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Lerner A, Benzvi C, Vojdani A. Cross-reactivity and sequence similarity between microbial transglutaminase and human tissue antigens. Sci Rep 2023; 13:17526. [PMID: 37845267 PMCID: PMC10579360 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-44452-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2023] [Accepted: 10/09/2023] [Indexed: 10/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Microbial transglutaminase (mTG) is a bacterial survival factor, frequently used as a food additive to glue processed nutrients. As a result, new immunogenic epitopes are generated that might drive autoimmunity. Presently, its contribution to autoimmunity through epitope similarity and cross-reactivity was investigated. Emboss Matcher was used to perform sequence alignment between mTG and various antigens implicated in many autoimmune diseases. Monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies made specifically against mTG were applied to 77 different human tissue antigens using ELISA. Six antigens were detected to share significant homology with mTG immunogenic sequences, representing major targets of common autoimmune conditions. Polyclonal antibody to mTG reacted significantly with 17 out of 77 tissue antigens. This reaction was most pronounced with mitochondrial M2, ANA, and extractable nuclear antigens. The results indicate that sequence similarity and cross-reactivity between mTG and various tissue antigens are possible, supporting the relationship between mTG and the development of autoimmune disorders 150W.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron Lerner
- Chaim Sheba Medical Center, The Zabludowicz Research Center for Autoimmune Diseases, Tel Hashomer, Israel.
- Ariel University, Ariel, Israel.
| | - Carina Benzvi
- Chaim Sheba Medical Center, The Zabludowicz Research Center for Autoimmune Diseases, Tel Hashomer, Israel
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2
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Al-Kachak A, Maze I. Post-translational modifications of histone proteins by monoamine neurotransmitters. Curr Opin Chem Biol 2023; 74:102302. [PMID: 37054563 PMCID: PMC10225327 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2023.102302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Revised: 03/13/2023] [Accepted: 03/14/2023] [Indexed: 04/15/2023]
Abstract
Protein monoaminylation is a biochemical process through which biogenic monoamines (e.g., serotonin, dopamine, histamine, etc.) are covalently bonded to certain protein substrates via Transglutaminase 2, an enzyme that catalyzes the transamidation of primary amines to the γ-carboxamides of glutamine residues. Since their initial discovery, these unusual post-translational modifications have been implicated in a wide variety of biological processes, ranging from protein coagulation to platelet activation and G-protein signaling. More recently, histone proteins - specifically histone H3 at glutamine 5 (H3Q5) - have been added to the growing list of monoaminyl substrates in vivo, with H3Q5 monoaminylation demonstrated to regulate permissive gene expression in cells. Such phenomena have further been shown to contribute critically to various aspects of (mal)adaptive neuronal plasticity and behavior. In this short review, we examine the evolution of our understanding of protein monoaminylation events, highlighting recent advances in the elucidation of their roles as important chromatin regulators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amni Al-Kachak
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience, Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Ian Maze
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience, Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA; Department of Pharmacological Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA.
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3
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Lerner A, Benzvi C. Microbial Transglutaminase Is a Very Frequently Used Food Additive and Is a Potential Inducer of Autoimmune/Neurodegenerative Diseases. TOXICS 2021; 9:233. [PMID: 34678929 PMCID: PMC8537092 DOI: 10.3390/toxics9100233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2021] [Revised: 09/14/2021] [Accepted: 09/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Microbial transglutaminase (mTG) is a heavily used food additive and its industrial transamidated complexes usage is rising rapidly. It was classified as a processing aid and was granted the GRAS (generally recognized as safe) definition, thus escaping full and thorough toxic and safety evaluations. Despite the manufacturers claims, mTG or its cross-linked compounds are immunogenic, pathogenic, proinflammatory, allergenic and toxic, and pose a risk to public health. The enzyme is a member of the transglutaminase family and imitates the posttranslational modification of gluten, by the tissue transglutaminase, which is the autoantigen of celiac disease. The deamidated and transamidated gliadin peptides lose their tolerance and induce the gluten enteropathy. Microbial transglutaminase and its complexes increase intestinal permeability, suppresses enteric protective pathways, enhances microbial growth and gliadin peptide's epithelial uptake and can transcytose intra-enterocytically to face the sub-epithelial immune cells. The present review updates on the potentially detrimental side effects of mTG, aiming to interest the scientific community, induce food regulatory authorities' debates on its safety, and protect the public from the mTG unwanted effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron Lerner
- Chaim Sheba Medical Center, The Zabludowicz Research Center for Autoimmune Diseases, Tel Hashomer 5262000, Israel;
- Ariel University, Ariel 40700, Israel
| | - Carina Benzvi
- Chaim Sheba Medical Center, The Zabludowicz Research Center for Autoimmune Diseases, Tel Hashomer 5262000, Israel;
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4
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Diehl KL, Muir TW. Chromatin as a key consumer in the metabolite economy. Nat Chem Biol 2020; 16:620-629. [PMID: 32444835 DOI: 10.1038/s41589-020-0517-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2019] [Accepted: 03/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
In eukaryotes, chromatin remodeling and post-translational modifications (PTMs) shape the local chromatin landscape to establish permissive and repressive regions within the genome, orchestrating transcription, replication, and DNA repair in concert with other epigenetic mechanisms. Though cellular nutrient signaling encompasses a huge number of pathways, recent attention has turned to the hypothesis that the metabolic state of the cell is communicated to the genome through the type and concentration of metabolites in the nucleus that are cofactors for chromatin-modifying enzymes. Importantly, both epigenetic and metabolic dysregulation are hallmarks of a range of diseases, and this metabolism-chromatin axis may yield a well of new therapeutic targets. In this Perspective, we highlight emerging themes in the inter-regulation of the genome and metabolism via chromatin, including nonenzymatic histone modifications arising from chemically reactive metabolites, the expansion of PTM diversity from cofactor-promiscuous chromatin-modifying enzymes, and evidence for the existence and importance of subnucleocytoplasmic metabolite pools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharine L Diehl
- Department of Chemistry, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA. .,Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA.
