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Hokello J, Sharma AL, Tyagi P, Bhushan A, Tyagi M. Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type-1 (HIV-1) Transcriptional Regulation, Latency and Therapy in the Central Nervous System. Vaccines (Basel) 2021; 9:vaccines9111272. [PMID: 34835203 PMCID: PMC8618135 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines9111272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2021] [Revised: 10/28/2021] [Accepted: 11/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The central nervous system (CNS) is highly compartmentalized and serves as a specific site of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. Therefore, an understanding of the cellular populations that are infected by HIV or that harbor latent HIV proviruses is imperative in the attempts to address cure strategies, taking into account that HIV infection and latency in the CNS may differ considerably from those in the periphery. HIV replication in the CNS is reported to persist despite prolonged combination antiretroviral therapy due to the inability of the current antiretroviral drugs to penetrate and cross the blood–brain barrier. Consequently, as a result of sustained HIV replication in the CNS even in the face of combination antiretroviral therapy, there is a high incidence of HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND). This article, therefore, provides a comprehensive review of HIV transcriptional regulation, latency, and therapy in the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Hokello
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Education, Busitema University, Tororo P.O. Box 236, Uganda;
| | | | - Priya Tyagi
- Cherry Hill East High School, 1750 Kresson Rd, Cherry Hill, NJ 08003, USA;
| | - Alok Bhushan
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jefferson College of Pharmacy, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA;
| | - Mudit Tyagi
- Center for Translational Medicine, Thomas Jefferson University, 1020 Locust Street, Philadelphia, PA 19107, USA;
- Correspondence:
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Kaalund SS, Johansen A, Fabricius K, Pakkenberg B. Untreated Patients Dying With AIDS Have Loss of Neocortical Neurons and Glia Cells. Front Neurosci 2020; 13:1398. [PMID: 32009881 PMCID: PMC6974793 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2019.01398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2019] [Accepted: 12/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Untreated human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) depletes its host CD4 cells, ultimately leading to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). In brain, the HIV confines itself to astrocytes and microglia, the resident brain macrophages, but does not infect oligodendrocytes and neurons. Nonetheless, cognitive symptoms associated with HIV and AIDS are attributed to loss of axons and white matter damage. We used design-based stereology to estimate the numbers of neocortical neurons and glial cells (astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and microglia), in a series of 12 patients dying with AIDS before the era of retroviral treatments, and in 13 age-matched control brains. Relative to the control material, there was a 19% loss of neocortical neuron (p = 0.04) and a 29% reduction of oligodendrocytes (p = 0.003) in the patients with AIDS, whereas astrocyte and microglia numbers did not differ between patients and controls. Furthermore, we saw a 17% reduction in mean hemispheric volume in the AIDS group (p = 0.0015), which was driven by neocortical and white matter loss (p < 0.05), while the archicortex, subcortical gray matter, and ventricular volumes were within normal limits. Our results confirm previous reports of neuronal loss in AIDS. The new finding of oligodendrocyte loss supports the proposal that HIV in the brain provokes demyelination and axonal dysfunction and suggests that remyelination treatment strategies may be beneficial to patients suffering from HIV-associated neurocognitive deficits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanne Simone Kaalund
- Research Laboratory for Stereology and Neuroscience, Copenhagen University Hospital, Bispebjerg and Frederiksberg, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Annette Johansen
- Research Laboratory for Stereology and Neuroscience, Copenhagen University Hospital, Bispebjerg and Frederiksberg, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Katrine Fabricius
- Research Laboratory for Stereology and Neuroscience, Copenhagen University Hospital, Bispebjerg and Frederiksberg, Copenhagen, Denmark.,Gubra, Hørsholm, Denmark
| | - Bente Pakkenberg
- Research Laboratory for Stereology and Neuroscience, Copenhagen University Hospital, Bispebjerg and Frederiksberg, Copenhagen, Denmark.,Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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Castillo D, Ernst T, Cunningham E, Chang L. Altered Associations between Pain Symptoms and Brain Morphometry in the Pain Matrix of HIV-Seropositive Individuals. