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Role of Phosphatidylinositol-3 Kinase Pathway in NMDA Preconditioning: Different Mechanisms for Seizures and Hippocampal Neuronal Degeneration Induced by Quinolinic Acid. Neurotox Res 2018; 34:452-462. [PMID: 29679291 DOI: 10.1007/s12640-018-9903-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2017] [Revised: 04/09/2018] [Accepted: 04/10/2018] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
N-methyl D-aspartate (NMDA) preconditioning is evoked by the administration of a subtoxic dose of NMDA and is protective against neuronal excitotoxicity. This effect may involve a diversity of targets and cell signaling cascades associated to neuroprotection. Phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase/protein kinase B (PI3K/Akt) and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) such as extracellular regulated protein kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) and p38MAPK pathways play a major role in neuroprotective mechanisms. However, their involvement in NMDA preconditioning was not yet fully investigated. The present study aimed to evaluate the effect of NMDA preconditioning on PI3K/Akt, ERK1/2, and p38MAPK pathways in the hippocampus of mice and characterize the involvement of PI3K on NMDA preconditioning-evoked prevention of seizures and hippocampal cell damage induced by quinolinic acid (QA). Thus, mice received wortmannin (a PI3K inhibitor) and 15 min later a subconvulsant dose of NMDA (preconditioning) or saline. After 24 h of this treatment, an intracerebroventricular QA infusion was administered. Phosphorylation levels and total content of Akt, glycogen synthase protein kinase-3β (GSK-3β), ERK1/2, and p38MAPK were not altered after 24 h of NMDA preconditioning with or without wortmmanin pretreatment. Moreover, after QA administration, behavioral seizures, hippocampal neuronal degeneration, and Akt activation were evaluated. Inhibition of PI3K pathway was effective in abolishing the protective effect of NMDA preconditioning against QA-induced seizures, but did not modify neuronal protection promoted by preconditioning as evaluated by Fluoro-Jade B staining. The study confirms that PI3K participates in the mechanism of protection induced by NMDA preconditioning against QA-induced seizures. Conversely, NMDA preconditioning-evoked protection against neuronal degeneration is not altered by PI3K signaling pathway inhibition. These results point to differential mechanisms regarding protection against a behavioral and cellular manifestation of neural damage.
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Allakhverdiyeva TN, Mekhtiev AA. The preconditioning phenomenon and its mechanisms in the common carp as affected by Actara insecticide. J EVOL BIOCHEM PHYS+ 2017. [DOI: 10.1134/s0022093017050039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Kim SH, Lee WS, Lee NM, Chae SA, Yun SW. Neuroprotective effects of mild hypoxia in organotypic hippocampal slice cultures. KOREAN JOURNAL OF PEDIATRICS 2015; 58:142-7. [PMID: 25932036 PMCID: PMC4414629 DOI: 10.3345/kjp.2015.58.4.142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2014] [Revised: 09/01/2014] [Accepted: 09/12/2014] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Purpose The aim of this study was to investigate the potential effects of mild hypoxia in the mature and immature brain. Methods We prepared organotypic slice cultures of the hippocampus and used hippocampal tissue cultures at 7 and 14 days in vitro (DIV) to represent the immature and mature brain, respectively. Tissue cultures were exposed to 10% oxygen for 60 minutes. Twenty-four hours after this hypoxic insult, propidium iodide fluorescence images were obtained, and the damaged areas in the cornu ammonis 1 (CA1), CA3, and dentate gyrus (DG) were measured using image analysis. Results In the 7-DIV group compared to control tissue, hypoxia-exposed tissue showed decreased damage in two regions (CA1: 5.59%±2.99% vs. 4.80%±1.37%, P=0.900; DG: 33.88%±12.53% vs. 15.98%±2.37%, P=0.166), but this decrease was not statistically significant. In the 14-DIV group, hypoxia-exposed tissue showed decreased damage compared to control tissues; this decrease was not significant in the CA3 (24.51%±6.05% vs. 18.31%±3.28%, P=0.373) or DG (15.72%±3.47% vs. 9.91%±2.11%, P=0.134), but was significant in the CA1 (50.91%±5.90% vs. 32.30%±3.34%, P=0.004). Conclusion Although only CA1 tissues cultured for 14 DIV showed significantly less damage after exposure to hypoxia, the other tissues examined in this study showed a tendency towards less damage after hypoxic exposure. Therefore, mild hypoxia might play a protective role in the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seh Hyun Kim
- Department of Pediatrics, Chung-Ang University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Woo Soon Lee
- Department of Pediatrics, Chung-Ang University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Na Mi Lee
- Department of Pediatrics, Chung-Ang University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Soo Ahn Chae
- Department of Pediatrics, Chung-Ang University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Sin Weon Yun
- Department of Pediatrics, Chung-Ang University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
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Leandra C, Tasca CI, Boeck CR. The Role of NMDA Receptors in the Development of Brain Resistance through Pre- and Postconditioning. Aging Dis 2014; 5:430-41. [PMID: 25489494 DOI: 10.14336/ad.2014.0500430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2013] [Revised: 01/30/2014] [Accepted: 02/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Brain tolerance or resistance can be achieved by interventions before and after injury through potential toxic agents used in low stimulus or dose. For brain diseases, the neuroprotection paradigm desires an attenuation of the resulting motor, cognitive, emotional, or memory deficits following the insult. Preconditioning is a well-established experimental and clinical translational strategy with great beneficial effects, but limited applications. NMDA receptors have been reported as protagonists in the adjacent cellular mechanisms contributing to the development of brain tolerance. Postconditioning has recently emerged as a new neuroprotective strategy, which has shown interesting results when applied immediately, i.e. several hours to days, after a stroke event. Investigations using chemical postconditioning are still incipient, but nevertheless represent an interesting and promising clinical strategy. In the present review pre- and postconditioning are discussed as neuroprotective paradigms and the focus of our attention lies on the participation of NMDA receptors proteins in the processes related to neuroprotection.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Carla Inês Tasca
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Centro de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina-UFSC, Campus Trindade, 88040-900, Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
| | - Carina Rodrigues Boeck
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular e Molecular, Instituto Nacional de Ciência e Tecnologia Translacional em Medicina (INCT-TM), Programa de Pós-graduação Ciências da Saúde, Universidade do Extremo Sul Catarinense-UNESC, Criciúma, 88806-000, SC, Brazil
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N-Methyl-d-aspartate Preconditioning Prevents Quinolinic Acid-Induced Deregulation of Glutamate and Calcium Homeostasis in Mice Hippocampus. Neurotox Res 2014; 27:118-28. [DOI: 10.1007/s12640-014-9496-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2014] [Revised: 09/30/2014] [Accepted: 10/15/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Saggu R, Morrison B, Lowe JP, Pringle AK. Interleukin-1beta does not affect the energy metabolism of rat organotypic hippocampal-slice cultures. Neurosci Lett 2011; 508:114-8. [PMID: 22215116 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2011.12.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2011] [Revised: 12/16/2011] [Accepted: 12/19/2011] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to examine the effect of the archetypal pro-inflammatory cytokine, interleukin-1beta (IL-1β), on high-energy phosphate levels within an ex vivo rat organotypic hippocampal-slice culture (OHSC) preparation using phosphorus ((31)P) magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS). Intrastriatal microinjection of IL-1β induces a chronic reduction in the apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) of tissue water, which may be indicative of metabolic failure as established by in vivo models of acute cerebral ischaemia. The OHSC preparation enables examination of the effects of IL-1β on brain parenchyma per se, independent of the potentially confounding effects encountered in vivo such as perfusion changes, blood-brain barrier (BBB) breakdown and leukocyte recruitment. (31)P MRS is a technique that can detect multiple high-energy phosphate metabolites within a sample non-invasively. Here, for the first time, we characterise the energy metabolism of OHSCs using (31)P MRS and demonstrate that IL-1β does not compromise high-energy phosphate metabolism. Thus, the chronic reduction in ADC observed in vivo is unlikely to be a consequence of metabolic failure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raman Saggu
- Department of Biochemistry, South Parks Road, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, OX1 3QU, UK.