| | - Tom W Muir
- Department of Chemistry, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA.
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5
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Lerner A, Matthias T. Processed Food Additive Microbial Transglutaminase and Its Cross-Linked Gliadin Complexes Are Potential Public Health Concerns in Celiac Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E1127. [PMID: 32046248 PMCID: PMC7037116 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21031127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2020] [Revised: 02/04/2020] [Accepted: 02/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Microbial transglutaminase (mTG) is a survival factor for microbes, but yeasts, fungi, and plants also produce transglutaminase. mTG is a cross-linker that is heavily consumed as a protein glue in multiple processed food industries. According to the manufacturers' claims, microbial transglutaminase and its cross-linked products are safe, i.e., nonallergenic, nonimmunogenic, and nonpathogenic. The regulatory authorities declare it as "generally recognized as safe" for public users. However, scientific observations are accumulating concerning its undesirable effects on human health. Functionally, mTG imitates its family member, tissue transglutaminase, which is the autoantigen of celiac disease. Both these transglutaminases mediate cross-linked complexes, which are immunogenic in celiac patients. The enzyme enhances intestinal permeability, suppresses mechanical (mucus) and immunological (anti phagocytic) enteric protective barriers, stimulates luminal bacterial growth, and augments the uptake of gliadin peptide. mTG and gliadin molecules are cotranscytosed through the enterocytes and deposited subepithelially. Moreover, mucosal dendritic cell surface transglutaminase induces gliadin endocytosis, and the enzyme-treated wheat products are immunoreactive in CD patients. The present review summarizes and updates the potentially detrimental effects of mTG, aiming to stimulate scientific and regulatory debates on its safety, to protect the public from the enzyme's unwanted effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron Lerner
- AESKU.KIPP Institute, Mikroforum Ring 2, 55234 Wendelsheim, Germany;
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6
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Networks that stop the flow: A fresh look at fibrin and neutrophil extracellular traps. Thromb Res 2019; 182:1-11. [DOI: 10.1016/j.thromres.2019.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2019] [Revised: 07/18/2019] [Accepted: 08/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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7
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Fu L, Zhang L. Serotonylation: A novel histone H3 marker. Signal Transduct Target Ther 2019; 4:15. [PMID: 31098305 PMCID: PMC6509131 DOI: 10.1038/s41392-019-0048-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2019] [Accepted: 04/01/2019] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Lin Fu
- Institute of Chronic Disease, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, Qingdao University, 266000 Qingdao, China
| | - Lingqiang Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Proteomics, National Center of Protein Sciences (Beijing), Beijing Institute of Lifeomics, 100850 Beijing, China
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8
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Farrelly LA, Thompson RE, Zhao S, Lepack AE, Lyu Y, Bhanu NV, Zhang B, Loh YHE, Ramakrishnan A, Vadodaria KC, Heard KJ, Erikson G, Nakadai T, Bastle RM, Lukasak BJ, Zebroski H, Alenina N, Bader M, Berton O, Roeder RG, Molina H, Gage FH, Shen L, Garcia BA, Li H, Muir TW, Maze I. Histone serotonylation is a permissive modification that enhances TFIID binding to H3K4me3. Nature 2019; 567:535-539. [PMID: 30867594 PMCID: PMC6557285 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-019-1024-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 258] [Impact Index Per Article: 51.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2017] [Accepted: 02/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Chemical modifications of histones can mediate diverse DNA-templated processes, including gene transcription1-3. Here we provide evidence for a class of histone post-translational modification, serotonylation of glutamine, which occurs at position 5 (Q5ser) on histone H3 in organisms that produce serotonin (also known as 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT)). We demonstrate that tissue transglutaminase 2 can serotonylate histone H3 tri-methylated lysine 4 (H3K4me3)-marked nucleosomes, resulting in the presence of combinatorial H3K4me3Q5ser in vivo. H3K4me3Q5ser displays a ubiquitous pattern of tissue expression in mammals, with enrichment observed in brain and gut, two organ systems responsible for the bulk of 5-HT production. Genome-wide analyses of human serotonergic neurons, developing mouse brain and cultured serotonergic cells indicate that H3K4me3Q5ser nucleosomes are enriched in euchromatin, are sensitive to cellular differentiation and correlate with permissive gene expression, phenomena that are linked to the potentiation of TFIID4-6 interactions with H3K4me3. Cells that ectopically express a H3 mutant that cannot be serotonylated display significantly altered expression of H3K4me3Q5ser-target loci, which leads to deficits in differentiation. Taken together, these data identify a direct role for 5-HT, independent from its contributions to neurotransmission and cellular signalling, in the mediation of permissive gene expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorna A Farrelly
- Fishberg Department of Neuroscience, Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | | | - Shuai Zhao
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, MOE Key Laboratory of Protein Sciences, Department of Basic Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China.,Tsinghua-Peking Joint Center for Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Ashley E Lepack
- Fishberg Department of Neuroscience, Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Yang Lyu
- Fishberg Department of Neuroscience, Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Natarajan V Bhanu