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2017; 13:77-89. [PMID: 28866752 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-017-9762-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2017] [Accepted: 08/21/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Pain remains highly prevalent in HIV-seropositive (HIV+) patients despite their well-suppressed viremia with combined antiretroviral therapy. Investigating brain abnormalities within the pain matrix, and in relation to pain symptoms, in HIV+ participants may provide objective biomarkers and insights regarding their pain symptoms. We used Patient-Reported Outcome Measurement Information System (PROMIS®) pain questionnaire to evaluate pain symptoms (pain intensity, pain interference and pain behavior), and structural MRI to assess brain morphometry using FreeSurfer (cortical area, cortical thickness and subcortical volumes were evaluated in 12 regions within the pain matrix). Compared to seronegative (SN) controls, HIV+ participants had smaller surface areas in prefrontal pars triangularis (right: p = 0.04, left: p = 0.007) and right anterior cingulate cortex (p = 0.03) and smaller subcortical regions (thalamus: p ≤ 0.003 bilaterally; right putamen: p = 0.01), as well as higher pain scores (pain intensity-p = 0.005; pain interference-p = 0.008; pain-behavior-p = 0.04). Furthermore, higher pain scores were associated with larger cortical areas, thinner cortices and larger subcortical volumes in HIV+ participants; but smaller cortical areas, thicker cortices and smaller subcortical volumes in SN controls (interaction-p = 0.009 to p = 0.04). These group differences in the pain-associated brain abnormalities suggest that HIV+ individuals have abnormal pain responses. Since these abnormal pain-associated brain regions belong to the affective component of the pain matrix, affective symptoms may influence pain perception in HIV+ patients and should be treated along with their physical pain symptoms. Lastly, associations of lower pain scores with better physical or mental health scores, regardless of HIV-serostatus (p < 0.001), suggest adequate pain treatment would lead to better quality of life in all participants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deborrah Castillo
- John A. Burns School of Medicine, Neuroscience and MR Research Program, University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1356 Lusitana Street, 7th Floor, Honolulu, HI, 96813, USA
| | - Thomas Ernst
- John A. Burns School of Medicine, Neuroscience and MR Research Program, University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1356 Lusitana Street, 7th Floor, Honolulu, HI, 96813, USA
- Department of Diagnostic Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 419 W. Redwood Street, Suite 225, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA
| | - Eric Cunningham
- John A. Burns School of Medicine, Neuroscience and MR Research Program, University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1356 Lusitana Street, 7th Floor, Honolulu, HI, 96813, USA
- Department of Diagnostic Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 419 W. Redwood Street, Suite 225, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA
| | - Linda Chang
- John A. Burns School of Medicine, Neuroscience and MR Research Program, University of Hawaii at Manoa, 1356 Lusitana Street, 7th Floor, Honolulu, HI, 96813, USA.
- Department of Diagnostic Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 419 W. Redwood Street, Suite 225, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA.
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Shin NY, Hong J, Choi JY, Lee SK, Lim SM, Yoon U. Retrosplenial cortical thinning as a possible major contributor for cognitive impairment in HIV patients. Eur Radiol 2017; 27:4721-4729. [PMID: 28409354 DOI: 10.1007/s00330-017-4836-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2016] [Revised: 03/06/2017] [Accepted: 03/24/2017] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To identify brain cortical regions relevant to HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder (HAND) in HIV patients. METHODS HIV patients with HAND (n = 10), those with intact cognition (HIV-IC; n = 12), and age-matched, seronegative controls (n = 11) were recruited. All participants were male and underwent 3-dimensional T1-weighted imaging. Both vertex-wise and region of interest (ROI) analyses were performed to analyse cortical thickness. RESULTS Compared to controls, both HIV-IC and HAND showed decreased cortical thickness mainly in the bilateral primary sensorimotor areas, extending to the prefrontal and parietal cortices. When directly comparing HIV-IC and HAND, HAND showed cortical thinning in the left retrosplenial cortex, left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, left inferior parietal lobule, bilateral superior medial prefrontal cortices, right temporoparietal junction and left hippocampus, and cortical thickening in the left middle occipital cortex. Left retrosplenial cortical thinning showed significant correlation with slower information processing, declined verbal memory and executive function, and impaired fine motor skills. CONCLUSIONS This study supports previous research suggesting the selective vulnerability of the primary sensorimotor cortices and associations between cortical thinning in the prefrontal and parietal cortices and cognitive impairment in HIV-infected patients. Furthermore, for the first time, we propose retrosplenial cortical thinning as a possible major contributor to HIV-associated cognitive impairment. KEY POINTS • Primary sensorimotor and supplementary motor cortices were selectively vulnerable to HIV infection • Prefrontal and parietal cortical thinning was associated with HIV-associated cognitive impairment • Retrosplenial cortical thinning might be a major contributor to HIV-associated cognitive impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Na-Young Shin
- Department of Radiology, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Korea
| | - Jinwoo Hong
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Health and Medical Science, Catholic University of Daegu, Hayang-Ro 13-13, Hayang-Eup, Gyeongsan-si, Gyeongbuk, Republic of Korea, 38430
| | - Jun Yong Choi
- Department of Internal Medicine and AIDS Research Institute, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Seung-Koo Lee
- Department of Radiology, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Soo Mee Lim
- Department of Radiology, Ewha Womans University, School of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Uicheul Yoon
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Health and Medical Science, Catholic University of Daegu, Hayang-Ro 13-13, Hayang-Eup, Gyeongsan-si, Gyeongbuk, Republic of Korea, 38430.