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Watters O, O'Connor JJ. A role for tumor necrosis factor-α in ischemia and ischemic preconditioning. J Neuroinflammation 2011; 8:87. [PMID: 21810263 PMCID: PMC3161872 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-8-87] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2011] [Accepted: 08/02/2011] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
During cerebral ischemia, elevation of TNF-α and glutamate to pathophysiological levels may induce dysregulation of normal synaptic processes, leading ultimately to cell death. Previous studies have shown that patients subjected to a mild transient ischemic attack within a critical time window prior to a more severe ischemic episode may show attenuation in the clinical severity of the stroke and result in a more positive functional outcome. Studies with organotypic hippocampal cultures and mixed primary hippocampal cultures have shown that prior incubation with low concentrations of glutamate and TNF-α increase the resistance of neurones to a subsequent insult from glutamate, AMPA and NMDA, while co-exposure of TNF-α and for example AMPA may have neuroprotective effects compared to cultures exposed to excitotoxic agents alone. In addition our work has shown that although glutamate and TNF-α pretreatment induces analogous levels of desensitisation of the intracellular calcium dynamics of neurons under resting conditions and in response to acute glutamate stimulation, their downstream signalling pathways involved in this response do not converge. Glutamate and TNF-α would appear to have opposing effects on resting Ca2+ levels which supports the proposal that they have distinct modes of preconditioning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Orla Watters
- UCD School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Science, UCD Conway Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Research, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
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de Araújo Herculano B, Vandresen-Filho S, Martins WC, Boeck CR, Tasca CI. NMDA preconditioning protects against quinolinic acid-induced seizures via PKA, PI3K and MAPK/ERK signaling pathways. Behav Brain Res 2011; 219:92-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2010.12.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2010] [Revised: 12/10/2010] [Accepted: 12/13/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Watters O, Pickering M, O'Connor JJ. Preconditioning effects of tumor necrosis factor-α and glutamate on calcium dynamics in rat organotypic hippocampal cultures. J Neuroimmunol 2011; 234:27-39. [PMID: 21402417 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2011.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2010] [Revised: 01/20/2011] [Accepted: 01/21/2011] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
During cerebral ischemia, elevation of TNF-α and glutamate to pathophysiological levels in the hippocampus may induce dysregulation of normal synaptic processes, leading ultimately to cell death. Previous studies have shown that patients subjected to a mild transient ischemic attack within a critical time window prior to a more severe ischemic episode may show attenuation in the clinical severity of the stroke and result in a more positive functional outcome. In this study we have investigated the individual contribution of pre-exposure to TNF-α or glutamate in the development of 'ischemic tolerance' to a subsequent insult, using organotypic hippocampal cultures. At 6 days in vitro (DIV), cultures were exposed to an acute concentration of glutamate (30 μM) or TNF-α (5 ng/ml) for 30 min, followed by 24h recovery period. We then examined the effect of the pretreatments on calcium dynamics of the cells within the CA region. We found that pretreatment with TNF-α or glutamate caused in a significant reduction in subsequent glutamate-induced Ca(2+) influx 24h later (control: 100.0 ± 0.8%, n=7769 cells; TNF-α: 76.8 ± 1.0%, n=5543 cells; glutamate: 75.3 ± 1.4%, n=3859 cells; p<0.001). Antagonism of circulating TNF-α (using infliximab, 25 μg/ml), and inhibition of the p38 MAP kinase pathway (using SB 203580, 10 μM) completely reversed this effect. However glutamate preconditioning did not appear to be mediated by p38 MAP kinase signalling, or NMDAR activation as neither SB 203580 nor D-AP5 (100 μM) altered this effect. Glutamate and TNF-α preconditioning resulted in small yet significant alterations in resting Ca(2+) levels (control: 100.0 ± 0.9%, n=2994 cells; TNF-α: 109.7 ± 1.0%, n=2884 cells; glutamate; 93.3 ± 0.8%, n=2899 cells; p<0.001), TNF-α's effect reversed by infliximab and SB 203580. Both TNF-α and glutamate also resulted in the reduction of the proportion (P) of responsive cells within the CA region of the hippocampus (control; P=0.459, 0.451 ≤ x ≥ 0.467, n=14,968 cells, TNF-α; P=0.40, 0.392 ≤ x ≥ 0.407, n=15,218; glutamate; P=0.388, 0.303 ≤ x ≥ 0.396, n=13,919 cells), and in the depression of the frequency of spontaneous Ca(2+) events (vs. control: TNF-α: p>0.00001, D=0.0454; glutamate: p>0.0001, D=0.0534). Our results suggest that attenuation in resting Ca(2+) activity and Ca(2+) related responsiveness of cells within the CA region as a result of glutamate or TNF-α pre-exposure, may contribute to the development of ischemic tolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Orla Watters
- UCD School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Science, UCD Conway Institute of Biomolecular and Biomedical Research, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
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van Breukelen F, Krumschnabel G, Podrabsky JE. Vertebrate cell death in energy-limited conditions and how to avoid it: what we might learn from mammalian hibernators and other stress-tolerant vertebrates. Apoptosis 2010; 15:386-99. [DOI: 10.1007/s10495-010-0467-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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11
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Ferguson AL, Stone TW. Adenosine preconditions against ouabain but not against glutamate on CA1-evoked potentials in rat hippocampal slices. Eur J Neurosci 2009; 28:2084-98. [PMID: 19046389 DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2008.06490.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Hypoxic and ischaemic brain damage are believed to involve excessive release of glutamate, and recent work shows that glutamate-induced damage in brain slices can be reduced by preconditioning with hypoxia or glutamate itself. Because adenosine is a powerful preconditioning agent, we have investigated whether adenosine could precondition against glutamate in vitro. In rat hippocampal slices, glutamate depolarization reduced the amplitudes of antidromic- and orthodromic-evoked potentials, with only partial recovery. Applying adenosine before these insults failed to increase that recovery. Ouabain also produced depolarization with partial reversibility, but adenosine pretreatment increased the extent of recovery. The preconditioning effect of adenosine on ouabain responses was prevented by blocking receptors for N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA), but not receptors for kainate or alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA), and was blocked by inhibiting nitric oxide synthase. Preconditioning was also abolished by the ATP-dependent potassium channel blockers, glibenclamide (cytoplasmic) or 5-hydroxydecanoate (mitochondrial). We conclude that adenosine does not precondition against glutamate in hippocampal slices, but that it does precondition against ouabain with a pharmacology similar to studies in vivo. Ischaemic neuronal damage is a complex of many factors, and because adenosine can precondition against ischaemic neuronal damage, its failure to protect against glutamate highlights limitations of using glutamate alone as a model for ischaemia. Because damage following ischaemia, trauma or excitotoxicity also involves reduced Na(+),K(+)-ATPase activity, and adenosine can precondition against ouabain, we propose that ouabain-induced damage represents an additional or alternative model for the contribution to cell damage of Na(+),K(+)-ATPase loss, this being more relevant to the mechanisms of preconditioning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra L Ferguson
- Faculty of Biomedical & Life Sciences, West Medical Building, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
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12
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Boulos S, Meloni BP, Arthur PG, Bojarski C, Knuckey NW. Peroxiredoxin 2 overexpression protects cortical neuronal cultures from ischemic and oxidative injury but not glutamate excitotoxicity, whereas Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase 1 overexpression protects only against oxidative injury. J Neurosci Res 2008; 85:3089-97. [PMID: 17663478 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.21429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
We previously reported that peroxiredoxin 2 (PRDX2) and Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1) proteins are up-regulated in rat primary neuronal cultures following erythropoietin (EPO) preconditioning. In the present study, we have demonstrated that adenovirally mediated overexpression of PRDX2 in cortical neuronal cultures can protect neurons from in vitro ischemia (oxygen-glucose deprivation) and an oxidative insult (cumene hydroperoxide) but not glutamate excitotoxicity. We have also demonstrated that adenovirally mediated overexpression of SOD1 in cortical neuronal cultures protected neurons only against the oxidative insult. Interestingly, we did not detect up-regulation of PRDX2 or SOD1 protein in the rat hippocampus following exposure to either 3 min or 8 min of global cerebral ischemia. Further characterization of PRDX2's neuroprotective mechanisms may aid in the development of a neuroprotective therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sherif Boulos
- Centre for Neuromuscular and Neurological Disorders, The University of Western Australia, Australian Neuromuscular Research Institute, Nedlands, Western Australia, Australia.