- Epigenetics Institute, Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Baichao Zhang
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, MOE Key Laboratory of Protein Sciences, Department of Basic Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China.,Tsinghua-Peking Joint Center for Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Yong-Hwee E Loh
- Fishberg Department of Neuroscience, Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Aarthi Ramakrishnan
- Fishberg Department of Neuroscience, Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Krishna C Vadodaria
- Laboratory of Genetics, The Salk Institute for Biological Sciences, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Kelly J Heard
- Laboratory of Genetics, The Salk Institute for Biological Sciences, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Galina Erikson
- Laboratory of Genetics, The Salk Institute for Biological Sciences, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Tomoyoshi Nakadai
- Laboratory of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Ryan M Bastle
- Fishberg Department of Neuroscience, Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | | | - Henry Zebroski
- The Rockefeller University Proteomics Resource Center, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Natalia Alenina
- Max-Delbrück-Center for Molecular Medicine (MDC), Berlin, Germany
| | - Michael Bader
- Max-Delbrück-Center for Molecular Medicine (MDC), Berlin, Germany
| | - Olivier Berton
- Fishberg Department of Neuroscience, Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Robert G Roeder
- Laboratory of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Henrik Molina
- The Rockefeller University Proteomics Resource Center, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Fred H Gage
- Laboratory of Genetics, The Salk Institute for Biological Sciences, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Li Shen
- Fishberg Department of Neuroscience, Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Benjamin A Garcia
- Epigenetics Institute, Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Haitao Li
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, MOE Key Laboratory of Protein Sciences, Department of Basic Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China.,Tsinghua-Peking Joint Center for Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Tom W Muir
- Department of Chemistry, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
| | - Ian Maze
- Fishberg Department of Neuroscience, Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA. .,Department of Pharmacological Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York, USA.
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9
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Yang Y, Krishna K, Deshpande P, Ranganathan V, Jayaraman V, Wang T, Bei K, Krishnamurthy H. High Frequency of Extractable Nuclear Autoantibodies in Wheat-Related Disorders. Biomark Insights 2018; 13:1177271918782893. [PMID: 29977112 PMCID: PMC6024268 DOI: 10.1177/1177271918782893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2018] [Accepted: 05/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background and aims: There has been broad interest to explore the presence of autoimmunity among wheat-sensitive individuals, but neither the pathogenesis nor the relevance has been established. In this study, we evaluated the frequencies and levels of autoantibodies, which are important biomarkers of autoimmunity, in subjects with wheat-related disorders and controls. Anti-nuclear antibodies (ANA) and the specific ones against extractable nuclear antigens (ENA) were investigated. Methods: A total of 713 subjects who showed symptoms related to wheat ingestion were addressed to Vibrant America Clinical Laboratory from December 2015 to November 2017. Serum samples were collected from all subjects and tested with a wheat protein antibody panel (IgG and IgA to 18 proteins at the peptide level) and an autoantibody panel (ANA by immunofluorescence analysis and 10 ENA antibodies). Retrospective analysis was completed using de-identified clinical data and test results. Results: In the retrospective analysis, 38 (5%) were seropositive in a Celiac Disease panel, 491 (83%) were seropositive in a wheat protein antibody panel “Wheat Zoomer,” and 84 (12%) were seronegative in both panels. Anti-nuclear antibodies were detected in similar portions of the celiac disease subjects (13%), the Wheat Zoomer–positive subjects (12%), and seronegative controls (15%), which is also very close to the reported occurrence of ANA positivity (15%) in the healthy population. The prevalence of anti-ENA was reported to be less than 2% in the general population; however, our study found it to be much higher in the celiac disease subjects (29%) and the wheat-sensitive subjects (27%), compared with a smaller proportion of seronegative controls (19%). The prevalence of anti-histone was especially prominent among the celiac disease subjects (73%) and the Wheat Zoomer–positive subjects (60%). Conclusions: High proportions of wheat-related disease subjects carry ENA antibodies that are important specific biomarkers of autoimmunity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Kang Bei
- Vibrant Sciences LLC, San Carlos, CA, USA
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Minotti L, Baldassari F, Galasso M, Volinia S, Bergamini CM, Bianchi N. A long non-coding RNA inside the type 2 transglutaminase gene tightly correlates with the expression of its transcriptional variants. Amino Acids 2018; 50:421-438. [PMID: 29313085 DOI: 10.1007/s00726-017-2528-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2017] [Accepted: 12/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are matter of intense investigation as potential regulators of gene expression. In the case of the transglutaminase 2 gene (TGM2) the databases of genome sequence indicate location of a lncRNA (LOC107987281) within the first intron. This lncRNA is 1000 bp long, arises from 2 exons and starts few nucleotides 3' of the first splicing site of translated TGM2. We have analysed correlations between expression of LOC107987281 lncRNA and TGM2 mRNA by real-time PCR in K562 cell line untreated or treated with the anticancer drugs TPA (12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate), Docetaxel