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Huang HI, Lin JY, Chen HH, Yeh SB, Kuo RL, Weng KF, Shih SR. Enterovirus 71 infects brain-derived neural progenitor cells. Virology 2014; 468-470:592-600. [PMID: 25299565 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2014.09.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2014] [Revised: 07/17/2014] [Accepted: 09/17/2014] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Neural progenitor cells (NPCs) are stem cells that can differentiate into various neural lineage cells. The damage and loss of NPCs are associated with neurological conditions such as cognitive deficits and memory impairment. In a long-term study of patients with EV71, cognitive disorders were observed. Therefore, we hypothesized that NPCs may be permissive to EV71 infection. We demonstrated that NPCs are prone to EV71 infection and that these stem cells can support the active replication of this virus. Furthermore, EV71 infection triggers apoptosis, resulting in significant cell death in infected NPCs. However, EV71 did not replicate in the differentiated cell types that were tested. Our findings suggest that EV71 can infect NPCs and cause the depletion of these cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hsing-I Huang
- Department of Medical Biotechnology and Laboratory Science, Research Center for Emerging Viral Infections, Chang Gung University, 259 Wen-Hwa 1st Road, Kwei-Shan, Tao-Yuan, Taiwan, ROC; Department of Medical Biotechnology and Laboratory Science, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Kwei-Shan, Tao-Yuan, Taiwan, ROC.
| | - Jhao-Yin Lin
- Department of Medical Biotechnology and Laboratory Science, Research Center for Emerging Viral Infections, Chang Gung University, 259 Wen-Hwa 1st Road, Kwei-Shan, Tao-Yuan, Taiwan, ROC; Graduate institute of Biomedical Sciences, Chang Gung University, Kwei-Shan, Tao-Yuan, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Hsin-Hsu Chen
- Department of Medical Biotechnology and Laboratory Science, Research Center for Emerging Viral Infections, Chang Gung University, 259 Wen-Hwa 1st Road, Kwei-Shan, Tao-Yuan, Taiwan, ROC; Department of Medical Biotechnology and Laboratory Science, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Kwei-Shan, Tao-Yuan, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Shiou-Bang Yeh
- Department of Medical Biotechnology and Laboratory Science, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Kwei-Shan, Tao-Yuan, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Rei-Lin Kuo
- Department of Medical Biotechnology and Laboratory Science, Research Center for Emerging Viral Infections, Chang Gung University, 259 Wen-Hwa 1st Road, Kwei-Shan, Tao-Yuan, Taiwan, ROC; Department of Medical Biotechnology and Laboratory Science, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Kwei-Shan, Tao-Yuan, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Kuo-Feng Weng
- Department of Medical Biotechnology and Laboratory Science, Research Center for Emerging Viral Infections, Chang Gung University, 259 Wen-Hwa 1st Road, Kwei-Shan, Tao-Yuan, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Shin-Ru Shih
- Department of Medical Biotechnology and Laboratory Science, Research Center for Emerging Viral Infections, Chang Gung University, 259 Wen-Hwa 1st Road, Kwei-Shan, Tao-Yuan, Taiwan, ROC; Department of Medical Biotechnology and Laboratory Science, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Kwei-Shan, Tao-Yuan, Taiwan, ROC; Clinical Virology Lab, Department of Clinical Pathology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Kwei-Shan, Tao-Yuan, Taiwan, ROC
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Altered prefronto-striato-parietal network response to mental rotation in HIV. J Neurovirol 2012; 18:74-9. [PMID: 22271019 DOI: 10.1007/s13365-011-0072-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2011] [Revised: 12/08/2011] [Accepted: 12/12/2011] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
The present study used functional magnetic resonance imaging to examine the neural substrates of mental rotation in 11 individuals with HIV infection and 13 demographically similar HIV seronegative volunteers. Individuals with HIV showed increased brain response to mental rotation in prefrontal and posterior parietal cortices, striatum, and thalamus, with significant HIV by angle interactions emerging in the prefrontal cortex and caudate. Results indicate that HIV infection is associated with altered brain response to mental rotation in fronto-striato-parietal pathways, which may reflect compensatory strategies, recruitment of additional brain regions, and/or increased neuroenergetic demands during mental rotation needed to offset underlying HIV-associated neural injury.
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Adams SM, Aksenova MV, Aksenov MY, Mactutus CF, Booze RM. ER-β mediates 17β-estradiol attenuation of HIV-1 Tat-induced apoptotic signaling. Synapse 2011; 64:829-38. [PMID: 20340172 DOI: 10.1002/syn.20793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The protective actions of estrogen have been well evaluated in various models of neurodegeneration. These neuroprotective mechanisms may include a direct neuronal antiapoptotic effect as estrogen modulates actions of key regulators of the mitochondrial/intrinsic apoptotic cascade. We tested the ability of estrogen to protect against apoptotic signaling in cortical cell cultures exposed to Tat 1-86 (50 nM), and additionally, whether the beneficial actions of estrogen involved an estrogen receptor sensitive mechanism. We demonstrated that estrogen pretreatment significantly delayed Tat-induced cell death in primary cortical cultures. Pretreatment with 17β-estradiol (10 nM) attenuated the increased expression of antiapoptotic protein Bcl-2, proapoptotic protein Bax and activation of caspases linked to mitochondrial apoptotic pathway following Tat exposure. In addition, select components of apoptotic pathway signaling appear more sensitive to estrogen receptor (ER) activation, as the addition of ER antagonist ICI 182780 reversed estrogen downregulation of Bax and caspase 3, while estrogen effects on Tat-induced Bcl-2 and caspase 9 expression were maintained. Moreover, the addition of preferential ERα and ERβ antagonists (MPP dihydrochloride and PHTPP) indicated that estrogen effects on caspase 3 may be mediated by both receptor subtypes, whereas, was more involved in estrogen effects on Bax. Our data suggest that estrogen intervenes against HIV-1 Tat-induced cortical neuronal dysfunction via intersecting mitochondrial apoptotic pathway signaling in an ER-sensitive manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheila M Adams
- Department of Psychology, Program in Behavioral Neuroscience, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, USA.
