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Reimold AE, D'Angelo H, Rose SW, Ribisl KM. Changes in retail tobacco product sales and market share among retail payroll establishments in the U.S. Economic Census between 1997 and 2017. Prev Med Rep 2023; 35:102294. [PMID: 37449007 PMCID: PMC10336246 DOI: 10.1016/j.pmedr.2023.102294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2022] [Revised: 06/19/2023] [Accepted: 06/21/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The tobacco industry spends the vast majority of their marketing and promotional budget at retail outlets. However, few studies have used publicly available data to examine trends in the number and types of retail establishments where tobacco products are sold. Using the U.S. Economic Census for 1997, 2002, 2007, 2012 and 2017 (the latest year), we examined the number, type, and sales of payroll establishments selling tobacco products. Nine store types accounted for 94% - 99% of tobacco product sales between 1997 and 2017. Gas/convenience stores had the greatest market share (33% - 49% of tobacco sales). The number of warehouse clubs selling tobacco quadrupled; however, market share only increased from 9.6% to 10.3%. Supermarkets experienced the largest decrease in percent of stores selling tobacco. Pharmacy tobacco sales increased in 2012 then decreased in 2017; per store sales volume more than doubled between 1997 and 2012. Online shopping accounted for less than 1% of the market share between 1997 and 2012, but rose to 6.3% in 2017. Between 1997 and 2017, consumers shifted where they purchased tobacco products. Declining tobacco sales in supermarkets is a promising trend for consumers seeking healthy food without exposure to tobacco product marketing; however, the consistently large number of tobacco retailers, and thus widespread tobacco availability, is concerning. Consumer tobacco purchase changes over time support the case for point-of-sale policies that affect different retail types, including pharmacy bans, to reduce tobacco retailer density. Additionally, the rapid shift to online tobacco purchasing in 2017 identifies a new target for enhanced regulation and enforcement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandria E. Reimold
- Gillings School of Global Public Health, Department of Health Behavior, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Heather D'Angelo
- Gillings School of Global Public Health, Department of Health Behavior, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Shyanika W. Rose
- College of Medicine, Department of Behavioral Science and Center for Health Equity Transformation, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
- Markey Cancer Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Kurt M. Ribisl
- Gillings School of Global Public Health, Department of Health Behavior, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
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Levy DT, Liber AC, Cadham C, Sanchez-Romero LM, Hyland A, Cummings M, Douglas C, Meza R, Henriksen L. Follow the money: a closer look at US tobacco industry marketing expenditures. Tob Control 2023; 32:575-582. [PMID: 35074930 PMCID: PMC9346571 DOI: 10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2021-056971] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2021] [Accepted: 12/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION While much of the concern with tobacco industry marketing has focused on direct media advertising, a less explored form of marketing strategy is to discount prices. Price discounting is important because it keeps the purchase price low and can undermine the impact of tax increases. METHODS We examine annual US marketing expenditures from 1975 to 2019 by the largest cigarette and smokeless tobacco companies as reported to the Federal Trade Commission. We consider three categories: direct advertising, promotional allowances and price discounting. In addition to considering trends in these expenditures, we examine how price discounting expenditures relate to changes in product prices and excise taxes. RESULTS US direct advertising expenditures for cigarettes fell from 80% of total industry marketing expenditures in 1975 to less than 3% in 2019, while falling from 39% in 1985 to 6% in 2019 for smokeless tobacco. Price discounting expenditures for cigarettes became prominent after the Master Settlement Agreement and related tax increases in 2002. By 2019, 87% of cigarette marketing expenditures were for price discounts and 7% for promotional allowances. Smokeless marketing expenditures were similar: 72% for price promotions and 13% for promotional allowances. Price discounting increased with prices and taxes until reaching their currently high levels. CONCLUSIONS Between 1975 and 2019, direct advertising dramatically fell while price discounting and promotional expenditures increased. Local, state and federal policies are needed that apply non-tax mechanisms to increase tobacco prices and restrict industry contracts to offset industry marketing strategies. Further study is needed to better understand industry decisions about marketing expenditures.
