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In Vitro Evaluation of Farnesyltransferase Inhibitor and its Effect in Combination with 3-Hydroxy-3-Methyl-Glutaryl-CoA Reductase Inhibitor against Naegleria fowleri. Pathogens 2020; 9:pathogens9090689. [PMID: 32842691 PMCID: PMC7560193 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens9090689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2020] [Revised: 08/20/2020] [Accepted: 08/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Free-living amoeba Naegleria fowleri causes a rapidly fatal infection primary amebic meningoencephalitis (PAM) in children. The drug of choice in treating PAM is amphotericin B, but very few patients treated with amphotericin B have survived PAM. Therefore, development of efficient drugs is a critical unmet need. We identified that the FDA-approved pitavastatin, an inhibitor of HMG Co-A reductase involved in the mevalonate pathway, was equipotent to amphotericin B against N. fowleri trophozoites. The genome of N. fowleri contains a gene encoding protein farnesyltransferase (FT), the last common enzyme for products derived from the mevalonate pathway. Here, we show that a clinically advanced FT inhibitor lonafarnib is active against different strains of N. fowleri with EC50 ranging from 1.5 to 9.2 µM. A combination of lonafarnib and pitavastatin at different ratios led to 95% growth inhibition of trophozoites and the combination achieved a dose reduction of about 2- to 28-fold for lonafarnib and 5- to 30-fold for pitavastatin. No trophozoite with normal morphology was found when trophozoites were treated for 48 h with a combination of 1.7 µM each of lonafarnib and pitavastatin. Combination of lonafarnib and pitavastatin may contribute to the development of a new drug regimen for the treatment of PAM.
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Probst A, Nguyen TN, El-Sakkary N, Skinner D, Suzuki BM, Buckner FS, Gelb MH, Caffrey CR, Debnath A. Bioactivity of Farnesyltransferase Inhibitors Against Entamoeba histolytica and Schistosoma mansoni. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2019; 9:180. [PMID: 31192168 PMCID: PMC6548881 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2019.00180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2019] [Accepted: 05/09/2019] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The protozoan parasite Entamoeba histolytica can induce amebic colitis and amebic liver abscess. First-line drugs for the treatment of amebiasis are nitroimidazoles, particularly metronidazole. Metronidazole has side effects and potential drug resistance is a concern. Schistosomiasis, a chronic and painful infection, is caused by various species of the Schistosoma flatworm. There is only one partially effective drug, praziquantel, a worrisome situation should drug resistance emerge. As many essential metabolic pathways and enzymes are shared between eukaryotic organisms, it is possible to conceive of small molecule interventions that target more than one organism or target, particularly when chemical matter is already available. Farnesyltransferase (FT), the last common enzyme for products derived from the mevalonate pathway, is vital for diverse functions, including cell differentiation and growth. Both E. histolytica and Schistosoma mansoni genomes encode FT genes. In this study, we phenotypically screened E. histolytica and S. mansoni in vitro with the established FT inhibitors, lonafarnib and tipifarnib, and with 125 tipifarnib analogs previously screened against both the whole organism and/or the FT of Trypanosoma brucei and Trypanosoma cruzi. For E. histolytica, we also explored whether synergy arises by combining lonafarnib and metronidazole or lonafarnib with statins that modulate protein prenylation. We demonstrate the anti-amebic and anti-schistosomal activities of lonafarnib and tipifarnib, and identify 17 tipifarnib analogs with more than 75% growth inhibition at 50 μM against E. histolytica. Apart from five analogs of tipifarnib exhibiting activity against both E. histolytica and S. mansoni, 10 additional analogs demonstrated anti-schistosomal activity (severe degenerative changes at 10 μM after 24 h). Analysis of the structure-activity relationship available for the T. brucei FT suggests that FT may not be the relevant target in E. histolytica and S. mansoni. For E. histolytica, combination of metronidazole and lonafarnib resulted in synergism for growth inhibition. Also, of a number of statins tested, simvastatin exhibited moderate anti-amebic activity which, when combined with lonafarnib, resulted in slight synergism. Even in the absence of a definitive molecular target, identification of potent anti-parasitic tipifarnib analogs encourages further exploration while the synergistic combination of metronidazole and lonafarnib offers a promising treatment strategy for amebiasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Probst
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Thi N Nguyen
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Nelly El-Sakkary
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Danielle Skinner
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Brian M Suzuki
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Frederick S Buckner
- Division of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Center for Emerging and Reemerging Infectious Diseases, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Michael H Gelb
- Departments of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Conor R Caffrey
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Anjan Debnath
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
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Surana K, Chaudhary B, Diwaker M, Sharma S. Benzophenone: a ubiquitous scaffold in medicinal chemistry. MEDCHEMCOMM 2018; 9:1803-1817. [PMID: 30542530 DOI: 10.1039/c8md00300a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2018] [Accepted: 08/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The benzophenone scaffold represents a ubiquitous structure in medicinal chemistry because it is found in several naturally occurring molecules which exhibit a variety of biological activities, such as anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and antiviral. In addition, various synthetic benzophenone motifs are present in marketed drugs. They also represent important ingredients in perfumes and can act as photoinitiators. This review will provide an overview of benzophenone moieties with medicinal aspects synthesized in the last 15 years and will cover the most potent molecule in each report. In this review, only benzophenones with substitutions on their aryl rings, i.e. diphenyl ketone analogues, have been covered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khemchand Surana
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry , National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research , Ahmedabad (NIPER-A) , Gandhinagar , Gujarat - 382355 , India .
| | - Bharatkumar Chaudhary
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry , National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research , Ahmedabad (NIPER-A) , Gandhinagar , Gujarat - 382355 , India .
| | - Monika Diwaker
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry , National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research , Ahmedabad (NIPER-A) , Gandhinagar , Gujarat - 382355 , India .
| | - Satyasheel Sharma
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry , National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research , Ahmedabad (NIPER-A) , Gandhinagar , Gujarat - 382355 , India .