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Küper M, Rabe K, Esser S, Gizewski ER, Husstedt IW, Maschke M, Obermann M. Structural gray and white matter changes in patients with HIV. J Neurol 2011; 258:1066-75. [PMID: 21207051 DOI: 10.1007/s00415-010-5883-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2010] [Revised: 12/13/2010] [Accepted: 12/14/2010] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
In this cross-sectional study we used magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)-based voxel based morphometry (VBM) in a sample of HIV positive patients to detect structural gray and white matter changes. Forty-eight HIV positive subjects with (n = 28) or without (n = 20) cognitive deficits (mean age 48.5 ± 9.6 years) and 48 age- and sex-matched HIV negative controls underwent MRI for VBM analyses. Clinical testing in HIV patients included the HIV dementia scale (HDS), Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS) and the grooved pegboard test. Comparing controls with HIV positive patients with cognitive dysfunction (n = 28) VBM showed gray matter decrease in the anterior cingulate and temporal cortices along with white matter reduction in the midbrain region. These changes were more prominent with increasing cognitive decline, when assigning HIV patients to three cognitive groups (not impaired, mildly impaired, overtly impaired) based on performance in the HIV dementia scale. Regression analysis including all HIV positive patients with available data revealed that prefrontal gray matter atrophy in HIV was associated with longer disease duration (n = 48), while motor dysfunction (n = 48) was associated with basal ganglia gray matter atrophy. Lower CD4 cell count (n = 47) correlated with decrease of occipital gray matter. Our results provide evidence for atrophy of nigro-striatal and fronto-striatal circuits in HIV. This pattern of atrophy is consistent with motor dysfunction and dysexecutive syndrome found in HIV patients with HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Küper
- Department of Neurology, University of Duisburg-Essen, Hufelandstr. 55, 45122, Essen, Germany.
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Stark A, Toft M, Pakkenberg H, Fabricius K, Eriksen N, Pelvig D, Møller M, Pakkenberg B. The effect of age and gender on the volume and size distribution of neocortical neurons. Neuroscience 2007; 150:121-30. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2007.06.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2007] [Revised: 06/05/2007] [Accepted: 06/22/2007] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Nohda K, Nakatsuka T, Takeda D, Miyazaki N, Nishi H, Sonobe H, Yoshida M. Selective vulnerability to ischemia in the rat spinal cord: a comparison between ventral and dorsal horn neurons. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2007; 32:1060-6. [PMID: 17471085 DOI: 10.1097/01.brs.0000261560.53428.90] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
STUDY DESIGN Whole-cell patch-clamp recordings were performed from ventral horn (VH) and dorsal horn (DH) neurons obtained from the rat spinal cord slices. OBJECTIVE This study investigated which is more vulnerable to ischemia, spinal VH neurons or DH neurons. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA Spinal cord ischemia or injury sometimes causes a greater loss of motor function than of sensory function in patients. However, it is difficult to evaluate whether spinal motor neurons are more vulnerable than sensory neurons because of the anatomic complexity and a variety of physiologic factors in the spinal cord. METHODS Whole-cell patch-clamp recordings were performed from VH and DH neurons obtained from the spinal cord slices. Ischemia was simulated by superfusing an oxygen- and glucose-deprived medium (ischemia simulating medium [ISM]). RESULTS Perfusion with ISM generated an agonal depolarization in all VH and DH neurons recorded in current-clamp mode. Following ISM superfusion, an agonal inward current was produced at a holding potential of -70 mV in all VH and DH neurons tested in voltage-clamp mode. The agonal inward current consisted of a slow and subsequent rapid inward current. The average latency of the rapid inward currents after ISM exposures in VH neurons was significantly shorter than that in DH neurons. The average amplitude of the agonal inward currents in VH neurons was significantly bigger than that of DH neurons. Moreover, the recovery ratio by the reintroduction of oxygen and glucose in VH neurons was smaller than that in DH neurons. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that VH neurons are more vulnerable to ischemia than DH neurons. This finding may help in achieving a better understanding of the difference between motor and sensory disturbance in spinal cord ischemia or injury patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuhiro Nohda
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan
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Jelsing J, Gundersen HJG, Nielsen R, Hemmingsen R, Pakkenberg B. The postnatal development of cerebellar Purkinje cells in the Göttingen minipig estimated with a new stereological sampling technique--the vertical bar fractionator. J Anat 2007; 209:321-31. [PMID: 16928201 PMCID: PMC2100328 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7580.2006.00611.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The postnatal development of total number and perikaryon volume of cerebellar Purkinje cells was estimated in the Göttingen minipig cerebellar cortex using a new stereological approach, the vertical bar fractionator. Data were obtained from the brains of five neonate and five adult female Göttingen minipigs. The total number of Purkinje cells ranged from 1.83 x 10(6) in the neonate to 2.82 x 10(6) in the adult Göttingen minipig. The number-weighted mean perikaryon volume of Purkinje cells increased concurrently from around 6,800 microm(3) in the neonate to 17,600 microm(3) in the adult. The study demonstrates that a pronounced postnatal neurogenesis in Purkinje cell number and perikaryon volume is part of the growth and development of the cerebellum in the Göttingen minipig. The Purkinje cells of the Göttingen minipig were found to be substantially large compared with human and represents the largest cells described hitherto from mammalian cerebella. The vertical fractionator is a new sampling technique, which allows the combination of a fractionator design on vertical bar sections excluding exhaustive sampling and bias from artificial edges. By design, the sections are perfect stereological vertical sections and provide the basis for unbiased estimates of total number of structural entities in the brain, including surface area, fibre length and particle volume.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob Jelsing
- Research Laboratory for Stereology and Neuroscience, Copenhagen University Hospital, Bispebjerg, Copenhagen, Denmark.
