Inhibitory action of CGS 21680 on cerebral cortical neurons is antagonized by bicuculline and picrotoxin-is GABA involved?

Regulation of GABAergic neurotransmission by purinergic receptors in brain physiology and disease

Purinergic receptors regulate the processing of neural information in the hippocampus and cerebral cortex, structures related to cognitive functions. These receptors are activated when astrocytic and neuronal populations release adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in an autocrine and paracrine manner, following sustained patterns of neuronal activity. The modulation by these receptors of GABAergic transmission has only recently been studied. Through their ramifications, astrocytes and GABAergic interneurons reach large groups of excitatory pyramidal neurons. Their inhibitory effect establishes different synchronization patterns that determine gamma frequency rhythms, which characterize neural activities related to cognitive processes. During early life, GABAergic-mediated synchronization of excitatory signals directs the experience-driven maturation of cognitive development, and dysfunctions concerning this process have been associated with neurological and neuropsychiatric diseases. Purinergic receptors timely modulate GABAergic control over ongoing neural activity and deeply affect neural processing in the hippocampal and neocortical circuitry. Stimulation of A2 receptors increases GABA release from presynaptic terminals, leading to a considerable reduction in neuronal firing of pyramidal neurons. A1 receptors inhibit GABAergic activity but only act in the early postnatal period when GABA produces excitatory signals. P2X and P2Y receptors expressed in pyramidal neurons reduce the inhibitory tone by blocking GABAA receptors. Finally, P2Y receptor activation elicits depolarization of GABAergic neurons and increases GABA release, thus favoring the emergence of gamma oscillations. The present review provides an overall picture of purinergic influence on GABAergic transmission and its consequences on neural processing, extending the discussion to receptor subtypes and their involvement in the onset of brain disorders, including epilepsy and Alzheimer's disease.

Adjusting the brakes to adjust neuronal activity: Adenosinergic modulation of GABAergic transmission

About 50 years elapsed from the publication of the first full paper on the neuromodulatory action of adenosine at a 'simple' synapse model, the neuromuscular junction (Ginsborg and Hirst, 1972). In that study adenosine was used as a tool to increase cyclic AMP and for the great surprise, it decreased rather than increased neurotransmitter release, and for a further surprise, its action was prevented by theophylline, at the time only known as inhibitor of phosphodiesterases. These intriguing observations opened the curiosity for immediate studies relating the action of adenine nucleotides, known to be released together with neurotransmitters, to that of adenosine (Ribeiro and Walker, 1973, 1975). Our understanding on the ways adenosine uses to modulate synapses, circuits, and brain activity, vastly expanded since then. However, except for A_2A receptors, whose actions upon GABAergic neurons of the striatum are well known, most of the attention given to the neuromodulatory action of adenosine has been focusing upon excitatory synapses. Evidence is growing that GABAergic transmission is also a target for adenosinergic neuromodulation through A₁ and A_2A receptors. Some o these actions have specific time windows during brain development, and others are selective for specific GABAergic neurons. Both tonic and phasic GABAergic transmission can be affected, and either neurons or astrocytes can be targeted. In some cases, those effects result from a concerted action with other neuromodulators. Implications of these actions in the control of neuronal function/dysfunction will be the focus of this review.

Regulation of hippocampal postnatal and adult neurogenesis by adenosine A2A receptor: Interaction with brain-derived neurotrophic factor

Adenosine A_2A receptor (A_2A R) activation modulates several brain processes, ranging from neuronal maturation to synaptic plasticity. Most of these actions occur through the modulation of the actions of the neurotrophin brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). In this work, we studied the role of A_2A Rs in regulating postnatal and adult neurogenesis in the rat hippocampal dentate gyrus (DG). Here, we show that A_2A R activation with CGS 21680 promoted neural stem cell self-renewal, protected committed neuronal cells from cell death and contributed to a higher density of immature and mature neuronal cells, particularly glutamatergic neurons. Moreover, A_2A R endogenous activation was found to be essential for BDNF-mediated increase in cell proliferation and neuronal differentiation. Our findings contribute to further understand the role of adenosinergic signaling in the brain and may have an impact in the development of strategies for brain repair under pathological conditions.