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Affiliation(s)
- David T Levy
- Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Alex C Liber
- Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center, Georgetown University, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Christopher Cadham
- Department of Health Management and Policy, University of Michigan School of Public Health, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | | | - Andrew Hyland
- Health Behavior, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo, New York, USA
| | - Michael Cummings
- Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina, USA
| | - Cliff Douglas
- Health Management and Policy, University of Michigan School of Public Health, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Rafael Meza
- Epidemiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Lisa Henriksen
- Stanford Prevention Research Center, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
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Liber AC, Sánchez-Romero LM, Cadham CJ, Yuan Z, Li Y, Oh H, Cook S, Warner KE, Henriksen L, Mistry R, Meza R, Fleischer NL, Levy DT. Tobacco Couponing: A Systematic Review of Exposures and Effects on Tobacco Initiation and Cessation. Nicotine Tob Res 2022; 24:1523-1533. [PMID: 35143678 PMCID: PMC9575981 DOI: 10.1093/ntr/ntac037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2021] [Revised: 01/21/2022] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Tobacco couponing continues to be part of contemporary tobacco marketing in the United States. We performed a systematic review of the evidence of tobacco product coupon receipt and redemption to inform regulation. AIMS AND METHODS We searched EMBASE OVID and Medline databases for observational (cross-sectional and longitudinal) studies that examined the prevalence of tobacco coupon receipt and coupon redemption across different subpopulations, as well as studies of the association between coupon receipt and redemption with tobacco initiation and cessation at follow-up. We extracted unadjusted and adjusted odds ratios for the associations between coupon exposure (receipt, redemption) and tobacco use outcomes (initiation, cessation) and assessed each studies' potential risk of bias. RESULTS Twenty-seven studies met the criteria for inclusion. Of 60 observations extracted, 37 measured coupon receipt, nine measured coupon redemption, eight assessed tobacco use initiation, and six assessed cessation. Tobacco product coupon receipt and redemption tended to be more prevalent among younger adults, women, lower education individuals, members of sexual and gender minorities, and more frequent tobacco users. Coupon receipt at baseline was associated with greater initiation. Coupon receipt and redemption at baseline were associated with lower cessation at follow-up among tobacco users. Results in high-quality studies did not generally differ from all studies. CONCLUSIONS Tobacco product coupon receipt and redemption are often more prevalent among price-sensitive subpopulations. Most concerning, our results suggest coupon receipt may be associated with higher tobacco initiation and lower tobacco cessation. Couponing thereby increases the toll of tobacco use and could prove to be a viable public health policy intervention point. IMPLICATIONS A systematic review was conducted of the scientific literature about the receipt, redemption, and effects on tobacco initiation and cessation of tobacco product couponing. This review found that tobacco coupons are more often received by price-sensitive persons and these coupons serve to increase tobacco initiation and decrease tobacco cessation. Policy efforts to address these consequences may help curb tobacco's harms and address health inequities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex C Liber
- Department of Oncology, Georgetown University-Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center, Cancer Prevention and Control Program, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Luz María Sánchez-Romero
- Department of Oncology, Georgetown University-Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center, Cancer Prevention and Control Program, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Christopher J Cadham
- Department of Health Management and Policy, University of Michigan School of Public Health, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Zhe Yuan
- Department of Oncology, Georgetown University-Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center, Cancer Prevention and Control Program, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Yameng Li
- Department of Oncology, Georgetown University-Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center, Cancer Prevention and Control Program, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Hayoung Oh
- Department of Epidemiology, University of Michigan School of Public Health, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Steven Cook
- Department of Epidemiology, University of Michigan School of Public Health, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Kenneth E Warner
- Department of Health Management and Policy, University of Michigan School of Public Health, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Lisa Henriksen
- Department of Oncology, Stanford Prevention Research Center, Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, CA, USA
| | - Ritesh Mistry
- Department of Health Behavior and Health Education, University of Michigan School of Public Health, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Rafael Meza
- Department of Epidemiology, University of Michigan School of Public Health, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Nancy L Fleischer
- Department of Epidemiology, University of Michigan School of Public Health, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - David T Levy
- Department of Oncology, Georgetown University-Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center, Cancer Prevention and Control Program, Washington, DC, USA
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Nkosi L, Odani S, Agaku IT. 20-Year Trends in Tobacco Sales and Self-Reported Tobacco Use in the United States, 2000-2020. Prev Chronic Dis 2022; 19:E45. [PMID: 35900882 PMCID: PMC9336190 DOI: 10.5888/pcd19.210435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction In the past 2 decades, many tobacco control policies were enacted, and several new or modified products were introduced into the US marketplace. Continued tobacco surveillance is critical in this evolving landscape. We examined 20-year trends in tobacco use from sales and self-reported data. Methods We obtained data on taxable removals (sales) of cigarettes, cigars, roll-your-own (RYO) tobacco, and pipe tobacco from the US Department of the Treasury. We assessed self-reported past 30-day tobacco use from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health among people aged 18 years or older. Volume sales were standardized to cigarette packs and cigarette pack equivalents (CPEs) and trends measured by using joinpoint and logistic regression. Results From 2000 to 2019–2020, declines occurred in per capita sales of cigarettes (101.01 to 42.29 packs/capita), little cigars (0.54 to 0.03 CPEs/capita), and RYO tobacco (1.34 to 0.21 CPEs/capita). Volume sales also decreased for chewing tobacco and scotch/dry snuff (all P < .05). Conversely, volume sales increased for pipe tobacco, moist snuff, and snus for the respective assessed periods. Large cigar volume sales did not change significantly. We found consistent trends in self-reported use, except for RYO tobacco (decreased volume sales but increased self-reported use) and pipe smoking (increased volume sales, but trivial self-reported use <1% throughout the study period). Current use of any tobacco product decreased from 32.2% to 22.9% during the assessed period. Conclusion Harmonizing the tax and regulatory structure within and across the diversity of tobacco products may help reduce aggregate tobacco consumption in the US.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lungile Nkosi
- Sefako Makgatho Health Sciences University, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Satomi Odani
- Cancer Control Center, Osaka International Cancer Institute, Osaka, Japan
| | - Israel T Agaku
- Harvard School of Dental Medicine, 188 Longwood Ave, Boston, MA 02115.