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Thompson PM, Dutton RA, Hayashi KM, Lu A, Lee SE, Lee JY, Lopez OL, Aizenstein HJ, Toga AW, Becker JT. 3D mapping of ventricular and corpus callosum abnormalities in HIV/AIDS. Neuroimage 2006; 31:12-23. [PMID: 16427319 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.11.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2005] [Revised: 11/30/2005] [Accepted: 11/30/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE 40 million people worldwide are now infected with HIV/AIDS, an illness that often leads to rapidly progressing dementia and death. Even so, little is known about how AIDS affects the brain. Using computational anatomy techniques, we mapped how AIDS impacts the corpus callosum (CC) and ventricular system, two systems that show prominent changes on MRI. We (1) identified regions with greatest differences between AIDS patients and healthy controls and (2) correlated specific 3D patterns of structural differences with measures of immune system deterioration and cognitive decline. METHODS 51 3D brain MRI scans from 30 non-demented AIDS patients (age: 43.4 years +/- 7.6 SD) and 21 HIV-seronegative controls (age: 39.5 years +/- 12.2) were aligned to ICBM standard space. 3D surface mesh reconstructions of the lateral ventricles and CC were spatially averaged and compared across diagnostic groups. Structural alterations were correlated with viral load, T cell counts, and cognitive impairment. RESULTS Statistical maps revealed the 3D profile of ventricular expansion and callosal thinning in AIDS. Specific 3D ventricular changes were linked with immune system decline (CD4+ T cell counts; P < 0.001) and cognitive impairment (P < 0.009), but not viral load. Frontal horn maps distinguished AIDS patients from controls better than occipital and temporal horn measures. T cell decline linked with callosal thinning in anterior regions connecting frontal areas with greatest cortical atrophy. CONCLUSION These maps (1) reveal how brain changes in HIV/AIDS relate to immune decline and impaired cognition, and, after further validation and testing, (2) may offer possible neuroimaging markers for anti-viral drug trials, which gauge how well treatments oppose disease progression in the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul M Thompson
- Laboratory of Neuro Imaging, Dept. of Neurology, UCLA School of Medicine, 635 Charles E. Young Drive South, Suite 225E, Los Angeles, CA 90095-7332, USA.
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Thompson PM, Dutton RA, Hayashi KM, Toga AW, Lopez OL, Aizenstein HJ, Becker JT. Thinning of the cerebral cortex visualized in HIV/AIDS reflects CD4+ T lymphocyte decline. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2005; 102:15647-52. [PMID: 16227428 PMCID: PMC1266080 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0502548102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 249] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
HIV/AIDS infection is the fourth leading cause of death worldwide, and one in every 100 adults aged 15-49 years is HIV-infected. Forty percent of AIDS patients suffer from neurological symptoms, but the selective profile of damage caused by HIV in the brain is not well understood. Here, we report 3D maps revealing how AIDS affects the human cerebral cortex, identifying the most vulnerable regions and where deficits link with cognitive decline and immune-system suppression. With high-resolution brain MRI scans, we created composite maps of cortical gray-matter thickness in 26 AIDS patients and 14 healthy controls to establish the selective pattern of brain deficits in AIDS. In AIDS, primary sensory, motor, and premotor cortices were 15% thinner. Thinner frontopolar and language cortex correlated with immune system deterioration measured through blood levels of CD4+ T lymphocytes. Prefrontal and parietal tissue loss correlated with cognitive/motor deficits. T cell depletion and cognitive impairment are, therefore, associated with specific 3D brain-deficit patterns visualized with MRI. These quantitative MRI-based maps reveal that HIV selectively damages the cortex. They provide an approach to gauge the impact of AIDS on the living brain and show that the brain is still vulnerable to infection even when patients are receiving antiretroviral therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul M Thompson
- Laboratory of Neuro Imaging, Department of Neurology, University of California School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1769, USA.