Detailed neuronal distribution of GPR3 and its co-expression with EF-hand calcium-binding proteins in the mouse central nervous system

The G-protein coupled receptor 3 (GPR3), a member of the class A rhodopsin-type GPR family, constitutively activates Gαs proteins without any ligands. Although there have been several reports concerning the functions of GPR3 in neurons, the physiological roles of GPR3 have not been fully elucidated. To address this issue, we analyzed GPR3 distribution in detail using fluorescence-based X-gal staining in heterozygous GPR3 knockout/LacZ knock-in mice, and further investigated the types of GPR3-expressing neurons using fluorescent double labeling with various EF-hand Ca²⁺-binding proteins. In addition to the previously reported GPR3-expressing areas, we identified GPR3 expression in the basal ganglia and in many nuclei of the cranial nerves, in regions related to olfactory, auditory, emotional, and motor functions. In addition, GPR3 was not only observed in excitatory neurons in layer V of the cerebral cortex, the CA2 region of the hippocampus, and the lateral nucleus of the thalamus, but also in γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-ergic interneurons in the cortex, hippocampus, thalamus, striatum, and cerebellum. GPR3 was frequently co-expressed with neuronal Ca²⁺-binding protein 2 (NECAB2) in neurons in various regions of the central nervous system, especially in the hippocampal CA2, medial habenular nucleus, lateral thalamic nucleus, dorsolateral striatum, brainstem, and spinal cord anterior horn. Furthermore, GPR3 also co-localized with NECAB2 at the tips of neurites in differentiated PC12 cells. These results suggest that GPR3 and NECAB2 are highly co-expressed in specific neurons, and that GPR3 may modulate Ca²⁺ signaling by interacting with NECAB2 in specific areas of the central nervous system.

Hippocampal GABAergic transmission: a new target for adenosine control of excitability

Physiological network functioning in the hippocampus is dependent on a balance between glutamatergic cell excitability and the activity of diverse local circuit neurons that release the inhibitory neurotransmitter γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA). Tuners of neuronal communication such as adenosine, an endogenous modulator of synapses, control hippocampal network operations by regulating excitability. Evidence has been recently accumulating on the influence of adenosine on different aspects of GABAergic transmission to shape hippocampal function. This review addresses how adenosine, through its high-affinity A₁ (A₁ R) and A_2A receptors (A_2A R), interferes with different GABA-mediated forms of inhibition in the hippocampus to regulate neuronal excitability. Adenosine-mediated modulation of phasic/tonic inhibitory transmission, of GABA transport mechanisms and its interference with other modulatory systems are discussed together with the putative implications for neuronal function in physiological and pathological conditions. This article is part of a mini review series: 'Synaptic Function and Dysfunction in Brain Diseases'.

NTS adenosine A2a receptors inhibit the cardiopulmonary chemoreflex control of regional sympathetic outputs via a GABAergic mechanism

Adenosine is a powerful central neuromodulator acting via opposing A1 (inhibitor) and A2a (activator) receptors. However, in the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS), both adenosine receptor subtypes attenuate cardiopulmonary chemoreflex (CCR) sympathoinhibition of renal, adrenal, and lumbar sympathetic nerve activity and attenuate reflex decreases in arterial pressure and heart rate. Adenosine A1 receptors inhibit glutamatergic transmission in the CCR pathway, whereas adenosine A2a receptors most likely facilitate release of an unknown inhibitory neurotransmitter, which, in turn, inhibits the CCR. We hypothesized that adenosine A2a receptors inhibit the CCR via facilitation of GABA release in the NTS. In urethane-chloralose-anesthetized rats (n = 51), we compared regional sympathetic responses evoked by stimulation of the CCR with right atrial injections of the 5-HT3 receptor agonist phenylbiguanide (1-8 μg/kg) before and after selective stimulation of NTS adenosine A2a receptors [microinjections into the NTS of CGS-21680 (20 pmol/50 nl)] preceded by blockade of GABAA or GABAB receptors in the NTS [bicuculline (10 pmol/100 nl) or SCH-50911 (1 nmol/100 nl)]. Blockade of GABAA receptors virtually abolished adenosine A2a receptor-mediated inhibition of the CCR. GABAB receptors had much weaker but significant effects. These effects were similar for the different sympathetic outputs. We conclude that stimulation of NTS adenosine A2a receptors inhibits CCR-evoked hemodynamic and regional sympathetic reflex responses via a GABA-ergic mechanism.