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Choi K, Kreuger K, McNeel TS, Osgood N. Point-of-sale cigarette pricing strategies and young adult smokers' intention to purchase cigarettes: an online experiment. Tob Control 2022; 31:473-478. [PMID: 33632805 PMCID: PMC8385012 DOI: 10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2020-056004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Revised: 10/21/2020] [Accepted: 10/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Point-of-sale tobacco marketing has been shown to be related to tobacco use behaviours; however, specific influences of cigarette price discounts, price tiers and pack/carton availability on cigarette purchasing intention are less understood by the tobacco control community. METHODS We conducted discrete choice experiments among an online sample of US young adult smokers (aged 18-30 years; n=1823). Participants were presented scenarios depicting their presence at a tobacco retail outlet with varying availability of cigarette price discounts, price tiers and pack/carton. At each scenario, participants were asked whether they would purchase cigarettes. Generalised linear regression models were used to examine the associations between of cigarette price discounts, price tiers and pack/carton with intention to purchase cigarettes overall and stratified by educational attainment. RESULTS Participants chose to purchase cigarettes in 70.9% of the scenarios. Offering price discounts were associated with higher odds of choosing to purchase cigarettes. Reducing the number of cigarette price tiers available in the store was associated with lower odds of choosing to purchase cigarettes. Stratified analysis showed that offering discounts on high-tier cigarette packs increased odds of choosing to purchase cigarettes among young adult smokers with at least some college education, while offering discounts on medium-tier cigarette packs increased odds of choosing to purchase cigarettes among those with some college education or less (eg, with a 10% discount, adjusted odds ratio [AOR]some college=1.62, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.21 to 2.16; AOR≤high school=1.44, 95% CI 1.08 to 1.93). CONCLUSIONS Availability of cigarette price discounts, price tiers and pack/carton could potentially influence cigarette purchasing behaviours among young adult smokers. Regulating these marketing strategies may, therefore, reduce education-related smoking disparities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelvin Choi
- Division of Intramural Research, National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Kurt Kreuger
- Center for the Study of Complex Systems, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | | | - Nathaniel Osgood
- Department of Community Health & Epidemiology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
- Department of Computer Science, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
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Kalousova L, Levy D, Titus AR, Meza R, Thrasher JF, Elliott MR, Fleischer NL. Cigarette taxes, prices, and disparities in current smoking in the United States. SSM Popul Health 2020; 12:100686. [PMID: 33241103 PMCID: PMC7674120 DOI: 10.1016/j.ssmph.2020.100686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2020] [Revised: 10/20/2020] [Accepted: 10/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Increasing cigarette taxes has been the cornerstone of tobacco control policy. Recent work has argued that raising cigarette taxes alone may no longer be an effective strategy for lowering smoking rates. We largely confirm these findings but also find that increases in price continue to predict lower smoking participation in most model specifications. We argue that raising cigarette prices via taxation remains an effective public health policy. We discuss the advantages of homogeneous tax environments and minimum price laws for eliminating opportunities for consumers to offset tax increases by searching for lowest taxes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucie Kalousova
- Department of Sociology, 1210 Watkins Hall, University of California-Riverside, 900 University Ave, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
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Shang C, Ngo A, Chaloupka FJ. The pass-through of alcohol excise taxes to prices in OECD countries. THE EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF HEALTH ECONOMICS : HEPAC : HEALTH ECONOMICS IN PREVENTION AND CARE 2020; 21:855-867. [PMID: 32236765 PMCID: PMC9996670 DOI: 10.1007/s10198-020-01177-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2019] [Accepted: 03/10/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Tax pass-through rates to prices measure how much prices increase when taxes are increased by one unit, which will in turn determine the effectiveness of taxation policies in reducing substance use. Using longitudinal data of alcohol prices and excise taxes from 27 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries from 2003 to 2016, we estimate the tax pass-through rates to prices for a variety of alcoholic beverages-beer (1.24; 95% CIs: [0.67, 1.81]), wine (2.4; 95% CIs: [1.7, 3.11]), Cognac (1.71; 95% CIs: [1.07, 2.35]), Gin (0.85; 95% CIs: [0.34, 1.35]), Scotch whisky (1.14; 95% CIs: [0.52, 1.75]), and Liqueur Cointreau (1.98; 95% CIs: [1.21, 2.76]). While excise taxes on wine, Cognac, and Liqueur Cointreau are over-shifted to prices, taxes on Gin are exact- or under-shifted. Excise taxes on beer and Scotch whisky are likely over-shifted to prices, but the tax pass-through rates for these beverages are not significantly different from 1 and we cannot completely rule out exact pass-through of taxes to prices. The tax pass-through to prices for most beverage types is also higher for higher-priced products. Dynamic model further shows a lagged impact of wine and beer taxes on prices, indicating pricing strategies that may target lower-priced beer and wine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ce Shang
- Department of Internal Medicine, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, Ohio, USA.