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13
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Expression of heat shock transcription factors and heat shock protein 72 in rat retina after intravitreal injection of low dose N-methyl-D-aspartate. Neurosci Lett 2007; 433:11-6. [PMID: 18242848 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2007.12.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2007] [Revised: 12/04/2007] [Accepted: 12/14/2007] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The heat shock response is a genetically well-ordered process for cell to generate heat shock protein (HSP). Various stressors can trigger the response through heat shock transcriptional factor (HSF) regulation. Recent studies demonstrated that preconditioning of N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) at non-lethal levels has neuroprotective effects, but the exact mechanisms are unclear. We hypothesize that the protective mechanisms of NMDA preconditioning could involve HSP expression. To understand the regulatory mechanisms of HSP under stress, we examined the expression of Hsp72, HSF1 and HSF2 in the adult rat retina after intravitreal injection of NMDA. Retinal ganglion cell (RGC) counting with retrograde labeling showed that 8 nmol, but not 0.8 nmol, of intravitreal NMDA reduced RGC survival. Western blotting and immunohistochemistry showed that non-lethal (0.8 nmol) doses of NMDA induced a time-dependent expression of HSF1 and HSF2, and that the expression of HSF1 and HSF2 in the RGC layer peaked between 9 and 18 h after injection. Parallel to the increased HSF expression, immunohistochemistry and in situ hybridization demonstrated that Hsp72 mRNA and protein expression increased 9 and 12 h after non-lethal NMDA injection, respectively. Our findings suggest that the expression of HSF1 and HSF2 is associated with the Hsp72-related stress response.
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Vandresen-Filho S, de Araújo Herculano B, Franco JL, Boeck CR, Dafre AL, Tasca CI. Evaluation of glutathione metabolism in NMDA preconditioning against quinolinic acid-induced seizures in mice cerebral cortex and hippocampus. Brain Res 2007; 1184:38-45. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2007.09.091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2007] [Revised: 06/06/2007] [Accepted: 09/30/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Duveau V, Arthaud S, Rougier A, Le Gal La Salle G. Polysialylation of NCAM is upregulated by hyperthermia and participates in heat shock preconditioning-induced neuroprotection. Neurobiol Dis 2007; 26:385-95. [PMID: 17336079 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2007.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2006] [Revised: 01/16/2007] [Accepted: 01/22/2007] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
"Brain tolerance"--a phenomenon in which a subtoxic challenge confers resistance to subsequent brain injuries--provides an ideal opportunity for investigating endogenous neuroprotective mechanisms. We investigated the potential role of the polysialylated (PSA) form of neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM), which is thought to play a key role in plasticity. In a model where prior exposure to heat shock protects against kainate-induced cell damage in the hippocampus, we show that hyperthermia upregulates PSA-NCAM expression for at least 1 week, without affecting neurogenesis. Pharmacological manipulation of heat shock protein (HSP) expression demonstrates a tight positive link between HSP70 and PSA-NCAM. Finally, the presence of PSA was functionally linked to brain tolerance, as protection against kainate-induced cell death by heat shock pre-exposure was abolished in the absence of NCAM polysialylation. The upregulation of PSA-NCAM by hyperthermia may have a significant impact on hippocampal plasticity, permitting induction of the complex molecular cascade responsible for neuroprotection.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Duveau
- Université Bordeaux 2, CNRS UMR 5227-Mouvement, Adaptation, Cognition, 146, rue Léo Saignat, 33076 Bordeaux Cedex, France
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Boulos S, Meloni BP, Arthur PG, Majda B, Bojarski C, Knuckey NW. Evidence that intracellular cyclophilin A and cyclophilin A/CD147 receptor-mediated ERK1/2 signalling can protect neurons against in vitro oxidative and ischemic injury. Neurobiol Dis 2006; 25:54-64. [PMID: 17011206 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2006.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2006] [Revised: 08/01/2006] [Accepted: 08/20/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022] Open
Abstract
We previously reported that cyclophilin A protein is up-regulated in cortical neuronal cultures following several preconditioning treatments. In the present study, we have demonstrated that adenoviral-mediated over-expression of cyclophilin A in rat cortical neuronal cultures can protect neurons from oxidative stress (induced by cumene hydroperoxide) and in vitro ischemia (induced by oxygen glucose deprivation). We subsequently demonstrated that cultured neurons, but not astrocytes, express the recently identified putative cyclophilin A receptor, CD147 (also called neurothelin, basigin and EMMPRIN), and that administration of purified cyclophilin A protein to neuronal cultures induces a rapid but transient phosphorylation of the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) 1/2. Furthermore, administration of purified cyclophilin A protein to neuronal cultures protects neurons from oxidative stress and in vitro ischemia. Interestingly, we detected up-regulation of cyclophilin A mRNA, but not protein in the hippocampus following a 3-min period of sublethal global cerebral ischemia in the rat. Despite our in vivo findings, our in vitro data show that cyclophilin A has both intracellular- and extracellular-mediated neuroprotective mechanisms. To this end, we propose cyclophilin A's extracellular-mediated neuroprotection occurs via CD147 receptor signalling, possibly by activation of ERK1/2 pro-survival pathways. Further characterization of cyclophilin A's neuroprotective mechanisms may aid the development of a neuroprotective therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sherif Boulos
- Centre for Neuromuscular and Neurological Disorders, The University of Western Australia, Australian Neuromuscular Research Institute, WA, Australia.
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Meloni BP, Van Dyk D, Cole R, Knuckey NW. Proteome analysis of cortical neuronal cultures following cycloheximide, heat stress and MK801 preconditioning. Proteomics 2005; 5:4743-53. [PMID: 16252307 DOI: 10.1002/pmic.200500107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Studying endogenous neuroprotective mechanisms induced by preconditioning may provide drug leads to reduce ischemic neuronal death. In this study, we used 2-DE to examine protein expression following cycloheximide, heat stress, and MK801 preconditioning in rat cortical neuronal cultures. Of 150 differentially expressed protein spots selected for identification the protein or tentative protein(s) were identified in 84 cases, representing 50 different proteins. Different protein spots representing the same protein or closely related protein(s) occurred for 21 of the identified proteins and are likely to represent PTMs or proteolytic fragments of the protein. Six protein spots (actin, elongation factor 1-alpha 1, peptidyl-prolyl cis-transisomerase A, Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase, stathmin, tropomyosin) were differentially expressed in all three preconditioning treatments. Twenty-seven protein spots were differentially expressed in two preconditioning treatments, while 51 spots were differentially expressed in one treatment. Three proteins heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoproteins A2/B1, mitochondrial stress-70 protein, and tropomyosin were detected in control neuronal cultures, but not following one or more preconditioning treatments, while a posttranslational modified form of the voltage dependent anion channel 1 was only detected following cycloheximide preconditioning. In summary, this study has revealed multiple protein changes potentially involved in neuroprotective and neurodamaging pathways, which require further characterization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruno P Meloni
- Department of Neurosurgery, Sir Charles Gairdner Hospital, Centre for Neuromuscular and Neurological Disorders, The University of Western Australia, Nedlands 6009, WA, Australia.