Influence of age, body temperature, GABAA receptor inhibition and caffeine on the Hering-Breuer inflation reflex in unanesthetized rat pups

We measured the duration of apnea induced by sustained end-inspiratory lung inflation (the Hering Breuer Reflex, HBR) in unanesthetized infant rat pups aged 4 days (P4) to P20 at body temperatures of 32°C and 36°C. The expiratory prolongation elicited by the HBR lasted longer in the younger pups and lasted longer at the higher body temperature. Blockade of adenosine receptors by caffeine following injection into the cisterna magna (ICM) significantly blunted the thermal prolongation of the HBR. Blockade of gama-amino-butyric acid A (GABAA) receptors by pre-treatment with ICM bicuculline had no effect on the HBR duration at either body temperature. To test the hypothesis that developmental maturation of GABAergic inhibition of breathing was modifying the response to bicuculline, we pretreated rat pups with systemically administered bumetanide to lower the intracellular chloride concentration, and repeated the bicuculline studies. Bicuculline still did not alter the HBR at either temperature after bumetanide treatment. We administered PSB-36, a selective adenosine A1 receptor antagonist, and this drug treatment did not modify the HBR. We conclude that caffeine blunts the thermal prolongation of the HBR, probably by blocking adenosine A2a receptors. The thermally sensitive adenosinergic prolongation of the HBR in these intact animals does not seem to depend on GABAA receptors.

TRPV1 channels in the nucleus of the solitary tract mediate thermal prolongation of the LCR in decerebrate piglets

Elevating body temperature or just the temperature of the dorsal medulla by approximately 2°C prolongs the laryngeal chemoreflex (LCR) in decerebrate neonatal piglets. We tested the hypothesis that transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) receptors in the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS) mediate thermal prolongation of the LCR. We studied the effect of a selective TRPV1 receptor antagonist on thermal prolongation of the LCR, and we tested the effect of a TRPV1 agonist on the duration of the LCR under normothermic conditions. We studied 37 decerebrate neonatal piglets between the ages of post-natal days 4 and 7. The TRPV1 receptor antagonist, 5'-iodoresiniferatoxin (65μM/L in 100nL), blocked thermal prolongation of the LCR when injected bilaterally into the region of the NTS. The TRPV1 agonist, resiniferatoxin (0.65-1.0mM/L in 100nL), prolonged the LCR after bilateral injection into the NTS even when the body temperature of each piglet was normal. The effect of the TRPV1 agonists could be blocked by treatment with the GABA(A) receptor antagonist, bicuculline, whether given intravenously (0.3mg/kg) or focally injected bilaterally into the NTS (10mM in 100nL). We conclude that TRPV1 receptors in the NTS mediate thermal prolongation of the LCR.

An adenosine A(2A) agonist injected in the nucleus of the solitary tract prolongs the laryngeal chemoreflex by a GABAergic mechanism in decerebrate piglets

Hyperthermic prolongation of the laryngeal chemoreflex (LCR) in decerebrate piglets is prevented or reversed by GABA(A) receptor antagonists and adenosine A(2A) (Ad-A(2A)) receptor antagonists administered in the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS). Therefore, we tested the hypothesis that enhanced GABA(A) activity and administration of the Ad-A(2A) agonist, CGS-21680, would prolong the LCR in normothermic conditions. We studied 46 decerebrate piglets ranging from 3 to 8 postnatal days of age. Focal injection into the NTS of 100 nl of 0.5 m nipecotic acid, a GABA reuptake inhibitor, significantly (P < 0.05) prolonged the LCR in normothermic conditions in 10 of 11 animals tested. Injecting 100 nl of 5-12.5 microm CGS-21680 unilaterally or bilaterally into the NTS also prolonged the LCR in normothermic conditions (n = 15), but the effect was smaller than that of unilateral injection of nipecotic acid. Systemic administration of the GABA(A) receptor antagonist, bicuculline, prevented the CGS-21680-dependent prolongation of the LCR in normothermic animals (n = 11). We conclude that thermal prolongation of the LCR depends on a thermally sensitive process or set of neurons in the NTS, which, when activated by elevated brain temperature, enhances adenosinergic and GABAergic function in the region of the NTS. These results emphasize the importance of a thermally sensitive integrative site in the dorsal medulla that, along with sites in the ventral medulla, determine the response to laryngeal chemoreflex stimulation.

