we recruited 64 patients with coronary heart disease: 34 with ACS, 30 with stable coronary heart disease, and 24 apparently healthy controls. Serum concentrations of soluble Axl (sAxl) were quantified by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. High-sensitivity C-reactive protein, tumor necrosis factor alpha, troponin I, and other routine biochemical markers were also measured. RESULTS The levels of sAxl were significantly higher in patients with ACS than in the controls (P=0.005). Furthermore, correlation analysis indicated that sAxl was significantly associated with serum levels of high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (r=0.283, P=0.008), tumor necrosis factor alpha (r=0.565, P<0.001), and troponin I (r=0.264, P=0.013). Logistic regression analysis (odds ratio=1.038, 95% confidence interval, 1.008-1.069, P=0.012) indicated a significant association between sAxl and ACS. CONCLUSIONS Serum levels of sAxl correlate to inflammatory biochemical markers. These findings demonstrate for the first time that sAxl does have a role in ACS, presumably connected to the inflammation.
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Rothlin CV, Carrera-Silva EA, Bosurgi L, Ghosh S. TAM receptor signaling in immune homeostasis. Annu Rev Immunol 2015; 33:355-91. [PMID: 25594431 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-immunol-032414-112103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 307] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The TAM receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs)-TYRO3, AXL, and MERTK-together with their cognate agonists GAS6 and PROS1 play an essential role in the resolution of inflammation. Deficiencies in TAM signaling have been associated with chronic inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. Three processes regulated by TAM signaling may contribute, either independently or collectively, to immune homeostasis: the negative regulation of the innate immune response, the phagocytosis of apoptotic cells, and the restoration of vascular integrity. Recent studies have also revealed the function of TAMs in infectious diseases and cancer. Here, we review the important milestones in the discovery of these RTKs and their ligands and the studies that underscore the functional importance of this signaling pathway in physiological immune settings and disease.
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47
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Shibata T, Ismailoglu UB, Kittan NA, Moreira AP, Coelho AL, Chupp GL, Kunkel SL, Lukacs NW, Hogaboam CM. Role of growth arrest-specific gene 6 in the development of fungal allergic airway disease in mice. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2015; 51:615-25. [PMID: 24810144 DOI: 10.1165/rcmb.2014-0049oc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Growth arrest-specific gene (Gas)6 is a secreted vitamin K-dependent protein with pleiotropic effects via activation of receptor tyrosine kinase Tyro3, Axl, and Mertk receptors, but little is known about its role in allergic airway disease. We investigated the role of Gas6 in the development of fungal allergic airway disease in mice. The immune response was evaluated in Gas6-deficient (Gas6-/-) and wild-type (WT) mice and in recombinant Gas6-treated WT mice during Aspergillus fumigatus-induced allergic airway disease. Gas6 plasma levels were significantly elevated in adult clinical asthma of all severities compared with subjects without asthma. In a murine model of fungal allergic airway disease, increased protein expression of Axl and Mertk were observed in the lung. Airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR), whole lung Th2 cytokine levels, goblet cell metaplasia, and peribronchial fibrosis were ameliorated in Gas6-/- mice compared with WT mice with fungal allergic airway disease. Intranasal Gas6 administration into WT mice had a divergent effect on airway inflammation and AHR. Specifically, a total dose of 2 μg of exogenous Gas6 (i.e., low dose) significantly increased whole lung Th2 cytokine levels and subsequent AHR, whereas a total dose of 7 μg of exogenous Gas6 (i.e., high dose) significantly suppressed Th1 and Th2 cytokines and AHR compared with appropriate control groups. Mechanistically, Gas6 promoted Th2 activation via its highest affinity receptor Axl expressed by myeloid DCs. Intranasal administration of Gas6 consistently exacerbated airway remodeling compared with control WT groups. These results demonstrate that Gas6 enhances several features of fungal allergic airway disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takehiko Shibata
- 1 Immunology Program, Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan
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Graham DK, DeRyckere D, Davies KD, Earp HS. The TAM family: phosphatidylserine sensing receptor tyrosine kinases gone awry in cancer. Nat Rev Cancer 2014; 14:769-85. [PMID: 25568918 DOI: 10.1038/nrc3847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 506] [Impact Index Per Article: 50.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The TYRO3, AXL (also known as UFO) and MERTK (TAM) family of receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) are aberrantly expressed in multiple haematological and epithelial malignancies. Rather than functioning as oncogenic drivers, their induction in tumour cells predominately promotes survival, chemoresistance and motility. The unique mode of maximal activation of this RTK family requires an extracellular lipid–protein complex. For example, the protein ligand, growth arrest-specific protein 6 (GAS6), binds to phosphatidylserine (PtdSer) that is externalized on apoptotic cell membranes, which activates MERTK on macrophages. This triggers engulfment of apoptotic material and subsequent anti-inflammatory macrophage polarization. In tumours, autocrine and paracrine ligands and apoptotic cells are abundant, which provide a survival signal to the tumour cell and favour an anti-inflammatory, immunosuppressive microenvironment. Thus, TAM kinase inhibition could stimulate antitumour immunity, reduce tumour cell survival, enhance chemosensitivity and diminish metastatic potential.
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Abstract
The control of cellular growth and proliferation is key to the maintenance of homeostasis. Survival, proliferation, and arrest are regulated, in part, by Growth Arrest Specific 6 (Gas6) through binding to members of the TAM receptor tyrosine kinase family. Activation of the TAM receptors leads to downstream signaling through common kinases, but the exact mechanism within each cellular context varies and remains to be completely elucidated. Deregulation of the TAM family, due to its central role in mediating cellular proliferation, has been implicated in multiple diseases. Axl was cloned as the first TAM receptor in a search for genes involved in the progression of chronic to acute-phase leukemia, and has since been established as playing a critical role in the progression of cancer. The oncogenic nature of Axl is demonstrated through its activation of signaling pathways involved in proliferation, migration, inhibition of apoptosis, and therapeutic resistance. Despite its recent discovery, significant progress has been made in the development of effective clinical therapeutics targeting Axl. In order to accurately define the role of Axl in normal and diseased processes, it must be analyzed in a cell type-specific context.
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Axl as a downstream effector of TGF-β1 via PI3K/Akt-PAK1 signaling pathway promotes tumor invasion and chemoresistance in breast carcinoma. Tumour Biol 2014; 36:1115-27. [PMID: 25327287 DOI: 10.1007/s13277-014-2677-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2014] [Accepted: 09/24/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The invasion and chemoresistance are crucial causes of morbidity and death for cancer patients. Axl is closely associated with malignant phenotype of breast tumor cells, including invasiveness and metastasis. Both breast cancer cell line and tissue displayed increased expression of Axl, especially in highly metastatic breast cancer. On the contrary, experimental inhibition of Axl or transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-β1) by RNAi assay could suppress cell invasion ability and chemoresistance. Moreover, the up-regulation of Axl was induced by TGF-β1, further activated phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt and PAK1 translocation, and resulted in greater cell motility, invasion, and chemoresistance in vitro and in vivo. After the detection and statistics in human breast cancer specimens, we found that the Axl expression was closely correlated with TGF-β1 level, tumor differentiation, lymph node metastasis, and clinical stage (p < 0.01). Our findings support the possibility that Axl is a significant regulator of invasion and chemosensitivity, and it means by targeting Axl or its related signaling pathways, we can reduce the invasion and chemosensitivity of breast tumor.
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