and Doxorubicin. In the treated cells the lncRNA increase follows the trend of TGM2 transcript. To validate this finding we used HumanExon1_0ST Affymetrix; chip data were background-adjusted, quantile-normalized and summarized using robust multi-array average analysis implemented in the R package. The probesets recognize sequences inside each exon, near intronic splicing sites and others located in the untranslated regions of TGM2 gene. The analysis of total RNA samples in GEO datasets from K562, HL-60, THP-1 and U937 cell lines, untreated or treated with TPA in replicated experiments confirmed our earlier results. These demonstrate correlation between LOC107987281 and TGM2 mRNA in the cell lines (K562, HL60 and THP-1) where increased levels of TGM2 mRNA are produced. Additional array study on 358 samples of several normal and paired tumor tissues leads to the same conclusions, indicating a correlation between full-length TGM2 mRNA and LOC107987281 lncRNA in relation to the development of several tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda Minotti
- Section of Anatomy and Histology, Department of Morphology, Surgery and Experimental Medicine, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Federica Baldassari
- Section of Anatomy and Histology, Department of Morphology, Surgery and Experimental Medicine, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Marco Galasso
- Section of Anatomy and Histology, Department of Morphology, Surgery and Experimental Medicine, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Stefano Volinia
- Section of Anatomy and Histology, Department of Morphology, Surgery and Experimental Medicine, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Carlo M Bergamini
- Section of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Medical Genetics, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Specialist Surgery, University of Ferrara, Via Luigi Borsari 46, 44121, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Nicoletta Bianchi
- Section of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Medical Genetics, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Specialist Surgery, University of Ferrara, Via Luigi Borsari 46, 44121, Ferrara, Italy.
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11
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Guan X, Wang B, Wang H, Liu J, Li Y, Guo X. Characteristic NH 3 and CO losses from sodiated peptides C-terminated by glutamine residues. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2017; 31:649-657. [PMID: 28158936 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.7831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2016] [Revised: 01/18/2017] [Accepted: 01/31/2017] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Under certain conditions some amino acid (AA) residues undergo special reactions in the gas phase, generating characteristic neutral losses and product ions. Taking these special fragments into account and understanding the effect of AA residues on peptide cleavages will consummate database search algorithms and manual data interpretation in peptide sequencing by mass spectrometry (MS). In this study, the details of the characteristic NH3 and CO losses of glutamine (Gln) residues located at the C-terminus of peptides are presented. METHODS A number of selected peptides were fragmented under collision-induced dissociation (CID) in electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (ESI-QTOF-MS). Density functional theory (DFT) quantum mechanical calculations at the B3LYP/6-31+G(d,p) level were carried out to optimize the geometry of peptide ions and provide energy barriers of ions in each step during fragmentations. RESULTS Two characteristic peaks appear near the precursor ions of sodiated Gln C-terminated peptides, suggesting the loss of neutral NH3 and CO via a two-step process. The proposed mechanism of their formation is as follows: after losing NH3 , a non-classical bn * ion is formed with a glutaric anhydride structure that further dissociates to lose CO. The sodiated peptides show more intensive peaks corresponding to the loss of neutral molecules than the protonated ones. This type of neutral loss can also occur at the Gln residue that is rearranged to the C-terminus of sodiated peptides. CONCLUSIONS The experiments and calculations suggest that the two-step characteristic NH3 and CO loss of sodiated peptides is energetically favored, and can be applied to identify C-terminated Gln residues. This study provides a mechanistic insight into the role of sodium ion during peptide fragmentation. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinshu Guan
- College of Chemistry, Jilin University, Changchun, 130012, China
| | - Bing Wang
- College of Chemistry, Jilin University, Changchun, 130012, China
| | - Huixin Wang
- College of Chemistry, Jilin University, Changchun, 130012, China
| | - Jinrong Liu
- College of Chemistry, Jilin University, Changchun, 130012, China
| | - Ying Li
- College of Chemistry, Jilin University, Changchun, 130012, China
| | - Xinhua Guo
- College of Chemistry, Jilin University, Changchun, 130012, China
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12
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Kanchan K, Fuxreiter M, Fésüs L. Physiological, pathological, and structural implications of non-enzymatic protein-protein interactions of the multifunctional human transglutaminase 2. Cell Mol Life Sci 2015; 72:3009-35. [PMID: 25943306 PMCID: PMC11113818 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-015-1909-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2014] [Revised: 04/10/2015] [Accepted: 04/13/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Transglutaminase 2 (TG2) is a ubiquitously expressed member of an enzyme family catalyzing Ca(2+)-dependent transamidation of proteins. It is a multifunctional protein having several well-defined enzymatic (GTP binding and hydrolysis, protein disulfide isomerase, and protein kinase activities) and non-enzymatic (multiple interactions in protein scaffolds) functions. Unlike its enzymatic interactions, the significance of TG2's non-enzymatic regulation of its activities has recently gained importance. In this review, we summarize all the partners that directly interact with TG2 in a non-enzymatic manner and analyze how