An adenosine A(2A) antagonist injected in the NTS reverses thermal prolongation of the LCR in decerebrate piglets

Hyperthermia prolongs the laryngeal chemoreflex (LCR). Under normothermic conditions, adenosine antagonists shorten and adenosine A(2A) (Ad-A(2A)) agonists prolong the LCR. Therefore, we tested the hypothesis that SCH-58261, an Ad-A(2A) receptor antagonist, would prevent thermal prolongation of the LCR when injected unilaterally within the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS). We studied decerebrate piglets aged 4-13 days. We elicited the LCR by injecting 0.1ml of water into the larynx and recorded integrated phrenic nerve activity. The laryngeal chemoreflex was prolonged when the body temperature of each piglet was raised approximately 2.5 degrees C, and SCH-58261 reversed the thermal prolongation of the LCR when injected into the NTS (n=13), but not when injected in the nucleus ambiguus (n=9). Injections of vehicle alone into the NTS did not alter the thermal prolongation of the LCR (n=9). We conclude that activation of adenosine receptors, perhaps located on GABAergic neurons in the NTS, contributes to thermal prolongation of the LCR.

Adenosine A2A receptors mediate GABAergic inhibition of respiration in immature rats

Adenosine is a known inhibitor of respiratory output during early life. In this study we investigated the developmental changes in adenosine A2A-receptor activation on respiratory timing, as well as the relationship between adenosine and GABA. The specific adenosine A2A-receptor agonist CGS-21680 (CGS) or vehicle control was injected into the fourth ventricle of 14-day (n = 9), 21-day (n = 9), and adult (n = 5) urethane-anesthetized rats while diaphragm electromyogram was monitored as an index of respiratory neural output. CGS injection resulted in a decrease in frequency and/or apnea in all 14-day-old rats and in 66% of 21-day-old rats. There was no effect of CGS injection on respiratory timing in adult rats. Prior injection of the GABA(A)-receptor blocker bicuculline at 14 and 21 days eliminated the CGS-induced decrease in frequency and apnea. We conclude from these studies that the inhibitory effect of A2A-receptor activation on respiratory drive is age dependent and is mediated via GABAergic inputs to the inspiratory timing neural circuitry. These findings demonstrate an important mechanism by which xanthine therapy alleviates apnea of prematurity.

Reversal of caffeine-induced anxiety by neurosteroid 3-alpha-hydroxy-5-alpha-pregnane-20-one in rats

Caffeine has been shown to increase brain and plasma content of neurosteroid 3alpha-hydroxy-5alpha-pregnan-20-one (3alpha,5alpha-THP) that allosterically modulates GABA(A) receptors. The present study evaluated the role of neurosteroid 3alpha,5alpha-THP in the caffeine-induced anxiogenic-like effect using the elevated plus-maze (EPM) test in rats. Acute administration of caffeine (50 or 100mg/kg, i.p.) produced anxiogenic-like activity that was reversed by pretreatment with the neurosteroid 3alpha,5alpha-THP or progesterone, the GABA(A) agonist muscimol, or the benzodiazepine receptor agonist diazepam. On the contrary, caffeine produced higher anxiety in animals previously treated with the GABA(A) receptor antagonist, bicuculline or either of the various neurosteroid biosynthesis enzyme inhibitors viz. trilostane, finasteride or indomethacin. Furthermore, pretreatment with DHEAS, a neurosteroid that negatively modulates GABA(A) receptors also enhanced the caffeine-induced anxiety. Moreover, adrenalectomy potentiated the anxiogenic-like response of caffeine indicating the contributory role of peripheral steroidogenesis. Thus, it is speculated that neurosteroid 3alpha,5alpha-THP through positive modulation of GABA(A) receptor activity may serve as a counter-regulatory mechanism against caffeine-induced anxiety.