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Badaut J, Hirt L, Price M, de Castro Ribeiro M, Magistretti PJ, Regli L. Hypoxia/hypoglycemia preconditioning prevents the loss of functional electrical activity in organotypic slice cultures. Brain Res 2005; 1051:117-22. [PMID: 16005858 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2005.05.063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2004] [Revised: 05/25/2005] [Accepted: 05/27/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
In cerebral ischemic preconditioning (IPC), a first sublethal ischemia increases the resistance of neurons to a subsequent severe ischemia. Despite numerous studies, the mechanisms are not yet fully understood. Our goal is to develop an in vitro model of IPC on hippocampal organotypic slice cultures. Instead of anoxia, we chose to apply varying degrees of hypoxia that allows us various levels of insult graded from mild to severe. Cultures are exposed to combined oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD) of varying intensities, ranging from mild to severe, assessing both the electrical activity and cell death. IPC was accomplished by exposure to the mildest ischemia condition (10% of O2 for 15 min) 24 h before the severe deprivation (5% of O2 for 30 min). Interestingly, IPC not only prevented delayed ischemic cell death 6 days after insult but also the transient loss of evoked potential response. The major interest and advantage of this system over both the acute slice preparation and primary cell cultures is the ability to simultaneously measure the delayed neuronal damage and neuronal function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jérôme Badaut
- Neurosurgery Research Group, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois (CHUV), Pavillon 3-Beaumont, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland.
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Hilton GD, Ndubuizu A, Nunez JL, McCarthy MM. Simultaneous glutamate and GABA(A) receptor agonist administration increases calbindin levels and prevents hippocampal damage induced by either agent alone in a model of perinatal brain injury. BRAIN RESEARCH. DEVELOPMENTAL BRAIN RESEARCH 2005; 159:99-111. [PMID: 16125793 DOI: 10.1016/j.devbrainres.2005.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2005] [Revised: 07/20/2005] [Accepted: 07/23/2005] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Perinatal brain injury is associated with the release of amino acids, principally glutamate and GABA, resulting in massive increases in intracellular calcium and eventual cell death. We have previously demonstrated that independent administration of kainic acid (KA), an AMPA/kainate receptor agonist, or muscimol, a GABA(A) receptor agonist, to newborn rats results in hippocampal damage [Hilton, G.D., Ndubuizu, A., and McCarthy, M.M., 2004. Neuroprotective effects of estradiol in newborn female rat hippocampus. Dev. Brain Res. 150, 191-198; Hilton, G. D., Nunez, J.L. and McCarthy, M.M., 2003. Sex differences in response to kainic acid and estradiol in the hippocampus of newborn rats. Neuroscience. 116, 383-391; Nunez, J.L. and McCarthy, M.M., 2003. Estradiol exacerbates hippocampal damage in a model of preterm infant brain injury. Endocrinology. 144, 2350-2359; Nunez, J.L., Alt, J.J. and McCarthy, M.M., 2003. A new model for prenatal brain damage. I. GABA(A) receptor activation induces cell death in developing rat hippocampus. Exp. Neurol. 181, 258-269]. We now report that KA or muscimol alone administered to immature hippocampal neurons in culture induces significant cell death as evidenced by TUNEL assay. Surprisingly, simultaneous administration of equimolar quantities of these two agonists blocks the effect of either one alone. Moreover, treatment of newborn pups results in less damage compared to either muscimol or KA alone. We further observed that immunoreactivity for the calcium-binding protein, calbindin D(28K), is increased in the brains of pups simultaneously administered KA and muscimol as compared to either alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Genell D Hilton
- Departments of Physiology and Psychiatry, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA.
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20
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Puisieux F, Deplanque D, Bulckaen H, Maboudou P, Gelé P, Lhermitte M, Lebuffe G, Bordet R. Brain ischemic preconditioning is abolished by antioxidant drugs but does not up-regulate superoxide dismutase and glutathion peroxidase. Brain Res 2005; 1027:30-7. [PMID: 15494154 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2004.08.067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/15/2004] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The present work examined the hypothesis that brain ischemic tolerance induced by ischemic preconditioning (IPC) is triggered by an initial oxidative stress and is associated with an increase in antioxidant enzyme activities as one end-effector of the neuroprotection. Wistar rats were preconditioned by a single 3-min occlusion of the middle cerebral artery. After a various duration of reperfusion (30 min, 24, 72 or 168 h), rats were subjected to a 60-min focal ischemia and sacrificed 24 h later. Cerebral infarcts were significantly reduced when performed during the 24- to 72-h time window after IPC. The pretreatment with the protein synthesis inhibitor, cycloheximide (1 mg/kg, i.p., 30 min prior to IPC), completely suppressed the neuroprotection. The free radical scavenger, dimethylthiourea (DMTU; 300 mg/kg, i.p., 30 min prior to IPC) and the antioxidant ebselen (10 mg/kg, oral cramming, 2 h before and 12 h after IPC) also abolished the IPC-induced protection of the brain. Nevertheless, IPC did not induce any delayed changes in antioxidant enzyme (superoxide dismutase, glutathion peroxidase) activities nor in the neuronal expression of Mn and Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase. These results indicate that an initial oxidative stress could be involved as a trigger of IPC, while antioxidant enzymes do not play a key role as end-effectors in such a neuroprotection.
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Affiliation(s)
- François Puisieux
- EA 1046, Laboratoire de Pharmacologie, Faculté de Médecine, 59045 Lille cedex, France
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21
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Tauskela JS, Morley P. On the role of Ca2+ in cerebral ischemic preconditioning. Cell Calcium 2005; 36:313-22. [PMID: 15261487 DOI: 10.1016/j.ceca.2004.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2004] [Accepted: 02/18/2004] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Cerebral ischemic preconditioning (IPC) represents a potent endogenous method of inducing tolerance to otherwise lethal ischemia, both in in vivo and in vitro models. Investigation into the mechanism of this phenomenon has yet again transformed the way that neuroscientists view Ca2+. Generally viewed as an agent of neuronal death, particularly within an excitotoxic setting of cerebral ischemia, Ca2+ is now regarded as a key mediator of IPC. Classification of the role of Ca2+ in IPC defies simple description, but seems to possess a stimulatory role during the tolerance-inducing ischemia and an inhibitory or modulatory role during or following the second normally lethal ischemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph S Tauskela
- National Research Council, Institute for Biological Sciences, Montreal Road Campus, Building M-54, Ottawa, ON, Canada K1A 0R6.