| | - Anh Ngo
- Oklahoma Tobacco Research Center, Stephenson Cancer Center, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, USA
| | - Frank J Chaloupka
- Health Policy Center, Institute for Health Research and Policy, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, USA
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Martín Álvarez JM, Golpe AA, Iglesias J, Ingelmo R. Price and income elasticities of demand for cigarette consumption: what is the association of price and economic activity with cigarette consumption in Spain from 1957 to 2016? Public Health 2020; 185:275-282. [PMID: 32707470 DOI: 10.1016/j.puhe.2020.05.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2019] [Revised: 04/21/2020] [Accepted: 05/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Extensive empirical and theoretical studies have been devoted to analyzing the relationship between tobacco and income. The price and income elasticities of demand for cigarette consumption are the main focus of studies in this body of literature. However, few empirical studies exist that analyze how economic growth affects the cigarette market, and no one has studied the effects of economic expansions and recessions. Spain, as in the other countries of the European Union, has suffered a strong recession since 2008. Therefore, this article aims to detect if income elasticity takes different values in economic growth and recession and, in addition, to check whether price elasticity in Spain is consistent with previous studies. STUDY DESIGN This is an observational epidemiological study. METHODS In this article, the price and income elasticities of demand for cigarette consumption are measured for the Spanish cigarette market using time series data from 1957 to 2016 and by applying a non-linear autoregressive dynamics lag model. The novel specification proposed in this study is the determination of the possible effects of asymmetries in the economic shocks on cigarette consumption. RESULTS Our results reveal that cigarette consumption maintains a notable asymmetric relationship. In particular, our results show that in expansion shocks, cigarette consumption increases (a 10% economic growth is associated with a 4.05% increase in cigarette consumption), whereas in recession shocks, cigarette consumption decreases dramatically, with a more pronounced pattern in recession phases than in expansion phases (a 10% economic decline is associated with a 58.16% decrease in cigarette consumption). On the other hand, price elasticity maintains the same behavior shown in the previous literature (a 10% price increase is associated with a 2% decrease in cigarette consumption). CONCLUSIONS Higher cigarette prices are associated with decreased smoking. In addition, the economic recession helps in decreasing cigarette consumption. Therefore, it is strongly recommended that tax authorities have our results in mind before establishing health policies. If the authorities do not, it is possible that they will not obtain the expected results in terms of decreased tobacco consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- J M Martín Álvarez
- Facultad de Empresa y Comunicación, Universidad Internacional de La Rioja UNIR, Avda. de La Paz, 137, 26004, Logroño, Spain.
| | - A A Golpe
- Department of Economics y Centro de Estudios Avanzados en Física, Matemáticas y Computación, University of Huelva, Plaza de La Merced, 11, 21002, Huelva, Spain.
| | - J Iglesias
- Department of Financial Economics and Operations Management, Universidad de Sevilla, Avda San Francisco Javier, S/n, 41018, Sevilla, Spain.
| | - R Ingelmo
- Department of Economics and Business, Universidad de Alcalá, Spain.