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Rostasy K, Gorgun G, Kleyner Y, Garcia A, Kramer M, Melanson SM, Mathys JM, Yiannoutsos C, Skolnik PR, Navia BA. Tumor necrosis factor alpha leads to increased cell surface expression of CXCR4 in SK-N-MC cells. J Neurovirol 2005; 11:247-55. [PMID: 16036804 DOI: 10.1080/13550280590952763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Both host and viral factors play an important role in the pathogenesis of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-associated bran injury. In this study, the authors examined the interactions between tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, CXCR4, the alpha chemokine receptor, and three HIV isolates, including the T-tropic viruses, HIV-1(MN) and HIV-1(IIIB), and the dual tropic virus, HIV-1(89.6). The authors show by flow cytometry that treatment of differentiated SK-N-MC cells with TNF-alpha induces a significant increase in the cell surface expression of CXCR4 in a time- and dose-dependent manner. The effect is partly regulated at the level of transcription. To assess the biological significance of this finding, we show that TNF-alpha potentiates the ability of the above mentioned HIV isolates to induce neuronal apoptosis and that the effect is significantly reduced by pretreating cells with monoclonal antibodies to either CXCR4 and TNF-alpha. Together these results suggest that TNF-alpha may render neuronal cells vulnerable to the apoptotic effects of HIV by increasing the cell surface expression of CXCR4 and thus identify another mechanism by which TNF-alpha contributes to the pathogenesis of HIV-associated brain injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Rostasy
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Neurology, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
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Lojek E, Bornstein RA. The stability of neurocognitive patterns in HIV infected men: classification considerations. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2005; 27:665-82. [PMID: 16019643 DOI: 10.1081/13803390490918426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
For the neuropsychological impairment which takes place in HIV-1 infection, various classification systems, based on either neuropathological criteria, severity of the disorder or functional criteria, have been suggested in the literature. This study identifies the patterns of neurocognitive disorders in HIV-1 infection and investigates their stability at one-year follow-up. Two hundred and seventeen HIV-1-positive subjects in various stages of infection and 55 HIV-1-negative subjects were evaluated. Our results suggest that there is considerable diversity in the neuropsychological functioning of HIV patients but the patterns are relatively stable, functionally distinct, and differ with respect to the severity of the deficit. The overall pattern is consistent with existing neuropsychological knowledge on HIV infection. Comparison of the patterns identified in this study with other classification systems posed several problems, however, and these problems may have important implications for the theory and methodology of neuropsychological HIV research.
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Marcario JK, Manaye KF, SantaCruz KS, Mouton PR, Berman NEJ, Cheney PD. Severe subcortical degeneration in macaques infected with neurovirulent simian immunodeficiency virus. J Neurovirol 2005; 10:387-99. [PMID: 15765810 DOI: 10.1080/13550280490521131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Infection with human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1), the causative agent of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) in humans, causes a spectrum of neuropathology that includes alterations in behavior, changes in evoked potentials, and neuronal degeneration. In the simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) model of HIV infection, affected monkeys show clinical symptoms and neurological complications that mimic those observed in human neuro-AIDS. To investigate the relationship between morphological correlates and neurophysiological deficits, unbiased stereology was used to assess total neuron number, volume, and neuronal density for all neurons in the globus pallidus (GP) and for dopamine (DA)-containing neurons in the substantia nigra (SN) in eight macaques inoculated with macrophage-tropic, neurovirulent SIV (SIVmac R71/17E), and five control animals. There was a significant difference between rapid progressors and controls for both neuron number (P < .01) and neuronal density (P < .05) in the GP, and for neuron number (P < .05) in the SN. Neuron loss ranged from 6% to 70% in the GP and from 10% to 50% in the SN. Neuropathological analyses confirmed neuroAIDS-like changes in brain, including microglial nodules, extensive perivascular cuffing and/or the presence of multinucleated giant cells, and alterations in neuronal morphology in the majority of the rapid progressors. By comparison, slow progressors showed little, if any, neuropathology. These neuropathological changes in SIV-infected monkeys indicate that neuron death and morphological alterations in the basal ganglia may contribute to the motor impairments reported in the SIV model and, by analogy, in the subset of patients afflicted with motor impairment in human neuro-AIDS.
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Affiliation(s)
- J K Marcario
- Departments of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas 66160-7185, USA.