Purinergic mechanisms of the nucleus of the solitary tract and neural cardiovascular control

OBJECTIVES

This review addresses the role of central purinergic receptors in the operation of the cardiovascular reflexes.

METHODS

Potential physiological role of purinergic receptors operating in the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS) was assessed via comparison of the regional patterns of hemodynamic and sympathetic responses evoked by selective stimulation/inhibition of NTS purinergic receptor subtypes, with the patterns evoked by stimulation and unloading of arterial baroreceptors, and other known patterns of autonomic responses. The effects of sino-aortic denervation plus vagotomy and ionotropic glutamatergic blockade of NTS mechanisms on the patterns of the responses were also considered.

RESULTS

Selective stimulation of NTS A1 receptors with CPA evoked a pattern of regional autonomic responses consistent with inhibition of baroreflex mechanisms and facilitation/ disinhibition of chemoreflex mechanisms. Selective stimulation of NTS A(2a) receptors with CGS 21680-evoked pattern of the responses different than that evoked by stimulation of baroreflex afferents what remains in contrast to previous reports suggesting that NTS A2a receptors facilitate baroreflex transmission. The pattern of the responses was similar to that observed during hypotensive hemorrhage. Preferential, b -adrenergic iliac vasodilation evoked by stimulation of adenosine A2a receptors and preferential activation of sympathetic output to the adrenal medulla by both adenosine A1 and A2a receptors are consistent with contribution of these receptors to the defense response, stress and exercise. These observations support previous findings that NTS A1 receptors contribute to the hypothalamic defense response. The effects of stimulation and blockade of NTS P2x receptors with alpha, beta-methylene ATP and suramin, respectively, suggested that neuronally-released ATP operating via P2x receptors may be a crucial co-transmitter with glutamate in mediating baroreflex responses.

DISCUSSION

The above observations strongly suggest that purinergic receptor subtypes operating in NTS circuitry are linked to specific afferent and descending mechanisms primarily integrated in the NTS.

Ginsenosides attenuate methamphetamine-induced behavioral side effects in mice via activation of adenosine A2A receptors: possible involvements of the striatal reduction in AP-1 DNA binding activity and proenkephalin gene expression

Current evidence suggests that ginsenosides inhibit methamphetamine (MA)-induced changes in behavior, but the precise mechanisms that underlie this effect are yet to be determined. We examined the role of adenosine receptors in the ginsenoside-induced changes in hyperlocomotion and conditioned place preference (CPP) in mice that occurred in response to administration of MA (2 mg/kg, i.p. x 1 or 2 mg/kg, i.p. x 6). Changes in circling behavior paralleled changes in CPP in the presence of MA. Pre-treatment with ginsenosides (50 or 150 mg/kg, i.p.) attenuated the MA-induced circling behavior and CPP. This attenuation was reversed by the adenosine A2A receptor antagonist 1,3,7-trimethyl-8-(3-chrostyryl)xanthine (CSC; 0.5 and 1.0 mg/kg) in a dose-dependent manner, but neither the adenosine A1 receptor antagonist 8-cyclopentyl-1,3-dimethylxanthine (CPT; 0.5 and 1.0 mg/kg) nor the A2B receptor antagonist alloxazine (ALX; 1.5 and 3.0 mg/kg) had any such effect. MA-induced increases in activator protein (AP)-1 DNA binding activity, Fos-related antigen immunoreactivity (FRA-IR), proenkephalin mRNA expression, and proenkephalin-like immunoreactivity were reduced consistently in the striatum of animals that were pretreated with ginsenosides. These reductions were largely prevented by CSC, but not by CPT or ALX. Our results suggest that the stimulation of A2A receptors by ginsenosides attenuates the changes in behavior and the increases in AP-1 DNA binding activity, FRA-IR, and proenkephalin gene expression in mouse striatum that are induced by MA.