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22
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Zemke D, Smith JL, Reeves MJ, Majid A. Ischemia and ischemic tolerance in the brain: an overview. Neurotoxicology 2005; 25:895-904. [PMID: 15474608 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2004.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2003] [Accepted: 03/18/2004] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Stroke is the third leading cause of death and the leading cause of adult disability in the United States. This review outlines the pathways that lead to cell death following stroke, and also summarizes the current literature on the phenomenon of ischemic tolerance. Ischemic tolerance is an endogenous neuroprotective mechanism by which neurons are protected from the deleterious effects of brain ischemia that occur during and after stroke. A better understanding of the processes that lead to cell death after stroke and endogenous neuroprotective mechanisms like ischemic tolerance could help in the development of new treatment strategies for this devastating neurological disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Zemke
- Department of Neurology and Ophthalmology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
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23
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Hassen GW, Tian D, Ding D, Bergold PJ. A new model of ischemic preconditioning using young adult hippocampal slice cultures. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; 13:135-43. [PMID: 15296850 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresprot.2004.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/19/2004] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
In ischemic preconditioning (IPC), brief sublethal ischemia protects neurons from a subsequent lethal ischemia. In vivo models faithfully display preconditioning, yet, these models are technically challenging, time-consuming and expensive. In vitro models of preconditioning have also been developed that are technically easier and less expensive. A drawback of pre-existing in vitro models is that since susceptibility to ischemic injury is age-dependent; neuroprotection is being studied in neurons that have intrinsic resistance to oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD). This study introduces a new in vitro model of ischemic preconditioning in hippocampal slice cultures isolated from 20-30-day-old rats. Slice cultures show a high susceptibility and sharp thresholds toward ischemia that is comparable to that found in vivo. A 5-min OGD treatment was not neurotoxic to young adult slice cultures, while a 10-min OGD treatment was neurotoxic. In addition, the sublethal 5-min OGD treatment protected against a 10-min OGD treatment that was delivered 24 h later. Neuroprotection was seen in preconditioned slice cultures stained with propidium iodide (PI) or with antisera against the neuron-specific antigen NeuN. Energy failure is hypothesized to trigger ischemic preconditioning and a 5-min OGD treatment induced transient energy failure in young adult slice cultures. This model may assist in the search for new therapeutics for the prevention and/or treatment of stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Getaw W Hassen
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, State University New York-Downstate Medical Center, 450 Clarkson Avenue, Brooklyn, NY 11203, USA
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24
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Nvue R, Gorianov V, Best N, Sundstrom LE, Pringle AK. Time window and pharmacological characterisation of kainate-mediated preconditioning in organotypic rat hippocampal slice cultures. Neurosci Lett 2004; 367:365-8. [PMID: 15337267 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2004.06.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2004] [Revised: 06/10/2004] [Accepted: 06/10/2004] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Tolerance to normally neurotoxic insults can be induced by prior a preconditioning exposure to a sublethal insult. Kainate toxicity can be attenuated by prior exposure to very low concentrations of kainate both in vivo and in vitro. Using organotypic hippocampal slice cultures from rats we have shown that 5 microM kainate induces a selective lesion in the CA3 region and this can be significantly attenuated by 1 microM kainate administered 1-5 days earlier. The time window for this effect was affected by the length of time in culture, and preconditioning was blocked by NBQX but not the selective AMPA receptor antagonist GYKI53655. These data demonstrate a role for kainate receptors in preconditioning for the first time and show that organotypic cultures can be used as a model to investigate long-term preconditioning mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rose Nvue
- Clinical Neurosciences, Centre for Neurosciences, University of Southampton, Rm6207, Biomedical Sciences Building, Bassett Crescent East, SO16 7PX, UK
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25
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Boeck CR, Ganzella M, Lottermann A, Vendite D. NMDA preconditioning protects against seizures and hippocampal neurotoxicity induced by quinolinic acid in mice. Epilepsia 2004; 45:745-50. [PMID: 15230696 DOI: 10.1111/j.0013-9580.2004.65203.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE N-methyl D-aspartate (NMDA) preconditioning has been used to prevent cellular death induced by glutamate or NMDA in cultured neurons. Quinolinic acid (QA)-induced seizures are used to average NMDA receptors-evoked neurotoxicity in animal models. The purpose of this study was to investigate the potential neuroprotective effects of NMDA preconditioning against QA-induced seizures and hippocampal damage in vivo. METHODS Mice were pretreated with nonconvulsant doses of NMDA for different times before i.c.v. QA infusion and observed for the occurrence of seizures. Hippocampal slices from mice were assayed to measure cellular viability. RESULTS NMDA preconditioning presented 53% protection against QA-induced seizures, as well as QA-induced cellular death in the hippocampus. The NMDA receptor antagonist, MK-801, prevented the protection evoked by NMDA preconditioning. The adenosine A1 receptor antagonist, CPT, prevented the protection evoked by NMDA preconditioning against QA-induced seizures, but not against QA-induced hippocampal cellular damage. The adenosine A1 receptor agonist, CPA, did not mimic the NMDA preconditioning-evoked protective effects. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that in vivo preconditioning with subtoxic doses of NMDA protected mice against seizures and cellular hippocampal death elicited by QA, probably through mechanisms involving NMDA receptors operating with adenosine A1 receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carina R Boeck
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil.
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26
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Sorimachi T, Nowak TS. Pharmacological manipulations of ATP-dependent potassium channels and adenosine A1 receptors do not impact hippocampal ischemic preconditioning in vivo: evidence in a highly quantitative gerbil model. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2004; 24:556-63. [PMID: 15129188 DOI: 10.1097/00004647-200405000-00010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Ischemic preconditioning models have been characterized in brain, heart, and other tissues, and previous pharmacologic studies have suggested an involvement of adenosine and ATP dependent potassium (KATP) channels in such tolerance phenomena. This question was reexamined in a reproducible gerbil model in which the duration of ischemic depolarization defined the severity of preconditioning and test insults. Agents studied were glibenclamide, a blocker of KATP channels; 1,3-dipropyl-8-cyclopentylxanthine (DPCPX), an adenosine A1 receptor antagonist; and N6-cyclopentyladenosine (CPA), an A1 agonist. Intraventricular glibenclamide injections aggravated neuron damage after brief priming insults, in parallel with a dose-dependent prolongation of ischemic depolarization. However, the depolarization thresholds for ischemic neuronal injury were identical in vehicle- and glibenclamide-treated animals, and glibenclamide did not affect preconditioning when equivalent insult severity was maintained during priming insults. Neither DPCPX nor CPA had any effect on the onset or duration of depolarization after intraperitoneal injection in this model, and neither drug affected neuron damage. In the case of CPA, it was necessary to maintain temperature for 4 to 6 hours of recirculation to avoid significant confounding hypothermia. These results fail to support a direct involvement of A1 receptors or KATP channels during early stages in the development of ischemic tolerance in vivo, and emphasize the need for robust, well-controlled, and quantitative models in such studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takatoshi Sorimachi
- Department of Neurology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee 38163, USA
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27