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Hall MG, Byron MJ, Brewer NT, Noar SM, Ribisl KM. Interest in Illicit Purchase of Cigarettes Under a Very Low Nicotine Content Product Standard. Nicotine Tob Res 2020; 21:S128-S132. [PMID: 31867641 PMCID: PMC6939751 DOI: 10.1093/ntr/ntz159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2019] [Accepted: 08/27/2019] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Significance The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is considering a very low nicotine content (VLNC) product standard to substantially reduce nicotine in cigarettes. We examined whether learning about a potential VLNC standard increased smokers’ interest in illicit purchases of cigarettes with regular nicotine content if such a standard were adopted. Methods Participants were a national convenience sample of 1712 US adult smokers. In an online experiment, we randomly assigned smokers to view information about a new VLNC standard (experimental condition) or no information (control condition). The experimental condition explained that a VLNC standard would remove 95% of the nicotine in cigarettes and would require stores to only sell VLNC cigarettes. Then, the survey assessed smokers’ interest in purchasing regular cigarettes from three illicit sources. Results Smokers who learned about the VLNC standard were more likely to be very or extremely interested in purchasing regular cigarettes illicitly from a Web site compared to smokers in the control group (24% vs. 16%, p < .001). They were also more interested in illicitly buying cigarettes from a street vendor (19% vs. 13%, p < .001) and a store on an Indian reservation (28% vs. 22%, p < .05), compared to the control. The impact of learning about the VLNC standard on interest in illicit purchases did not differ by smoking frequency or current e-cigarette use. Conclusions A VLNC standard could increase smokers’ interest in illicit purchases of regular nicotine cigarettes. To prevent VLNC-induced illicit trade from undermining public health, FDA should consider proven measures such as track and trace for these products. Implications Little is known about how a VLNC cigarette standard would affect consumer interest in regular content cigarettes purchased from illicit sources (eg, the Internet). We found that smokers informed about a potential VLNC product standard had greater interest in illicit cigarette purchases, compared to controls. This suggests the importance of proactive measures accompanying a VLNC standard, such as track-and-trace cigarette packaging regulations and communication campaigns, in order to maximize the standard’s public health impact.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marissa G Hall
- Department of Health Behavior, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC
- Corresponding Author: Marissa G. Hall, PhD, Department of Health Behavior, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina, 312 Rosenau Hall, CB7440, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA. E-mail:
| | - M Justin Byron
- Department of Health Behavior, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC
- Department of Family Medicine, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC
| | - Noel T Brewer
- Department of Health Behavior, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC
| | - Seth M Noar
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC
- School of Media and Journalism, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC
| | - Kurt M Ribisl
- Department of Health Behavior, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC
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Levy DT, Yuan Z, Li Y, St Claire AW, Schillo BA. The Minnesota SimSmoke Tobacco Control Policy Model of Smokeless Tobacco and Cigarette Use. Am J Prev Med 2019; 57:e103-e115. [PMID: 31542143 PMCID: PMC6756173 DOI: 10.1016/j.amepre.2019.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2019] [Revised: 06/04/2019] [Accepted: 06/05/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION A previous Minnesota SimSmoke tobacco control policy model is extended to more recent years and to include smokeless tobacco use. METHODS Using data from the 1993 Tobacco Use Supplement and information on state policies, the Minnesota SimSmoke model was updated and extended to incorporate smokeless tobacco (both exclusive and dual use) and smokeless tobacco-attributable deaths. The model was then validated against the 2002, 2006/2007, and 2014/2015 Tobacco Use Supplement and the 1999, 2007, 2014, and 2018 Minnesota Adult Tobacco Survey and used to estimate the impact of policies implemented between 1993 and 2018. Analysis was conducted in April 2019. RESULTS The model validated well for cigarette and earlier smokeless tobacco use, but it predicted smokeless tobacco use less well in recent years. The model projected that male (female) smoking prevalence was 35% (36%) lower in relative terms by 2018 and 43% (44%) lower by 2040 owing to policies, with lesser reductions projected for male smokeless tobacco use. Tobacco-attributable deaths were reduced by 7,800 by 2018 and 46,900 by 2040. Price increases, primarily through taxes, were projected to have had the greatest impact on cigarette use followed by smoke-free air laws, cessation treatment policies, tobacco control campaign expenditures, and youth access enforcement. Similar effects were projected for smokeless tobacco use, except that smoke-free air laws had smaller effects. CONCLUSIONS As cigarettes remain the dominant form of nicotine delivery product, cigarette-oriented policies may be an effective means of reducing the use of all nicotine delivery products. However, noncigarette-oriented policies may also play an important role.
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Affiliation(s)
- David T Levy
- Department of Oncology, Georgetown University, Washington, District of Columbia.
| | - Zhe Yuan
- Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center, Georgetown University, Washington, District of Columbia
| | - Yameng Li
- Lombardi Comprehensive Cancer Center, Georgetown University, Washington, District of Columbia
| | - Ann W St Claire
- Evaluation and Survey Research, ClearWay Minnesota(SM), Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Barbara A Schillo
- Schroeder Institute, Truth Initiative, Washington, District of Columbia