Transducing system operated by adenosine A(2A) receptors to facilitate acetylcholine release in the rat hippocampus

Although molecular biology studies indicate the presence of adenosine A(2A) receptors in the rat hippocampus, the pharmacological characterization of adenosine A(2A) receptor binding and of its putative facilitatory effects has revealed features essentially different from these found for adenosine A(2A) receptors in most preparations. We now confirmed that activation of adenosine A(2A) receptors with 2-[4-(2-p-carboxyethyl)phenylamino]-5'-N-ethylcarboxamidoadenosine (CGS 21680, 1-30 nM) or 2-hexynyl-5'-N-ethylcarboxamidoadenosine (HENECA, 3-100 nM) facilitated the veratridine-evoked [3H]acetylcholine release from hippocampal synaptosomes with a maximal effect of 14+/-2% and 16+/-2%, respectively. These effects were prevented by the adenosine A(2A) receptor antagonists, 4-(2-[7-amino-2-[2-furyl][1,2,4]-triazolo[2,3a][1,3,5]triazin-5-yl-amino]ethyl)phenol (ZM 241385, 20 nM) and 5-amino-7-(2-phenylethyl)-2-(2-furyl)-pyrazolo-[4,3-e]-1,2,4-triazolo[1,5-c]pyrimidine (SCH 58261, 20 nM), but not by the adenosine A(1) receptor antagonist, 1,3-dipropyl-8-cyclopentylxanthine (DPCPX, 20 nM). Adenosine A(2A) receptors may activate adenylate cyclase and protein kinase A since CGS 21680 (10 nM) facilitation of [3H]acetylcholine release was occluded by 8-bromo-cAMP (0.5 mM) and forskolin (10 microM) and prevented by H-89 (1 microM), but unaffected by phorbol-12,13-didecanoate (250 nM) or bisindolylmaleimide I (1 microM). The existence of adenosine A(2A) receptors in hippocampal nerve terminals was further confirmed by a Western blot immunoreactivity qualitatively identical to that found in the striatum. This constitutes the first pharmacological identification of canonical adenosine A(2A) receptors coupling to the expected cAMP/protein kinase A pathway in the hippocampus with the expected immunoreactivity.

Adenosine A(2A) receptor facilitation of hippocampal synaptic transmission is dependent on tonic A(1) receptor inhibition

Adenosine tonically inhibits synaptic transmission through actions at A(1) receptors. It also facilitates synaptic transmission, but it is unclear if this facilitation results from pre- and/or postsynaptic A(2A) receptor activation or from indirect control of inhibitory GABAergic transmission. The A(2A) receptor agonist, CGS 21680 (10 nM), facilitated synaptic transmission in the CA1 area of rat hippocampal slices (by 14%), independent of whether or not GABAergic transmission was blocked by the GABA(A) and GABA(B) receptor antagonists, picrotoxin (50 microM) and CGP 55845 (1 microM), respectively. CGS 21680 (10 nM) also inhibited paired-pulse facilitation by 12%, an effect prevented by the A(2A) receptor antagonist, ZM 241385 (20 nM). These effects of CGS 21680 (10 nM) were occluded by adenosine deaminase (2 U/ml) and were made to reappear upon direct activation of A(1) receptors with N(6)-cyclopentyladenosine (CPA, 6 nM). CGS 21680 (10 nM) only facilitated (by 17%) the K(+)-evoked release of glutamate from superfused hippocampal synaptosomes in the presence of 100 nM CPA. This effect of CGS 21680 (10 nM), in contrast to the isoproterenol (30 microM) facilitation of glutamate release, was prevented by the protein kinase C inhibitors, chelerythrine (6 microM) and bisindolylmaleimide (1 microM), but not by the protein kinase A inhibitor, H-89 (1 microM). Isoproterenol (30 microM), but not CGS 21680 (10-300 nM), enhanced synaptosomal cAMP levels, indicating that the CGS 21680-induced facilitation of glutamate release involves a cAMP-independent protein kinase C activation. To discard any direct effect of CGS 21680 on adenosine A(1) receptor, we also show that in autoradiography experiments CGS 21680 only displaced the adenosine A(1) receptor antagonist, 1,3-dipropyl-8-cyclopentyladenosine ([(3)H]DPCPX, 0.5 nM) with an EC(50) of 1 microM in all brain areas studied and CGS 21680 (30 nM) failed to change the ability of CPA to displace DPCPX (1 nM) binding to CHO cells stably transfected with A(1) receptors. Our results suggest that A(2A) receptor agonists facilitate hippocampal synaptic transmission by attenuating the tonic effect of inhibitory presynaptic A(1) receptors located in glutamatergic nerve terminals. This might be a fine-tuning role for adenosine A(2A) receptors to allow frequency-dependent plasticity phenomena without compromising the A(1) receptor-mediated neuroprotective role of adenosine.