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Abe H, Nowak TS. Induced hippocampal neuron protection in an optimized gerbil ischemia model: insult thresholds for tolerance induction and altered gene expression defined by ischemic depolarization. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2004; 24:84-97. [PMID: 14688620 DOI: 10.1097/01.wcb.0000098607.42140.4b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Preconditioning of hippocampal CA1 neurons was evaluated in a gerbil model of transient global ischemia using extracellular recording of DC potential shifts characteristic of ischemic depolarization to precisely define the duration of both priming and test insults. Brief ischemia resulting in depolarizations of 2.5 to 3.5 minutes consistently induced maximal tolerance (95% protection) against subsequent challenges 2 days later with an approximate doubling of the insult duration required for complete CA1 neuron loss from 6 to 12 minutes depolarization when evaluated 1 week after the test insult. Significant protection persisted at 2 months survival, although the apparent injury threshold regressed to approximately 8 minutes, indicating delayed progression of injury after longer test insults. In situ hybridization was used to evaluate depolarization thresholds for induction of mRNAs encoding the 70 kDa heat shock/stress protein, hsp72, as well as several immediate-early genes (c-fos, c-jun, junB, and junD). Immediate-early genes were prominently expressed after short insults inducing tolerance, whereas appreciable hsp72 induction only occurred after insults approaching the threshold for neuron injury. These results establish an ischemic preconditioning model with the predictability needed for mechanistic studies and demonstrate that prior transcriptional activation of the postischemic heat shock response is not required for expression of delayed tolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Abe
- Department of Neurology, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN 38163, USA
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28
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Pugliese AM, Latini S, Corradetti R, Pedata F. Brief, repeated, oxygen-glucose deprivation episodes protect neurotransmission from a longer ischemic episode in the in vitro hippocampus: role of adenosine receptors. Br J Pharmacol 2003; 140:305-14. [PMID: 12970092 PMCID: PMC1574038 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bjp.0705442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
1. Ischemic preconditioning in the brain consists of reducing the sensitivity of neuronal tissue to further, more severe, ischemic insults. We recorded field epsps (fepsps) extracellularly from hippocampal slices to develop a model of in vitro ischemic preconditioning and to evaluate the role of A1, A2A and A3 adenosine receptors in this phenomenon. 2. The application of an ischemic insult, obtained by glucose and oxygen deprivation for 7 min, produced an irreversible depression of synaptic transmission. Ischemic preconditioning was induced by four ischemic insults (2 min each) separated by 13 min of normoxic conditions. After 30 min, an ischemic insult of 7 min was applied. This protocol substantially protected the tissue from the irreversible depression of synaptic activity. 3. The selective adenosine A1 receptor antagonist, 8-cyclopentyl-1,3-dipropylxanthine (DPCPX, 100 nm), completely prevented the protective effect of preconditioning. The selective adenosine A2A receptor antagonist 4-(2-[7-amino-2-(2-furyl)[1,2,4]triazolo[2,3-a][1,3,5]triazin-5-ylamino]ethyl)phenol (ZM 241385, 100 nm) did not modify the magnitude of fepsp recovery compared to control slices. The selective A3 adenosine receptor antagonists, 3-propyl-6-ethyl-5[ethyl(thio)carbonyl]-2-phenyl-4-propyl-3-pyridinecarboxylate (MRS 1523, 100 nm) significantly improved the recovery of fepsps after 7 min of ischemia. 4. Our results show that in vitro ischemic preconditioning allows CA1 hippocampal neurons to become resistant to prolonged exposure to ischemia. Adenosine, by stimulating A1 receptors, plays a crucial role in eliciting the cell mechanisms underlying preconditioning; A2A receptors are not involved in this phenomenon, whereas A3 receptor activation is harmful to ischemic preconditioning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Maria Pugliese
- Department of Preclinical and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Florence, Viale Pieraccini 6, 50139 Florence, Italy
| | - Serena Latini
- Department of Preclinical and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Florence, Viale Pieraccini 6, 50139 Florence, Italy
| | - Renato Corradetti
- Department of Preclinical and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Florence, Viale Pieraccini 6, 50139 Florence, Italy
| | - Felicita Pedata
- Department of Preclinical and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Florence, Viale Pieraccini 6, 50139 Florence, Italy
- Author for correspondence:
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29
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Valentim LM, Rodnight R, Geyer AB, Horn AP, Tavares A, Cimarosti H, Netto CA, Salbego CG. Changes in heat shock protein 27 phosphorylation and immunocontent in response to preconditioning to oxygen and glucose deprivation in organotypic hippocampal cultures. Neuroscience 2003; 118:379-86. [PMID: 12699774 DOI: 10.1016/s0306-4522(02)00919-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Organotypic hippocampal cultures have been recently used to study in vitro ischaemic neuronal death. Sub-lethal periods of ischaemia in vivo confer resistance to lethal insults and many studies have demonstrated the involvement of heat shock proteins in this phenomenon. We used organotypic hippocampal cultures to investigate the involvement of heat shock protein (HSP) 27 in preconditioning to oxygen and glucose deprivation. Neuronal damage was assessed using propidium iodide fluorescence; HSP27 phosphorylation and immunocontent were obtained using (32)Pi labelling followed by sodium dodecylsulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and immunoblotting. We observed that immunocontent of HSP27 was increased after lethal or sub-lethal treatment, indicating it is a response to metabolic stress. Treatments with 5 or 10 min of oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD) or 1- microM N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) induced tolerance to 40 min of OGD associated with an increase in HSP27 immunocontent and phosphorylation. These data suggest that, in vitro, phosphorylated HSP27 might be involved in preconditioning, probably acting as a modulator of actin filaments or by the blockage of neurodegenerative processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- L M Valentim
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, UFRGS, Porto Alegre 90035-003, Brazil
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30
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Fauconneau B, Petegnief V, Sanfeliu C, Piriou A, Planas AM. Induction of heat shock proteins (HSPs) by sodium arsenite in cultured astrocytes and reduction of hydrogen peroxide-induced cell death. J Neurochem 2002; 83:1338-48. [PMID: 12472888 DOI: 10.1046/j.1471-4159.2002.01230.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Induction of heat shock proteins (HSPs) protects cells from oxidative injury. Here Hsp72, Hsp27 and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) were induced in cultured rat astrocytes, and protection against oxidative stress was investigated. Astrocytes were treated with sodium arsenite (20-50 micro m) for 1 h, which was non-toxic to cells, 24 h later they were exposed to 400 micro m H2O2 for 1 h, and cell death was evaluated at different time points. Arsenite triggered strong induction of HSPs, which was prevented by 1 micro g/mL cycloheximide (CXH). H2O2 caused cell loss and increased cell death with features of apoptosis, i.e. TdT-mediated dUTP nick-end labelling (TUNEL) reaction and caspase-3 activation. These features were abrogated by pre-treatment with arsenite, which prevented cell loss and significantly reduced the number of dead cells. The protective effect of arsenite was not detected in the presence of CHX. Pre-treatment with arsenite increased protein kinase B (Akt) and extracellular signal regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) phosphorylation after H2O2. However, while Akt phosphorylation was prevented by CHX, Erk1/2 phosphorylation was further enhanced by CHX. The results show that transient arsenite pre-treatment induces Hsp72, HO-1 and, to a lesser extent, Hsp27; it reduces H2O2-induced astrocyte death; and it causes selective activation of Akt following H2O2. It is suggested that HSP expression at the time of H2O2 exposure protects astrocytes from oxidative injury and apoptotic cell death by means of pro-survival Akt.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernard Fauconneau
- Departament de Farmacologia i Toxicologia, IIBB-CSIC, IDIBAPS, Barcelona, Spain
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31
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Xu GP, Dave KR, Vivero R, Schmidt-Kastner R, Sick TJ, Pérez-Pinzón MA. Improvement in neuronal survival after ischemic preconditioning in hippocampal slice cultures. Brain Res 2002; 952:153-8. [PMID: 12376175 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-8993(02)02988-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
The main goals of the current study were to assess: (a) whether a sublethal ischemic insult could protect the CA1 subregion of the hippocampus in organotypic slices against a lethal ischemic insult; and (b) whether this protection is long lasting as determined with an accurate immunohistochemical neuronal marker, NeuN. Hippocampal slice cultures were grown for 12-14 days in vitro. Slices were exposed either to oxygen/glucose deprivation (OGD) for 45 min (ischemia), or OGD for 15 min (ischemic preconditioning), 48 h prior to 45 min OGD, or were untreated (sham). Cell death was estimated by propidium iodide fluorescence 1 day after OGD and by NeuN immunohistochemistry 7 days after OGD. Image analysis was employed to measure the relative optical density of the NeuN-signal in all groups. After ischemia, damaged neurons were shrunken or lost and NeuN immunoreactivity was reduced. Relative optical density of NeuN (ROD [NeuN]) was 0.193+/-0.015 in control (sham) (n=9). In slices that underwent ischemia, ROD [NeuN] declined to 0.108+/-0.018 (n=5) in CA1 (*P<0.05 ROD [NeuN] in preconditioned slice cultures was 0.190+/-0.037 (76% higher than the ischemia group). Similar results were found after measuring PI fluorescence. In the CA1 sub-region, PI fluorescence was about 13, 47 and 17% in the sham, ischemic and IPC groups, respectively. We suggest that the immunohistochemical approach validates the dye uptake method used in slice cultures and yields quantitative data specific for neurons. We also conclude that the organotypic hippocampal slice model is useful for studying delayed ischemic preconditioning that is maintained for hours or days after the preconditioning event.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guang-Ping Xu