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Curry L, Schmitt CL, Henes A, Ortega-Peluso C, Battles H. How Low-Income Smokers in New York Access Cheaper Cigarettes. Am J Health Promot 2018; 33:558-565. [PMID: 30301365 DOI: 10.1177/0890117118805060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To understand the tobacco acquisition practices of low-income smokers in New York State in light of high cigarette prices due to high cigarette taxes. DESIGN Eight focus groups with low-income smokers were conducted in spring 2015 and 2016 (n = 74). SETTING New York City (NYC) and Buffalo, New York. PARTICIPANTS Low-income adults aged 18 to 65 who smoke cigarettes regularly. METHOD Qualitative analysis of focus group transcripts that explored differences and similarities by region. We used the interview guide-which covered the process of acquiring cigarettes and the impact of cigarette prices-as a framework for analysis to generate themes and subthemes (deductive coding). We also generated themes and subthemes that emerged during focus group discussions (inductive coding). RESULTS Some smokers in Western New York have switched to untaxed cigarettes from Native American reservations, whereas low-income smokers in NYC described convenient sources of bootlegged cigarettes (packs or loosies) in their local neighborhood stores, through acquaintances, or on the street. Familiarity with the retailer was key to accessing bootlegged cigarettes from retailers. CONCLUSIONS Smokers in this study could access cheaper cigarettes, which discouraged quit attempts and allowed them to continue smoking. The availability of lower priced cigarettes may attenuate public health efforts aimed at reducing smoking prevalence through price and tax increases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Amy Henes
- 2 RTI International, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | | | - Haven Battles
- 3 New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY, USA
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Wasserman EJ, Reilly SM, Goel R, Foulds J, Richie JP, Muscat JE. Comparison of Biomarkers of Tobacco Exposure between Premium and Discount Brand Cigarette Smokers in the NHANES 2011-2012 Special Sample. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2018; 27:601-609. [PMID: 29511038 DOI: 10.1158/1055-9965.epi-17-0869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2017] [Revised: 11/16/2017] [Accepted: 02/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Increased cigarette costs have inadvertently strengthened the appeal of discounted brands to price-sensitive smokers. Although smokers perceive discounted brands as having poorer quality, little is known about their delivery of toxic tobacco smoke constituents compared with premium-branded tobacco products.Methods: We investigated the differences between discount and premium brand smokers using the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2011-2012 Special Smoker Sample. Our analyses focused on demographic differences and 27 biomarkers of harmful and potentially harmful constituents (HPHC) listed by the FDA, including volatile organic compounds, 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanol and its glucuronide [4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanol glucuronide; reported as total NNAL (tNNAL)], metals, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Data were analyzed using linear regression models adjusting for potential confounders.Results: A total of 976 non-tobacco users and 578 recent cigarette smokers were eligible for analysis, of which 141 (26.0% weighted) smoked discount brand cigarettes and 437 (74.0% weighted) smoked premium. Discount brand smokers were older, predominantly non-Hispanic white, and had higher serum cotinine. Discount brand smokers had significantly higher levels of 13 smoking-related biomarkers, including tNNAL, uranium, styrene, xylene, and biomarkers of exposure to PAHs (naphthalene, fluorene, and phenanthrene), compared with premium brand smokers.Conclusions: These findings suggest that discount cigarette use is associated with higher exposure to several carcinogenic and toxic HPHCs.Impact: These results may have important regulatory implications for product standards, as higher exposures could lead to a greater degree of harm. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev; 27(5); 601-9. ©2018 AACR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily J Wasserman
- Department of Public Health Sciences, Tobacco Center of Regulatory Science, Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania
| | - Samantha M Reilly
- Department of Public Health Sciences, Tobacco Center of Regulatory Science, Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania
| | - Reema Goel
- Department of Public Health Sciences, Tobacco Center of Regulatory Science, Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania
| | - Jonathan Foulds
- Department of Public Health Sciences, Tobacco Center of Regulatory Science, Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania
| | - John P Richie
- Department of Public Health Sciences, Tobacco Center of Regulatory Science, Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania
| | - Joshua E Muscat
- Department of Public Health Sciences, Tobacco Center of Regulatory Science, Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania.
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Doogan NJ, Wewers ME, Berman M. The impact of a federal cigarette minimum pack price policy on cigarette use in the USA. Tob Control 2018; 27:203-208. [PMID: 28259846 PMCID: PMC5583019 DOI: 10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2016-053457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2016] [Revised: 01/30/2017] [Accepted: 01/31/2017] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Increasing cigarette prices reduce cigarette use. The US Food and Drug Administration has the authority to regulate the sale and promotion-and therefore the price-of tobacco products. OBJECTIVE To examine the potential effect of federal minimum price regulation on the sales of cigarettes in the USA. METHOD We used yearly state-level data from the Tax Burden on Tobacco and other sources to model per capita cigarette sales as a function of price. We used the fitted model to compare the status quo sales with counterfactual scenarios in which a federal minimum price was set. The minimum price scenarios ranged from $0 to $12. RESULTS The estimated price effect in our model was comparable with that found in the literature. Our counterfactual analyses suggested that the impact of a minimum price requirement could range from a minimal effect at the $4 level to a reduction of 5.7 billion packs sold per year and 10 million smokers at the $10 level. CONCLUSION A federal minimum price policy has the potential to greatly benefit tobacco control and public health by uniformly increasing the price of cigarettes and by eliminating many price-reducing strategies currently available to both sellers and consumers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan J Doogan