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18
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Raz N, Gunning-Dixon F, Head D, Rodrigue KM, Williamson A, Acker JD. Aging, sexual dimorphism, and hemispheric asymmetry of the cerebral cortex: replicability of regional differences in volume. Neurobiol Aging 2004; 25:377-96. [PMID: 15123343 DOI: 10.1016/s0197-4580(03)00118-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 505] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2002] [Revised: 02/13/2003] [Accepted: 04/07/2003] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
We examined age-, sex-, and hemisphere-related differences in the cerebral cortex. Volumes of the cerebral hemispheres and 13 regions of interest (ROIs) were measured on magnetic resonance images of 200 healthy adults. The strength of association between age and volume differed across ROIs. The lateral prefrontal cortex exhibited the greatest age-related differences, whereas significantly weaker associations were observed in the prefrontal white matter, sensory-motor, and visual association regions. The hippocampal shrinkage was significant in people in their mid-fifties. The primary visual, anterior cingulate, the inferior parietal cortices, and the parietal white matter showed no age-related differences. The pattern of age-related regional differences replicated the findings previously obtained on an independent sample drawn from the same population. Men evidenced larger volumes in all ROIs except the inferior parietal lobule, even after sexual dimorphism in body size was statistically controlled. In some regions (hippocampus and fusiform gyrus) men exhibited steeper negative age-related trends than women. Although a typical pattern of global hemispheric asymmetry was observed, the direction and magnitude of regional volumetric asymmetry was as inconsistent as in the previous reports. Thus, a pattern of age-related shrinkage suggesting increased vulnerability of the lateral prefrontal cortex to aging appears stable and replicable, whereas little consistency exists in sex-related and hemispheric differences in regional cortical volumes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naftali Raz
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pennsylvania Medical Center, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
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Rostasy K, Egles C, Chauhan A, Kneissl M, Bahrani P, Yiannoutsos C, Hunter DD, Nath A, Hedreen JC, Navia BA. SDF-1alpha is expressed in astrocytes and neurons in the AIDS dementia complex: an in vivo and in vitro study. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2003; 62:617-26. [PMID: 12834106 DOI: 10.1093/jnen/62.6.617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent in vitro studies suggest that the alpha chemokine stromal-derived factor-1alpha (SDF-1alpha) and its receptor CXCR-4 may contribute to neuronal apoptosis in HIV infection of the brain. The cellular and regional expression of this chemokine and its relationship to the AIDS dementia complex (ADC), however, have remained undetermined. Using immunohistochemistry and semiquantitative RT-PCR, we examined the expression of SDF-1alpha in the frontal cortex (FC), the adjacent deep white matter (DWM). and the basal ganglia (BG) of 17 patients with ADC and 5 normal controls, and the FC and temporal cortex of 6 patients with Alzheimer disease (AD). Additionally, SDF-1alpha expression was studied in 3 different neuronal cultures: differentiated SK-N-MC cells, primary human fetal neuronal, and mouse hippocampal cultures. SDF-1alpha staining was predominantly localized to astrocytes in all 3 groups in the gray matter of the FC and the BG, often in the vicinity of cortical and basal ganglia neurons, but was generally absent in the DWM. Further, the number of positive neurons was significantly greater in the BG of AIDS subjects with advanced brain disease compared to subjects with lesser disease (p = 0.029). All cultures showed prominent SDF-1alpha staining of neurons within the cytoplasm and in neurites, whereas preferential expression in GABA-ergic neurons was found in hippocampal cultures. This is the first study to show that SDF-1alpha is constitutively expressed in astrocytes of the deep and cortical gray matter as well as in neurons of the human brain. Its increased expression in basal ganglia neurons of patients with advanced HIV CNS disease suggests it may also contribute to pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Rostasy
- Pediatric Neurology, University of Goettingen, Germany
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20
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Turlejski K, Djavadian R. Life-long stability of neurons: a century of research on neurogenesis, neuronal death and neuron quantification in adult CNS. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2002; 136:39-65. [PMID: 12143397 DOI: 10.1016/s0079-6123(02)36006-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
In this chapter we provide an extensive review of 100 years of research on the stability of neurons in the mammalian brain, with special emphasis on humans. Although Cajal formulated the Neuronal Doctrine, he was wrong in his beliefs that adult neurogenesis did not occur and adult neurons are dying throughout life. These two beliefs became accepted "common knowledge" and have shaped much of neuroscience research and provided much of the basis for clinical treatment of age-related brain diseases. In this review, we consider adult neurogenesis from a historical and evolutionary perspective. It is concluded, that while adult neurogenesis is a factor in the dynamics of the dentate gyrus and olfactory bulb, it is probably not a major factor during the life-span in most brain areas. Likewise, the acceptance of neuronal death as an explanation for normal age-related senility is challenged with evidence collected over the last fifty years. Much of the problem in changing this common belief of dying neurons was the inadequacies of neuronal counting methods. In this review we discuss in detail implications of recent improvements in neuronal quantification. We conclude: First, age-related neuronal atrophy is the major factor in functional deterioration of existing neurons and could be slowed down, or even reversed by various pharmacological interventions. Second, in most cases neuronal degeneration during aging is a pathology that in principle may be avoided. Third, loss of myelin and of the white matter is more frequent and important than the limited neuronal death in normal aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kris Turlejski
- Department of Neurophysiology, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, 3 Pasteur Street, 02-093 Warsaw, Poland.
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Abstract
AIDS dementia complex is a relatively recently discovered source of cognitive and motor decline, clearly linked to CNS infection by HIV. While this condition is generally subacutely progressive, and leads to death in a short time-span in untreated patients, improvement in function and prognosis may be achieved by application of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Although this therapy is essential, it may also be necessary in the long term to provide additional neuroprotection, blocking secondary mechanisms of neurotoxicity. With current therapy, infection is never completely eradicated, and significant portions of toxicity seem mediated by indirect mechanisms that may continue even during antiretroviral therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- David B Clifford
- Department of Neurology, Washington University School of Medicine, Box 8111, 660 South Euclid Street, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.