these interactions could modulate the crosslinking activity and cellular functions of TG2 in different cell compartments. We have found that TG2 mostly acts as a scaffold to bridge various proteins, leading to different functional outcomes. We have also studied how specific structural features, such as intrinsically disordered regions and embedded short linear motifs contribute to multifunctionality of TG2. Conformational diversity of intrinsically disordered regions enables them to interact with multiple partners, which can result in different biological outcomes. Indeed, ID regions in TG2 were identified in functionally relevant locations, indicating that they could facilitate conformational transitions towards the catalytically competent form. We reason that these structural features contribute to modulating the physiological and pathological functions of TG2 and could provide a new direction for detecting unique regulatory partners. Additionally, we have assembled all known anti-TG2 antibodies and have discussed their significance as a toolbox for identifying and confirming novel TG2 regulatory functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kajal Kanchan
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, 4010 Hungary
- Sainsbury Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Mónika Fuxreiter
- MTA-DE Momentum Laboratory of Protein Dynamics, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary
| | - László Fésüs
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, 4010 Hungary
- MTA-DE Apoptosis, Genomics and Stem Cell Research Group of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Debrecen, Hungary
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13
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Lerner A, Matthias T. Possible association between celiac disease and bacterial transglutaminase in food processing: a hypothesis. Nutr Rev 2015; 73:544-52. [PMID: 26084478 PMCID: PMC4502714 DOI: 10.1093/nutrit/nuv011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The incidence of celiac disease is increasing worldwide, and human tissue transglutaminase has long been considered the autoantigen of celiac disease. Concomitantly, the food industry has introduced ingredients such as microbial transglutaminase, which acts as a food glue, thereby revolutionizing food qualities. Several observations have led to the hypothesis that microbial transglutaminase is a new environmental enhancer of celiac disease. First, microbial transglutaminase deamidates/transamidates glutens such as the endogenous human tissue transglutaminase. It is capable of crosslinking proteins and other macromolecules, thereby changing their antigenicity and resulting in an increased antigenic load presented to the immune system. Second, it increases the stability of protein against proteinases, thus diminishing foreign protein elimination. Infections and the crosslinked nutritional constituent gluten and microbial transglutaminase increase the permeability of the intestine, where microbial transglutaminases are necessary for bacterial survival. The resulting intestinal leakage allows more immunogenic foreign molecules to induce celiac disease. The increased use of microbial transglutaminase in food processing may promote celiac pathogenesis ex vivo, where deamidation/transamidation starts, possibly explaining the surge in incidence of celiac disease. If future research substantiates this hypothesis, the findings will affect food product labeling, food additive policies of the food industry, and consumer health education.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron Lerner
- A. Lerner is with the Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition Unit, Carmel Medical Center, B. Rappaport School of Medicine, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel. T. Matthias is with the Aesku.Kipp Institute, Wendelsheim, Germany.
| | - Torsten Matthias
- A. Lerner is with the Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition Unit, Carmel Medical Center, B. Rappaport School of Medicine, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel. T. Matthias is with the Aesku.Kipp Institute, Wendelsheim, Germany
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14
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Uncovering protein polyamination by the spermine-specific antiserum and mass spectrometric analysis. Amino Acids 2014; 47:469-81. [PMID: 25471600 DOI: 10.1007/s00726-014-1879-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2014] [Accepted: 11/18/2014] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
The polyamines spermidine and spermine, and their precursor putrescine, have been shown to play an important role in cell migration, proliferation, and differentiation. Because of their polycationic property, polyamines are traditionally thought to be involved in DNA replication, gene expression, and protein translation. However, polyamines can also be covalently conjugated to proteins by transglutaminase 2 (TG2). This modification leads to an increase in positive charge in the polyamine-incorporated region which significantly alters the structure of proteins. It is anticipated that protein polyamine conjugation may affect the protein-protein interaction, protein localization, and protein function of the TG2 substrates. In order to investigate the roles of polyamine modification, we synthesized a spermine-conjugated antigen and generated an antiserum against spermine. In vitro TG2-catalyzed spermine incorporation assays were carried out to show that actin, tubulins, heat shock protein 70 and five types of histone proteins were modified with spermine, and modification sites were also identified by liquid chromatography and linear ion trap-orbitrap hybrid mass spectrometry. Subsequent mass spectrometry-based shotgun proteomic analysis also identified 254 polyaminated sites in 233 proteins from the HeLa cell lysate catalyzed by human TG2 with spermine, thus allowing, for the first time, a global appraisal of site-specific protein polyamination. Global analysis of mouse tissues showed that this modification really exists in vivo. Importantly, we have demonstrated that there is a new histone modification, polyamination, in cells. However, the functional significance of histone polyamination demands further investigations.