- Department of Neurology (D4-5), P.O. Box 016960, School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, FL 33101, USA
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32
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Mariotti R, Tongiorgi E, Bressan C, Kristensson K, Bentivoglio M. Priming by muscle inflammation alters the response and vulnerability to axotomy-induced damage of the rat facial motor nucleus. Exp Neurol 2002; 176:133-42. [PMID: 12093090 DOI: 10.1006/exnr.2002.7908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
To ascertain whether signaling due to peripheral inflammation affects motoneuron vulnerability, we examined in adult rats the reaction to axonal injury of facial motoneurons primed by muscle inflammation. In this double-hit paradigm, preconditioning was achieved by injections into the facial muscles of the T cell mitogen phytohemagglutinin, which was found in a previous study ( 11 ) to elicit a retrograde response in motoneurons. Facial nerve transection was used as test lesion. Intramuscular injections of saline prior to axotomy were used as control for lectin pretreatment. In rats pretreated with phytohemagglutinin injection, upregulation of the expression of the antiapoptotic bcl-2 gene, examined with in situ hybridization, was significantly higher in facial motoneurons at 2 days postaxotomy compared with saline-injected control cases. After repeated phytohemagglutinin injections followed by nerve transection, induction in facial motoneurons of nitric oxide synthase, revealed by histochemistry and immunohistochemistry, as well as activation of the surrounding microglia, was enhanced at 14 days postaxotomy with respect to the saline-treated control cases. At the same time point, no significant intergroup difference was detected in the intensity of astrocytic activation. At 1 month postaxotomy, stereological cell counts revealed that motoneuron loss was significantly greater in the cases pretreated with phytohemagglutinin than in the saline-treated cases. The data point out that the response of the facial motor nucleus to axonal damage is altered by previous exposure to peripheral inflammation and that such preconditioning stimulus enhances motoneuron vulnerability to nerve injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Mariotti
- Department of Morphological and Biomedical Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
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33
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Noer H, Kristensen BW, Noraberg J, Zimmer J, Gramsbergen JB. 3-Nitropropionic acid neurotoxicity in hippocampal slice cultures: developmental and regional vulnerability and dependency on glucose. Exp Neurol 2002; 176:237-46. [PMID: 12093101 DOI: 10.1006/exnr.2002.7934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
We investigated whether neurotoxic effects of the mitochondrial toxin 3-nitropropionic acid (3-NP) in hippocampal slice cultures are dependent on glucose levels in the culture medium and whether such effects occur via apoptosis or necrosis. In addition, 3-NP toxicity was investigated at two developmental stages of the cultures, prepared from rat brain at postnatal day 5-7 and grown in Neurobasal medium for 1 or 3 weeks. Cultures were exposed to 3-NP in the presence of high (25 mM), normal (5 mM), or low (3 mM) glucose for 48 h, followed by 48 h incubation in medium without 3-NP. Cellular propidium iodide (PI) uptake and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) efflux into the medium revealed time- and dose-dependent cell death by 3-NP, with EC(50) values of about 60 microM in high or normal glucose. Regional vulnerability, as assessed by PI uptake and MAP2 immunostaining, in 3-week-old cultures was as follows: CA1 > CA3 > fascia dentata. In low glucose much lower concentrations of 3-NP (25 microM) triggered neurotoxicity. One-week-old cultures were less susceptible to 3-NP toxicity than 3-week-old cultures, but the dentate granule cells were relatively more affected in the immature cultures. We found no evidence for apoptotic cell death by 3-NP in 3-week-old cultures, but in 1-week-old cultures the putative apoptotic marker c-JUN/AP1 and nuclear fragmentation (Hoechst) were significantly increased in the dentate granule cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helle Noer
- Anatomy and Neurobiology, SDU-Odense University, Denmark
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34
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Sato K, Matsuki N. A 72 kDa heat shock protein is protective against the selective vulnerability of CA1 neurons and is essential for the tolerance exhibited by CA3 neurons in the hippocampus. Neuroscience 2002; 109:745-56. [PMID: 11927156 DOI: 10.1016/s0306-4522(01)00494-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
The correlation between the expression of a 72 kDa heat shock protein and vulnerability of hippocampal CA1, CA3, and dentate gyrus regions to glutamate toxicity was investigated using a highly specific antisense oligonucleotide technique. Glutamate (1 mM, 15 min) caused region-dependent neuronal damage in cultured hippocampal slices 24 h after exposure and the most severe damage was observed in CA1. When slices were heat-shocked (43.5 degrees C, 30 min) before exposure to glutamate, neuronal damage in CA1 was attenuated. The strongest protection was observed when the interval between the heat shock and the exposure to glutamate was 3 days, which coincided with the maximal induction of a 72 kDa heat shock protein in neurons. When the expression of a 72 kDa heat shock protein was suppressed by the antisense oligonucleotide, the protective effect of the heat shock was completely inhibited. Glutamate itself also induced a 72 kDa heat shock protein in neurons, region-dependently, 24 h after the exposure. The signal of a 72 kDa heat shock protein in CA3 and dentate gyrus was significantly stronger than that in CA1. When the antisense oligonucleotide was applied, the damage in CA3 and dentate gyrus was exaggerated dose-dependently, and this effect was more remarkable in CA3 than in the dentate gyrus. Based on these data, we concluded that: (i) a 72 kDa heat shock protein has a protective effect against the selective vulnerability of CA1 neurons, (ii) a 72 kDa heat shock protein is an essential factor for the tolerance exhibited by CA3 neurons, and (iii) dentate gyrus tolerance is based on mechanisms other than those mediated through a 72 kDa heat shock protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Sato
- Laboratory of Chemical Pharmacology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Tokyo, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan.
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Tauskela JS, Comas T, Hewitt K, Monette R, Paris J, Hogan M, Morley P. Cross-tolerance to otherwise lethal N-methyl-D-aspartate and oxygen-glucose deprivation in preconditioned cortical cultures. Neuroscience 2002; 107:571-84. [PMID: 11720781 DOI: 10.1016/s0306-4522(01)00381-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
In vitro ischemic preconditioning induced by subjecting rat cortical cultures to nonlethal oxygen-glucose deprivation protects against a subsequent exposure to otherwise lethal oxygen-glucose deprivation. We provide evidence that attenuation of the postsynaptic N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor- and Ca(2+)-dependent neurotoxicity underlies oxygen-glucose deprivation tolerance. It is demonstrated that extended tolerance to otherwise lethal NMDA or oxygen-glucose deprivation can be induced by either of their sublethal forms of preconditioning. These four pathways are linked, since NMDA receptor blockade during preconditioning by oxygen-glucose deprivation eliminates tolerance. These results suggest that NMDA tolerance, induced by nonlethal activation of these receptors during oxygen-glucose deprivation preconditioning, underlies oxygen-glucose deprivation tolerance. Several neurotoxic downstream Ca(2+)-dependent signaling events specifically linked to NMDA receptor activation are attenuated during otherwise lethal oxygen-glucose deprivation in preconditioned cultures. Specifically, calpain activation, as well as degradation of microtubule-associated protein-2 and postsynaptic density-95, are attenuated 2 h following otherwise lethal NMDA treatment alone or oxygen-glucose deprivation in preconditioned cultures. Formation of microtubule-associated protein-2-labeled dendritic varicosities is also attenuated in preconditioned cultures within 1 h of lethal oxygen-glucose deprivation or NMDA application. Intracellular Ca(2+) levels, measured using the high- or low-affinity dyes Fluo-4 (K(d) approximately equal 345 nM) or Fluo-4FF (K(d) approximately equal 9.7 microM) respectively, are markedly attenuated during lethal oxygen-glucose deprivation in preconditioned cultures.Collectively, the results suggest the attenuation of the postsynaptic NMDA-mediated component of otherwise lethal oxygen-glucose deprivation through the suppression of Ca(2+)-dependent neurotoxic signaling, a mechanism that is initially induced by transient nonlethal activation of this receptor during ischemic preconditioning.