- College of Public Health, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA
| | - Mary Ellen Wewers
- College of Public Health, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA
| | - Micah Berman
- College of Public Health, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA
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Marynak KL, Xu X, Wang X, Holmes CB, Tynan MA, Pechacek T. Estimating the Impact of Raising Prices and Eliminating Discounts on Cigarette Smoking Prevalence in the United States. Public Health Rep 2017; 131:536-43. [PMID: 27453597 DOI: 10.1177/0033354916662211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The average retail price per pack of cigarettes is less than $6, which is substantially lower than the $10 per-pack target established in 2014 by the Surgeon General to reduce the smoking rate. We estimated the impact of three cigarette pricing scenarios on smoking prevalence among teens aged 12-17 years, young adults aged 18-25 years, and adults aged ≥26 years, by state: (1) $0.94 federal tax increase on cigarettes, as proposed in the fiscal year 2017 President's budget; (2) $10 per-pack retail price, allowing discounts; and (3) $10 per-pack retail price, eliminating discounts. We conducted Monte Carlo simulations to generate point estimates of reductions in cigarette smoking prevalence by state. We found that each price scenario would substantially reduce cigarette smoking prevalence. A $10 per-pack retail price eliminating discounts could result in 637,270 fewer smokers aged 12-17 years; 4,186,954 fewer smokers aged 18-25 years; and 7,722,460 fewer smokers aged ≥26 years. Raising cigarette prices and eliminating discounts could substantially reduce cigarette smoking prevalence as well as smoking-related death and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristy L Marynak
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health, Atlanta, GA
| | - Xin Xu
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health, Atlanta, GA
| | - Xu Wang
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health, Atlanta, GA
| | - Carissa Baker Holmes
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health, Atlanta, GA
| | - Michael A Tynan
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health, Atlanta, GA; Oregon Health Authority, Public Health Division, Office of the State Public Health Director, Portland, OR
| | - Terry Pechacek
- Georgia State University, School of Public Health, Division of Health Management & Policy, Atlanta, GA
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15
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Golden SD, Kong AY, Ribisl KM. Racial and Ethnic Differences in What Smokers Report Paying for Their Cigarettes. Nicotine Tob Res 2016; 18:1649-55. [PMID: 26874329 DOI: 10.1093/ntr/ntw033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2015] [Accepted: 02/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Smoking rates and tobacco-related health problems vary by race and ethnicity. We explore whether cigarette prices, a determinant of tobacco use, differ across racial and ethnic groups, and whether consumer behaviors influence these differences. METHODS We used national Tobacco Use Supplement data from 23 299 adult smokers in the United States to calculate average reported cigarette pack prices for six racial and ethnic groups. Using multivariate regression models, we analyzed the independent effect of race and ethnicity on price, and whether these effects changed once indicators of carton purchasing, menthol use, Indian reservation purchase, and state market prices were incorporated. RESULTS American Indians and whites pay similar amounts and report the lowest prices. Blacks, Hispanics, and Asians reported paying $0.42, $0.68, and $0.89 more for a pack of cigarettes than whites. After accounting for differences in consumer behaviors, these gaps shrunk to $0.27, $0.29, and $0.27, respectively, while American Indians paid $0.38 more than whites. Pack buying was associated with $0.99 higher per-pack prices than carton buying, which was most common among whites. Additionally, people who purchased off an Indian reservation reporting paying $1.54 more than those who purchased on reservation. CONCLUSIONS Average reported cigarette prices vary by race and ethnicity, in part due to differences in product use and purchase location. Tobacco price policies, especially those that target low prices for multipack products or on Indian reservations may increase the prices paid by whites and American Indians, who smoke at the highest rates and pay the least per pack. IMPLICATIONS This study examines differences in reported prices paid by different racial and ethnic groups, using recent, national data from the United States. Results indicating that racial and ethnic groups that smoke at the highest rates (American Indians and whites) also pay the least are consistent with evidence that price is a key factor in cigarette use. Additional analysis finds that cigarette purchasing behaviors, especially carton buying and purchasing on Indian reservations, partially account for the documented price differences, and suggest that policies focused on bulk purchases (carton, multipack) and reservation prices have strong tobacco control potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shelley D Golden
- Department of Health Behavior, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC;
| | - Amanda Y Kong
- Department of Health Behavior, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC
| | - Kurt M Ribisl
- Department of Health Behavior, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC; Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC
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16
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Hall MG, Williams RS, Gammon DG, Ribisl KM. Internet cigarette vendors make tax-free claims and sell cigarettes cheaper than retail outlets. Tob Control 2015; 25:616-618. [PMID: 26490844 DOI: 10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2015-052359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2015] [Accepted: 09/29/2015] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This paper aims to (1) assess whether promotion of tax-free sales among Internet cigarette vendors (ICVs) changed between 2009 and 2011, (2) determine which types of ICVs are most likely to promote tax-free sales (eg, US-based, international or mixed location ICVs), and (3) compare the price of cigarettes advertised in ICVs to prices at brick-and-mortar retail outlets. METHODS We analysed data from the 200 most popular ICVs in 2009, 2010 and 2011 to assess promotion of tax-free sales and the price of Marlboro cigarette cartons. We used Nielsen scanner data from 2009, 2010 and 2011 to measure the price of Marlboro cartons in US grocery stores. FINDINGS The odds of ICVs claiming tax-free status were higher in 2011 than in 2009 (OR=1.58, p<0.01). Mixed location and international vendors had higher odds of promoting tax-free sales than US-based ICVs (OR=4.95 and 6.23, respectively, both p<0.001). In 2011, the average price of one Marlboro carton was $35.27 online, compared to $52.73 in US grocery stores. We estimated that in 2011, a pack-a-day smoker living in an area with high cigarette prices would save $1508 per year buying cigarettes online. CONCLUSIONS ICVs commonly promote tax-free sales, and cigarettes are cheaper online compared to US grocery stores. Better enforcement of the Prevent All Cigarette Trafficking Act is needed to address tax-free cigarette sales among ICVs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marissa G Hall