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Torres-Muñoz J, Stockton P, Tacoronte N, Roberts B, Maronpot RR, Petito CK. Detection of HIV-1 gene sequences in hippocampal neurons isolated from postmortem AIDS brains by laser capture microdissection. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2001; 60:885-92. [PMID: 11556545 DOI: 10.1093/jnen/60.9.885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
We employed laser capture microdissection to remove individual pyramidal neurons from the CA1, CA3, and CA4 regions of formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded hippocampus from 8 AIDS brains and 2 HIV-1-seronegative normal brains. We amplified HIV-1 gag and nef gene sequences using separate, double round PCR reactions for each of the primer sets. In all 3 hippocampal regions, amplification efficiency was best with sequence length between 284 and 324 bp; HIV-1 nef gene sequences were more common than HIV-1 gag sequences; and rank order for percent positive amplification was CA3 > CA4 > CA1 samples. These results are the first to detect HIV-1 gene sequences in microdissected human tissue. They indicate that brain neurons in vivo contain HIV-1 DNA sequences consistent with latent infection by this virus, and suggest that neurons display a selective vulnerability for HIV infection. Neuronal HIV infection could contribute to neuronal injury and death or act as a potential viral reservoir if reactivated.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Torres-Muñoz
- Department of Pathology, University of Miami School of Medicine, Florida 33136, USA
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Petito CK, Roberts B, Cantando JD, Rabinstein A, Duncan R. Hippocampal injury and alterations in neuronal chemokine co-receptor expression in patients with AIDS. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2001; 60:377-85. [PMID: 11305873 DOI: 10.1093/jnen/60.4.377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Hippocampal neurons express high levels of HIV chemokine co-receptors, activation of which causes injury or death in vitro. To determine if their in vivo expression correlates with injury, we evaluated neuronal CXCR4 and CCR5 immunoreactivity and reactive gliosis in autopsy hippocampus of 10 control cases, 11 AIDS cases without HIV encephalitis (HIVnE) or opportunistic infections/lymphomas (OI/L), and 11 AIDS cases with HIV encephalitis (HIVE). All groups had higher CXCR4 and CCR5 expression in CA3 and CA4 neurons than CA1 neurons (p < 0.05). HIVE cases had increased neuronal CXCR4 and decreased neuronal CCR5 expression as well as increased numbers of hippocampal GFAP-positive astrocytes and LN3-positive microglia. Changes were most severe in CA3 and CA4 and lowest in CA1 regions. These findings also were noted in the 4 HIVE cases with neither hippocampal HIVE nor brain OI/L and in the HIVnE groups. This study quantitates the regional distribution of hippocampal neuronal CXCR4 and CCR5 and shows their respective increase and decrease in AIDS. It suggests a relationship between neuronal loss and gliosis with intensity of neuronal chemokine expression and raises the possibility of a selective vulnerability of hippocampal neurons to AIDS-related injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- C K Petito
- Department of Pathology, University of Miami School of Medicine, Florida 33136, USA
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Schmitz C, Dafotakis M, Heinsen H, Mugrauer K, Niesel A, Popken GJ, Stephan M, Van de Berg WD, von Hörsten S, Korr H. Use of cryostat sections from snap-frozen nervous tissue for combining stereological estimates with histological, cellular, or molecular analyses on adjacent sections. J Chem Neuroanat 2000; 20:21-9. [PMID: 11074341 DOI: 10.1016/s0891-0618(00)00075-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Adequate tissue preparation is essential for both modern stereological and immunohistochemical investigations. However, combining these methodologies in a single study presents a number of obstacles pertaining to optimal histological preparation. Tissue shrinkage and loss of nuclei/nucleoli from the unprotected section surfaces of unembedded tissue used for immunohistochemistry may be problematic with regard to adequate stereological design. In this study, frozen cryostat sections from hippocampal and cerebellar regions of two rat strains and cerebellar and cerebral regions from a human brain were analyzed to determine the potential impact of these factors on estimates of neuron number obtained using the optical disector. Neuronal nuclei and nucleoli were clearly present in thin sections of snap-frozen rat (3 microm) and human (6 microm) tissue, indicating that neuronal nuclei/nucleoli are not unavoidably lost from unprotected section surfaces of unembedded tissue. In order to quantify the potential impact of any nuclear loss, optical fractionator estimates of rat hippocampal pyramidal cells in areas CA1-3 and cerebellar granule and Purkinje cells were made using minimal (1 microm) upper guard zones. Estimates did not differ from data reported previously in the literature. This data indicates that cryostat sections of snap-frozen nervous tissue may successfully be used for estimating total neuronal numbers using optical disectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Schmitz
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, RWTH University of Aachen, Pauwelsstrasse/Wendlingweg 2, 52057, Aachen, Germany.
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