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Affiliation(s)
- J S Tauskela
- National Research Council of Canada, Institute for Biological Sciences, Ottawa, ON, Canada.
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Pringle AK, Niyadurupola N, Johns P, Anthony DC, Iannotti F. Interleukin-1beta exacerbates hypoxia-induced neuronal damage, but attenuates toxicity produced by simulated ischaemia and excitotoxicity in rat organotypic hippocampal slice cultures. Neurosci Lett 2001; 305:29-32. [PMID: 11356300 DOI: 10.1016/s0304-3940(01)01795-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Using organotypic hippocampal slice cultures we have investigated the actions of Interleukin-1 (IL-1) in a number of injury paradigms. Low concentrations of IL-1 potentiated hypoxia-induced neurodegeneration whilst high concentrations had no effect. In contrast, higher concentrations of IL-1 were strongly neuroprotective in models of combined oxygen/glucose deprivation and N-methyl-D-aspartate toxicity, but no potentiation was observed at low IL-1 concentrations. Both protective and toxic effects of IL-1 were fully antagonized by IL-1 receptor antagonist. These data demonstrate that the effects of IL-1 on neuronal injury are complex, and may be directly related to the injury paradigm studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- A K Pringle
- Centre for Neuroscience, University of Southampton, Boldrewood Building, Bassett Crescent East, SO16 7PX, Southampton, UK. akp @soton.ac.uk
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Schurr A, Payne RS, Tseng MT, Gozal E, Gozal D. Excitotoxic preconditioning elicited by both glutamate and hypoxia and abolished by lactate transport inhibition in rat hippocampal slices. Neurosci Lett 2001; 307:151-4. [PMID: 11438386 DOI: 10.1016/s0304-3940(01)01937-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Ischemic preconditioning (PC) of heart and brain is a well-documented phenomenon. However, the mechanism underlying the increased resistance to severe ischemia by a preceding mild ischemic exposure remains unclear. Over a decade ago, we demonstrated the existence of hypoxic PC in the hippocampal slice preparation. Here we report the ability of a short exposure to toxic levels of glutamate to heighten the tolerance of hippocampal slices to a subsequent, longer exposure to the excitotoxin. Glutamate PC could also be induced by a short hypoxic exposure, suggesting a common mechanistic pathway for all PC stimuli. Since glutamate receptor activation and hypoxia increase tissue lactate production, a-cyano-4-hydroxycinnamate was applied during the PC period to completely abolished PC. These results indicate that excitotoxic PC and hypoxic PC share similar mechanisms that possibly involve lactate production and its neuronal utilization.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Schurr
- Brain Attack Research Laboratory, Department of Anesthesiology, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, KY 40292, USA.
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Garnier P, Demougeot C, Bertrand N, Prigent-Tessier A, Marie C, Beley A. Stress response to hypoxia in gerbil brain: HO-1 and Mn SOD expression and glial activation. Brain Res 2001; 893:301-9. [PMID: 11223022 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-8993(01)02009-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Hypoxic preconditioning has been shown to induce neuroprotection against a subsequent damaging insult. In order to study the underlying molecular and cellular mechanisms of hypoxic preconditioning, we investigated, in gerbil hippocampus, the effects in vivo of transient exposure to hypoxia (4% O(2) for 6 min followed by either 48 h or 7 days of reoxygenation) (i) on the induction of 72 kDa heat shock protein (HSP72), heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) and manganese superoxide dismutase (Mn SOD) as assessed by Western immunoblotting and (ii) on the astroglial and microglial activation as detected by both immunohistochemistry and Western immunoblotting for GFAP, and histochemistry for isolectin B4, respectively. Our data show that, although hypoxia and subsequent reoxygenation led to neither neuronal damage nor HSP72 induction in gerbil hippocampus, it induced a progressive and sustained expression of HO-1 and Mn SOD. As expected from the absence of neuronal death, hypoxia was not associated with microglial activation but led to a significant astrocytic activation. These findings demonstrate that transient hypoxia enhances the antioxidative enzymatic defenses of the brain, which are susceptible to increased tolerance against a subsequent damaging insult.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Garnier
- Unité de Biochimie-Pharmacologie-Toxicologie, Laboratoire de Pharmacodynamie, Faculté de Pharmacie, BP 87900, 21079 Dijon Cedex, France
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Abe H, Nowak TS. Postischemic temperature as a modulator of the stress response in brain: dissociation of heat shock protein 72 induction from ischemic tolerance after bilateral carotid artery occlusion in the gerbil. Neurosci Lett 2000; 295:54-8. [PMID: 11078935 DOI: 10.1016/s0304-3940(00)01577-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Brief ischemia induces tolerance to subsequent more severe insults, and induction of the 70 kDa heat shock/stress protein, hsp72, has been suggested to play a role. This study tested the requirement for hsp72 expression in a gerbil tolerance model in which postischemic temperature was varied to modulate the level of hsp72 induction. Gerbils were subjected to 2 min bilateral common carotid artery occlusion and kept under halothane anesthesia for 90 min, during which rectal temperature was either maintained at 37 degrees C (normothermic, NT) or elevated to 39.5 degrees C (hyperthermic, HT) during 15-60 min recirculation. Hsp72 mRNA expression was determined by in situ hybridization with a (35)S-labeled oligonucleotide probe at 3, 24 and 48 h. Separate groups were subjected to a test challenge of 5 min ischemia 48 h after the priming insult, and CA1 neuron counts were obtained at 1 week. Significant protection was observed in both NT and HT groups. However, while 90% of hippocampi from NT animals showed detectable protection of CA1 neurons, less than half showed detectable hsp72 mRNA induction. These results indicate that, within the limits of experimental detection, hsp72 expression is not required for induction of ischemic tolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Abe
- Department of Neurology, University of Tennessee, 855 Monroe Avenue, Link 415, TN, Memphis, USA
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Zagrean L, Moldovan M, Munteanu AM, Spulber S, Voiculescu B, Popescu B. Early electrocortical changes consistent with ischemic preconditioning in rat. J Cell Mol Med 2000; 4:215-223. [PMID: 12167290 PMCID: PMC6741302 DOI: 10.1111/j.1582-4934.2000.tb00119.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Ischemic preconditioning (IPC) of the brain describes the neuroprotection induced by a short, conditioning ischemic episode (CIE) to a subsequent severe (test) ischemic episode (TIE). Most of the supporting evidence for IPC is based on histological assessment, several days after TIE. The aim of this study is to investigate if changes induced by IPC can be detected within 30 min of reperfusion following the ischemic episode. A rat model of "four-vessel occlusion" transient global cerebral ischemia and parametric analysis of electrocorticogram were used. A control group was subjected directly to a 10 min TIE, and in a preconditioned group TIE was induced 48 h after a 3 min CIE. Quantitative histology was performed 48 h after TIE. Our key finding is that, 30 min after reperfusion, there is a significant increase in the electrocortical slow activity in the control group but not in the preconditioned group. Moreover the increase inversely correlates with the degree of electrocortical suppression during seconds 10 to 15 after the onset of the ischemic episode.
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Affiliation(s)
- L. Zagrean
- Department of Physiology, "Carol Davila" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 8 Eroilor Sanitari Blvd., 76241 Bucharest, Romania.
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