- Department of Health Behavior, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA.,Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Rebecca S Williams
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA.,Center for Health Promotion and Disease Prevention, University of North Carolina, Carrboro, North Carolina, USA
| | - Doris G Gammon
- RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Kurt M Ribisl
- Department of Health Behavior, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA.,Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA.,Center for Health Promotion and Disease Prevention, University of North Carolina, Carrboro, North Carolina, USA
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17
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Golden SD, Smith MH, Feighery EC, Roeseler A, Rogers T, Ribisl KM. Beyond excise taxes: a systematic review of literature on non-tax policy approaches to raising tobacco product prices. Tob Control 2015; 25:377-85. [PMID: 26391905 PMCID: PMC4941206 DOI: 10.1136/tobaccocontrol-2015-052294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2015] [Accepted: 07/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Objective Raising the price of tobacco products is considered one of the most effective ways to reduce tobacco use. In addition to excise taxes, governments are exploring other policies to raise tobacco prices and minimise price dispersion, both within and across price tiers. We conducted a systematic review to determine how these policies are described, recommended and evaluated in the literature. Data sources We systematically searched six databases and the California Tobacco Control library for English language studies or reports, indexed on or before 18 December 2013, that included a tobacco keyword (eg, cigarette), policy keyword (eg, legislation) and a price keyword (eg, promotion). We identified 3067 abstracts. Study selection Two coders independently reviewed all abstracts and identified 56 studies or reports that explicitly described a public policy likely to impact the retail price of tobacco products through non-tax means. Data extraction Two coders independently identified tobacco products targeted by policies described, recommendations for implementing policies and empirical assessments of policy impacts. Data synthesis The most prevalent non-tax price policies were price promotion restrictions and minimum price laws. Few studies measured the impact of non-tax policies on average prices, price dispersion or disparities in tobacco consumption, but the literature includes suggestions for crafting policies and preparing for legal challenges or tobacco industry opposition. Conclusions Price-focused evaluations of well-implemented non-tax price policies are needed to determine whether they can deliver on their promise to raise prices, reduce price dispersion and serve as an important complement to excise taxes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shelley D Golden
- Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Margaret Holt Smith
- Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Ellen C Feighery
- International Research, Campaign for Tobacco Free Kids, Washington DC, USA
| | - April Roeseler
- California Department of Public Health, California Tobacco Control Program, Sacramento, California, USA
| | - Todd Rogers
- Public Health Research Division, RTI International, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Kurt M Ribisl
- Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
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Xu X, Malarcher A, O’Halloran A, Kruger J. Does every US smoker bear the same cigarette tax? Addiction 2014; 109:1741-9. [PMID: 24861973 PMCID: PMC4591540 DOI: 10.1111/add.12630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2013] [Revised: 03/06/2014] [Accepted: 05/16/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
AIMS To evaluate state cigarette excise tax pass-through rates for selected price-minimizing strategies. DESIGN Multivariate regression analysis of current smokers from a stratified, national, dual-frame telephone survey. SETTING United States. PARTICIPANTS A total of 16 542 adult current smokers aged 18 years or older. MEASUREMENTS Cigarette per pack prices paid with and without coupons were obtained for pack versus carton purchase, use of generic brands versus premium brands, and purchase from Indian reservations versus outside Indian reservations. FINDINGS The average per pack prices paid differed substantially by price-minimizing strategy. Smokers who used any type of price-minimizing strategies paid substantially less than those who did not use these strategies (P < 0.05). Premium brand users who purchased by pack in places outside Indian reservations paid the entire amount of the excise tax, together with an additional premium of 7-10 cents per pack for every $1 increase in excise tax (pass-through rate of 1.07-1.10, P < 0.05). In contrast, carton purchasers, generic brand users or those who were likely to make their purchases on Indian reservations paid only 30-83 cents per pack for every $1 tax increase (pass-through rate of 0.30-0.83, P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS Many smokers in the United States are able to avoid the full impact of state excise tax on cost of smoking by buying cartons, using generic brands and buying from Indian reservations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Xu
- Office on Smoking and Health, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Ann Malarcher
- Office on Smoking and Health, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Alissa O’Halloran
- Northrop Grumman, Contractor Support for NCCDPHP/NGIS, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Judy Kruger
- Office on Smoking and Health, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, USA
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