Adenosine as a neuromodulator and as a homeostatic regulator in the nervous system: different roles, different sources and different receptors

Adenosine exerts two parallel modulatory roles in the CNS, acting as a homeostatic modulator and also as a neuromodulator at the synaptic level. We will present evidence to suggest that these two different modulatory roles are fulfilled by extracellular adenosine originated from different metabolic sources, and involve receptors with different sub-cellular localisation. It is widely accepted that adenosine is an inhibitory modulator in the CNS, a notion that stems from the preponderant role of inhibitory adenosine A(1) receptors in defining the homeostatic modulatory role of adenosine. However, we will review recent data that suggests that the synaptically localised neuromodulatory role of adenosine depend on a balanced activation of inhibitory A(1) receptors and mostly facilitatory A(2A) receptors. This balanced activation of A(1) and A(2A) adenosine receptors depends not only on the transient levels of extracellular adenosine, but also on the direct interaction between A(1) and A(2A) receptors, which control each other's action.

Differential role of ionotropic glutamatergic mechanisms in responses to NTS P(2x) and A(2a) receptor stimulation

Activation of ATP P(2x) receptors in the subpostremal nucleus tractus solitarii (NTS) via microinjection of alpha,beta-methylene ATP (alpha,beta-MeATP) elicits fast initial depressor and sympathoinhibitory responses that are followed by slow, long-lasting inhibitory effects. Activation of NTS adenosine A(2a) receptors via microinjection of CGS-21680 elicits slow, long-lasting decreases in arterial pressure and renal sympathetic nerve activity (RSNA) and an increase in preganglionic adrenal sympathetic nerve activity (pre-ASNA). Both P(2x) and A(2a) receptors may operate via modulation of glutamate release from central neurons. We investigated whether intact glutamatergic transmission is necessary to mediate the responses to NTS P(2x) and A(2a) receptor stimulation. The hemodynamic and neural (RSNA and pre-ASNA) responses to microinjections of alpha,beta-MeATP (25 pmol/50 nl) and CGS-21680 (20 pmol/50 nl) were compared before and after pretreatment with kynurenate sodium (KYN; 4.4 nmol/100 nl) in chloralose-urethan-anesthetized male Sprague-Dawley rats. KYN virtually abolished the fast responses to alpha,beta-MeATP and tended to enhance the slow component of the neural responses. The depressor responses to CGS-21680 were mostly preserved after pretreatment with KYN, although the increase in pre-ASNA was reduced by one-half following the glutamatergic blockade. We conclude that the fast responses to stimulation of NTS P(2x) receptors are mediated via glutamatergic ionotropic mechanisms, whereas the slow responses to stimulation of NTS P(2x) and A(2a) receptors are mediated mostly via other neuromodulatory mechanisms.

NTS A(2a) purinoceptor activation elicits hindlimb vasodilation primarily via a beta-adrenergic mechanism