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15
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Piacentini M, D'Eletto M, Farrace MG, Rodolfo C, Del Nonno F, Ippolito G, Falasca L. Characterization of distinct sub-cellular location of transglutaminase type II: changes in intracellular distribution in physiological and pathological states. Cell Tissue Res 2014; 358:793-805. [PMID: 25209703 PMCID: PMC4233112 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1990-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2014] [Accepted: 08/13/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Transglutaminase type II (TG2) is a pleiotropic enzyme that exhibits various activities unrelated to its originally identified functions. Apart from post-translational modifications of proteins (peculiar to the transglutaminase family enzymes), TG2 is involved in diverse biological functions, including cell death, signaling, cytoskeleton rearrangements, displaying enzymatic activities, G-protein and non-enzymatic biological functions. It is involved in a variety of human diseases such as celiac disease, diabetes, neurodegenerative diseases, inflammatory disorders and cancer. Regulatory mechanisms might exist through which cells control multifunctional protein expression as a function of their sub-cellular localization. The definition of the tissue and cellular distribution of such proteins is important for the determination of their function(s). We investigate the sub-cellular localization of TG2 by confocal and immunoelectron microscopy techniques in order to gain an understanding of its properties. The culture conditions of human sarcoma cells (2fTGH cells), human embryonic kidney cells (HEK293TG) and human neuroblastoma cells (SK-n-BE(2)) are modulated to induce various stimuli. Human tissue samples of myocardium and gut mucosa (diseased and healthy) are also analyzed. Immuno-gold labeling indicates that TG2 is localized in the nucleus, mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum under physiological conditions but that this is not a stable association, since different locations or different amounts of TG2 can be observed depending on stress stimuli or the state of activity of the cell. We describe a possible unrecognized location of TG2. Our findings thus provide useful insights regarding the functions and regulation of this pleiotropic enzyme.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mauro Piacentini
- Department of Biology, University of Rome 'Tor Vergata', Rome, Italy
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16
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Karsdal MA, Nielsen MJ, Sand JM, Henriksen K, Genovese F, Bay-Jensen AC, Smith V, Adamkewicz JI, Christiansen C, Leeming DJ. Extracellular matrix remodeling: the common denominator in connective tissue diseases. Possibilities for evaluation and current understanding of the matrix as more than a passive architecture, but a key player in tissue failure. Assay Drug Dev Technol 2012; 11:70-92. [PMID: 23046407 DOI: 10.1089/adt.2012.474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 187] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Increased attention is paid to the structural components of tissues. These components are mostly collagens and various proteoglycans. Emerging evidence suggests that altered components and noncoded modifications of the matrix may be both initiators and drivers of disease, exemplified by excessive tissue remodeling leading to tissue stiffness, as well as by changes in the signaling potential of both intact matrix and fragments thereof. Although tissue structure until recently was viewed as a simple architecture anchoring cells and proteins, this complex grid may contain essential information enabling the maintenance of the structure and normal functioning of tissue. The aims of this review are to (1) discuss the structural components of the matrix and the relevance of their mutations to the pathology of diseases such as fibrosis and cancer, (2) introduce the possibility that post-translational modifications (PTMs), such as protease cleavage, citrullination, cross-linking, nitrosylation, glycosylation, and isomerization, generated during pathology, may be unique, disease-specific biochemical markers, (3) list and review the range of simple enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) that have been developed for assessing the extracellular matrix (ECM) and detecting abnormal ECM remodeling, and (4) discuss whether some PTMs are the cause or consequence of disease. New evidence clearly suggests that the ECM at some point in the pathogenesis becomes a driver of disease. These pathological modified ECM proteins may allow insights into complicated pathologies in which the end stage is excessive tissue remodeling, and provide unique and more pathology-specific biochemical markers.
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17
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Karsdal MA, Henriksen K, Leeming DJ, Woodworth T, Vassiliadis E, Bay-Jensen AC. Novel combinations of Post-Translational Modification (PTM) neo-epitopes provide tissue-specific biochemical markers—are they the cause or the consequence of the disease? Clin Biochem 2010; 43:793-804. [DOI: 10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2010.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2010] [Revised: 03/22/2010] [Accepted: 03/28/2010] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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18
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Basaran P, Basaran-Akgul N, Rasco B. Dielectric properties of chicken and fish muscle treated with microbial transglutaminase. Food Chem 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.09.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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19
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Ahn JS, Kim MK, Hahn JH, Park JH, Park KH, Cho BR, Park SB, Kim DJ. Tissue transglutaminase-induced down-regulation of matrix metalloproteinase-9. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2008; 376:743-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2008.09.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2008] [Accepted: 09/12/2008] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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20
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Csosz E, Bagossi P, Nagy Z, Dosztanyi Z, Simon I, Fesus L. Substrate preference of transglutaminase 2 revealed by logistic regression analysis and intrinsic disorder examination. J Mol Biol 2008; 383:390-402. [PMID: 18761350 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2008.08.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2008] [Revised: 08/12/2008] [Accepted: 08/12/2008] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Tissue transglutaminase (TG2) catalyzes the Ca(2+)-dependent posttranslational modification of proteins via formation of isopeptide bonds between their glutamine and lysine residues. Although substrate specificity of TG2 has been studied repeatedly at the sequence level, no clear consensus sequences have been determined so far. With the use of the extensive structural information on TG2 substrate proteins listed in TRANSDAB Wiki database, a slight preference of TG2 for glutamine and lysine residues situated in turns could be observed. When the spatial environment of the favored glutamine and lysine residues was analyzed with logistic regression, the presence of specific amino acid patterns was identified. By using the occurrence of the predictor amino acids as selection criteria, several polypeptides were predicted and later identified as novel in vitro substrates for TG2. By studying the sequence of TG2 substrate proteins lacking available crystal structure, the strong favorable influence on substrate selection of the presence of substrate glutamine and lysine residues in intrinsically disordered regions could also be revealed. The collected structural data have provided novel understanding of how this versatile enzyme selects its substrates in various cell compartments and tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Csosz
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Debrecen, Egyetem ter 1, Life Science Building, 4010 Debrecen, Hungary.
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21
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Keresztessy Z, Csosz E, Hársfalvi J, Csomós K, Gray J, Lightowlers RN, Lakey JH, Balajthy Z, Fésüs L. Phage display selection of efficient glutamine-donor substrate peptides for transglutaminase 2. Protein Sci 2007; 15:2466-80. [PMID: 17075129 PMCID: PMC2242420 DOI: 10.1110/ps.051818406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Understanding substrate specificity and identification of natural targets of transglutaminase 2 (TG2), the ubiquitous multifunctional cross-linking enzyme, which forms isopeptide bonds between protein-linked glutamine and lysine residues, is crucial in the elucidation of its physiological role. As a novel means of specificity analysis, we adapted the phage display technique to select glutamine-donor substrates from a random heptapeptide library via binding to recombinant TG2 and elution with a synthetic amine-donor substrate. Twenty-six Gln-containing sequences from the second and third biopanning rounds were susceptible for TG2-mediated incorporation of 5-(biotinamido)penthylamine, and the peptides GQQQTPY, GLQQASV, and WQTPMNS were modified most efficiently. A consensus around glutamines was established as pQX(P,T,S)l, which is consistent with identified substrates listed in the TRANSDAB database. Database searches showed that several proteins contain peptides similar to the phage-selected sequences, and the N-terminal glutamine-rich domain of SWI1/SNF1-related chromatin remodeling proteins was chosen for detailed analysis. MALDI/TOF and tandem mass spectrometry-based studies of a representative part of the domain, SGYGQQGQTPYYNQQSPHPQQQQPPYS (SnQ1), revealed that Q(6), Q(8), and Q(22) are modified by TG2. Kinetic parameters of SnQ1 transamidation (K(M)(app) = 250 microM, k(cat) = 18.3 sec(-1), and k(cat)/K(M)(app) = 73,200) classify it as an efficient TG2 substrate. Circular dichroism spectra indicated that SnQ1 has a random coil conformation, supporting its accessibility in the full-length parental protein. Added together, here we report a novel use of the phage display technology with great potential in transglutaminase research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zsolt Keresztessy
- Institute for Cell and Molecular Biosciences, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, United Kingdom
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22
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Suh GY, Ham HS, Lee SH, Choi JC, Koh WJ, Kim SY, Lee J, Han J, Kim HP, Choi AMK, Kwon OJ. A Peptide with anti-transglutaminase activity decreases lipopolysaccharide-induced lung inflammation in mice. Exp Lung Res 2006; 32:43-53. [PMID: 16809220 DOI: 10.1080/01902140600691514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Octapeptide R2 (KVLDGQDP), which has anti-transglutaminas (TGase) activity, decreases inflammation in allergic conjunctivitis model in guinea pigs. The authors examined the effect of R2 on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced lung injury in BALB/c mice. R2 inhalation significantly decreased neutrophil count and cytokine mRNA expression in the lungs of LPS (25 mg/kg)-treated mice (P < .05). It also showed a tendency for decreased tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha-immunoreactive protein in lung homogenates and significantly decreased TNF-alpha-immunoreactive protein in the serum of LPS-injected mice (P < .05). These results indicate that TGase may be a new therapeutic target in LPS-induced lung inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gee Young Suh
- Department of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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23
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Mishra S, Saleh A, Espino PS, Davie JR, Murphy LJ. Phosphorylation of histones by tissue transglutaminase. J Biol Chem 2006; 281:5532-8. [PMID: 16407273 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m506864200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Tissue transglutaminase 2 (TG2) has recently been shown to have intrinsic serine/threonine kinase activity. Since histones are known to be cross-linked by TG2, we investigated whether histones are also substrates for TG2 kinase activity. TG2 was able to phosphorylate H1, H2A, H2B, H3, and H4 histones in vitro. Using peptide substrates and phosphospecific antibodies we demonstrated that TG2 phosphorylated Ser(10) in H3 and that this phosphorylation was reduced by acetylation, whereas phosphorylation of Ser(10) by TG2 enhanced acetylation. Furthermore we demonstrated that exogenous TG2 phosphorylated H1 and H3 in nucleosome preparations. We examined the abundance of TG2 in DNA-associated proteins from MCF-7 cells treated with phorbol ester (TPA) and 17beta-estradiol (E2). TG2 abundance was significantly reduced in E2-treated cells and enhanced in TPA-treated cells. In summary we have demonstrated that TG2 is able to phosphorylate purified histone proteins, and H3 and H1 in chromatin preparations, and it is associated with chromatin in breast cancer cells. These studies suggest a novel role for TG2 in the regulation of chromatin structure and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suresh Mishra
- Department of Physiology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba R3E 0W3, Canada
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24