Previously, we have shown that activation of adenosine A(2a) receptors in the subpostremal nucleus tractus solitarii (NTS) via microinjection of the selective A(2a) receptor agonist CGS-21680 elicits potent, dose-dependent decreases in mean arterial pressure and preferential, marked hindlimb vasodilation. Although A(2a) receptor activation does not change lumbar sympathetic nerve activity, it does markedly enhance the preganglionic adrenal sympathetic nerve activity, which will increase epinephrine release and could subsequently elicit hindlimb vasodilation via activation of beta(2)-adrenergic receptors. Therefore we investigated whether this hindlimb vasodilation was due to neural or humoral mechanisms. In chloralose-urethan-anesthetized male Sprague-Dawley rats, we monitored cardiovascular responses to stimulation of NTS adenosine A(2a) receptors (CGS-21680, 20 pmol/50 nl) in the intact control animals; after pretreatment with propranolol (2 mg/kg iv), a beta-adrenergic antagonist; after bilateral lumbar sympathectomy; after bilateral adrenalectomy; and after combined bilateral lumbar sympathectomy and adrenalectomy. After beta-adrenergic blockade, stimulation of NTS adenosine A(2a) receptors produced a pressor response and a hindlimb vasoconstriction. Lumbar sympathectomy reduced the vasodilation seen in the intact animals by approximately 40%, and adrenalectomy reduced it by approximately 80%. The combined sympathectomy and adrenalectomy virtually abolished the hindlimb vasodilation evoked by NTS A(2a) receptor activation. We conclude that the preferential, marked hindlimb vasodilation produced by stimulation of NTS adenosine A(2a) receptors is mediated by both the efferent sympathetic nerves directed to the hindlimb and the adrenal glands via primarily a beta-adrenergic mechanism.

Purinergic modulation of [(3)H]GABA release from rat hippocampal nerve terminals

The hippocampal GABAergic system is assumed not to be a target for purine modulation. We have now confirmed that neither adenosine A(1) and A(3) receptor nor nucleotide P(2) or P(4) receptor activation modified the K(+)-evoked [(3)H]GABA release from hippocampal synaptosomes. However, activation of adenosine A(2A) receptors with CGS 21680 (10 nM) or HENECA (30 nM) facilitated GABA release by 32% and 21%, respectively. These effects were prevented by the A(2A) antagonist, ZM 241385 (20 nM). A(2A) receptors may activate adenylate cyclase and protein kinase A since CGS 21680 (10 nM) facilitation was partially prevented by 8-bromo-cAMP (1 mM), forskolin (10 microM) and HA-1004 (10 microM). Protein kinase C may also be recruited, since chelerythrine (6 microM) and phorbol-12, 13-didecanoate (250 nM) attenuated CGS 21680 (10 nM) facilitation of [(3)H]GABA release. Omega-agatoxin-IVA (200 nM) occluded CGS 21680 facilitation suggesting the involvement of P-type calcium channels. Thus, the adenosine A(2A) receptor system appears to be one of the first presynaptic neuromodulatory systems able to enhance the evoked release of GABA from hippocampal nerve terminals.

GABAergic involvement in motor effects of an adenosine A(2A) receptor agonist in mice

Adenosine A(2A) agonists are known to induce catalepsy and inhibit dopamine mediated motor hyperactivity. An antagonistic interaction between adenosine A(2A) and dopamine D(2) receptors is known to regulate GABA-mediated neurotransmission in striatopallidal neurons. Stimulation of adenosine A(2A) and dopamine D(2) receptors has been shown to increase and inhibit GABA release respectively in pallidal GABAergic neurons. However, the role of GABAergic neurotransmission in the motor effects of adenosine A(2A) receptors is not yet known. Therefore in the present study the effect of GABAergic agents on adenosine A(2A) receptor agonist (NECA- or CGS 21680) induced catalepsy and inhibition of amphetamine elicited motor hyperactivity was examined. Pretreatment with GABA, the GABA(A) agonist muscimol or the GABA(B) agonist baclofen potentiated whereas the GABA(A) antagonist bicuculline attenuated NECA- or CGS 21680-induced catalepsy. However, the GABA(B) antagonists phaclophen and delta-aminovaleric acid had no effect. Administration of NECA or CGS 21680 not only reduced spontaneous locomotor activity but also antagonized amphetamine elicited motor hyperactivity. These effects of NECA and CGS 21680 were potentiated by GABA or muscimol and antagonized by bicuculline. These findings provide behavioral evidence for the role of GABA in the motor effects of adenosine A(2A) receptor agonists. Activation of adenosine A(2A) receptors increases GABA release which could reduce dopaminergic tone and induce catalepsy or inhibit amphetamine mediated motor hyperactivity.