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Lee SK, Kim YS, Lee SS, Lee YJ, Song IS, Park SC, Chi JG, Chung SI. Antisense inhibition of transglutaminase 2 affects development of mouse embryo submandibular gland in organ culture. Arch Oral Biol 2005; 50:789-98. [PMID: 15970210 DOI: 10.1016/j.archoralbio.2005.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2004] [Accepted: 01/24/2005] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Tissue transglutaminase (TGase 2) has been implicated in numerous cellular functions, i.e., apoptosis, differentiation, extracellular matrix protein cross-linking and organogenesis. Earlier report of the strong transient expression of TGase 2 localized at the anchoring sites of muscle bundles of human embryo and recent findings of a similar transient expression of the TGase 2 in the salivary myoepithelial cells of mouse embryo indicated a definitive role of TGase 2 in the cytodifferentiation of myoepithelial cells. To understand functional role(s) of TGase 2 in the organogenesis of salivary gland, antisense inhibition of TGase 2 expression was performed in the organ culture of mouse embryo submandibular gland. The antisense of TGase 2 transfection tested using oral keratinocyte cell line, KB cells, elicited significant inhibition of cellular transglutaminase expression. The same antisense treatment of submandibular glands in organ culture also resulted in the suppression of cellular TGase 2 expression as indicated by weak immunoreaction against anti-TGase 2 in the myoepithelial cells of submandibular glands in contrast to strong reaction in those of the normal and sense-treated glands. Antisense to TGase 2 treatment induced retarded growth of salivary epithelium in 1 week and severe aberrant growth of salivary ducts and acini in 2 weeks and also expression of apoptotic inducer, Bax specifically localized in the myoepithelial cells, suggesting apoptotic state of myoepithelial cells. These data suggest that the antisense inhibition of TGase 2 expression affects the cytodifferentiation of ductal cells and myoepithelial cells, and resulted in severe retardation of tubuloalveolar structure formation of salivary gland.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suk Keun Lee
- Department of Oral Pathology, College of Dentistry, Kangnung National University, Gangneung 210-702, Republic of Korea
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25
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Choy HE, Kim JH, Park SC. Tying C' ends of H2A and H2B using a molecular glue, tissue-type transglutaminase. Methods Enzymol 2004; 371:516-21. [PMID: 14712725 DOI: 10.1016/s0076-6879(03)71038-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/27/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Hyon E Choy
- Genome Center for Enteropathogenic Bacteria, Department of Microbiology, Chonnam National University Medical College, Dong-Gu, Hak-1-Kwang-Ju 501-746, South Korea
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26
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Nicholas B, Smethurst P, Verderio E, Jones R, Griffin M. Cross-linking of cellular proteins by tissue transglutaminase during necrotic cell death: a mechanism for maintaining tissue integrity. Biochem J 2003; 371:413-22. [PMID: 12533191 PMCID: PMC1223304 DOI: 10.1042/bj20021949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2002] [Revised: 01/15/2003] [Accepted: 01/17/2003] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Tissue transglutaminase (tTG) is a Ca(2+)-dependent enzyme which cross-links proteins via epsilon(gamma-glutamyl)lysine bridges. There is increasing evidence that tTG is involved in wound repair and tissue stabilization, as well as in physiological mechanisms leading to cell death. To investigate the role of this enzyme in tissue wounding leading to loss of Ca(2+) homoeostasis, we initially used a model involving electroporation to reproduce cell wounding under controlled conditions. Two cell models were used whereby tTG expression is regulated either by antisense silencing in ECV 304 cells or by using transfected Swiss 3T3 cells in which tTG expression is under the control of the tet regulatory system. Using these cells, loss of Ca(2+) homoeostasis following electroporation led to a tTG-dependent formation of highly cross-linked proteinaceous shells from intracellular proteins. Formation of these structures is dependent on elevated intracellular Ca(2+), but it is independent of intracellular proteases and is near maximal after only 20 min post-wounding. Using labelled primary amines as an indicator of tTG activity within these 'wounded cells', we demonstrate that tTG modifies a wide range of proteins that are present in both the perinuclear and intranuclear spaces. The demonstration of entrapped DNA within these shell structures, which showed limited fragmentation, provides evidence that the high degree of transglutaminase cross-linking results in the prevention of DNA release, which may serve to dampen any subsequent inflammatory response. Comparable observations were shown when monolayers of cells were mechanically wounded by scratching. In this second model of cell wounding, redistribution of tTG activity to the extracellular matrix was also demonstrated, an effect which may serve to stabilize tissues post-trauma, and thus contribute to the maintenance of tissue integrity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ben Nicholas
- Department of Life Sciences, Nottingham Trent University, Clifton Campus, Clifton Lane, Clifton, Nottingham NG11 8NS, UK
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