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Tuladhar A, Rein KS. Manumycin A Is a Potent Inhibitor of Mammalian Thioredoxin Reductase-1 (TrxR-1). ACS Med Chem Lett 2018; 9:318-322. [PMID: 29670693 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.7b00489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2017] [Accepted: 03/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The anticancer effect of manumycin A (Man A) has been attributed to the inhibition of farnesyl transferase (FTase), an enzyme that is responsible for post-translational modification of Ras proteins. However, we have discovered that Man A inhibits mammalian cytosolic thioredoxin reductase 1 (TrxR-1) in a time-dependent manner, with an IC50 of 272 nM with preincubation and 1586 nM without preincubation. The inhibition of TrxR-1 by Man A is irreversible and is the result of a covalent interaction between Man A and TrxR-1. Evidence presented herein demonstrates that Man A forms a Michael adduct with the selenocysteine residue, which is located in the C-terminal redox center of TrxR-1. Inhibitors of TrxR-1, which act through this mechanism, convert TrxR-1 into a SecTRAP, which utilizes NADPH to reduce oxygen to superoxide radical anion (O2-•).
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Affiliation(s)
- Anupama Tuladhar
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida International University, 11200 SW Eighth Street, Miami, Florida 33199, United States
| | - Kathleen S. Rein
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida International University, 11200 SW Eighth Street, Miami, Florida 33199, United States
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Abstract
Apicomplexan parasites include some of the most prevalent and deadly human pathogens. Novel antiparasitic drugs are urgently needed. Synthesis and metabolism of isoprenoids may present multiple targets for therapeutic intervention. The apicoplast-localized methylerythritol phosphate (MEP) pathway for isoprenoid precursor biosynthesis is distinct from the mevalonate (MVA) pathway used by the mammalian host, and this pathway is apparently essential in most Apicomplexa. In this review, we discuss the current field of research on production and metabolic fates of isoprenoids in apicomplexan parasites, including the acquisition of host isoprenoid precursors and downstream products. We describe recent work identifying the first MEP pathway regulator in apicomplexan parasites, and introduce several promising areas for ongoing research into this well-validated antiparasitic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leah Imlay
- Department of Molecular Microbiology Washington University School of Medicine St. Louis, MO 63110 USA
| | - Audrey R Odom
- Department of Pediatrics Washington University School of Medicine St. Louis, MO 63110 USA & Department of Molecular Microbiology Washington University School of Medicine St. Louis, MO 63110 USA
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Shen M, Pan P, Li Y, Li D, Yu H, Hou T. Farnesyltransferase and geranylgeranyltransferase I: structures, mechanism, inhibitors and molecular modeling. Drug Discov Today 2014; 20:267-76. [PMID: 25450772 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2014.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2014] [Revised: 09/13/2014] [Accepted: 10/09/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Farnesyltransferase (FTase) and geranylgeranyltransferase type I (GGTase-I) have crucial roles in the post-translational modifications of Ras proteins and, therefore, they are promising therapeutic targets for the treatment of various Ras-induced cancers and several other kinds of diseases. In this review, we provide an overview of the structures and biological functions of FTase and GGTase-I. Then, we summarize the typical inhibitors of FTase and GGTase-I, and highlight the drug candidates in clinical trials. In addition, we survey some recent advances in computer-aided drug design (CADD) and molecular modeling studies of FTase and GGTase-I.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingyun Shen
- Institute of Functional Nano and Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, China; College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China
| | - Peichen Pan
- Institute of Functional Nano and Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, China; College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China
| | - Youyong Li
- Institute of Functional Nano and Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, China
| | - Dan Li
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China
| | - Huidong Yu
- Crystal Pharmatech, 707 Alexander Road Building 2, Suite 208, Princeton, NJ 08540, USA.
| | - Tingjun Hou
- Institute of Functional Nano and Soft Materials (FUNSOM), Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, China; College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310058, China.
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Exploitation of auxotrophies and metabolic defects in Toxoplasma as therapeutic approaches. Int J Parasitol 2014; 44:109-20. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2013.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2013] [Revised: 09/22/2013] [Accepted: 09/22/2013] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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8
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Targeting lipid biosynthesis and salvage in apicomplexan parasites for improved chemotherapies. Nat Rev Microbiol 2013; 11:823-35. [DOI: 10.1038/nrmicro3139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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Ochocki JD, Distefano MD. Prenyltransferase Inhibitors: Treating Human Ailments from Cancer to Parasitic Infections. MEDCHEMCOMM 2013; 4:476-492. [PMID: 25530833 DOI: 10.1039/c2md20299a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The posttranslational modification of protein prenylation is a covalent lipid modification on the C-terminus of substrate proteins that serves to enhance membrane affinity. Oncogenic proteins such as Ras have this modification and significant effort has been placed into developing inhibitors of the prenyltransferase enzymes for clinical therapy. In addition to cancer therapy, prenyltransferase inhibitors have begun to find important therapeutic uses in other diseases, including progeria, hepatitis C and D, parasitic infections, and other maladies. This review will trace the evolution of prenyltransferase inhibitors from their initial use as cancer therapeutics to their expanded applications for other diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua D Ochocki
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455 (USA)
| | - Mark D Distefano
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455 (USA)
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10
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Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE Cysteine residues of proteins participate in the catalysis of biochemical reactions, are crucial for redox reactions, and influence protein structure by the formation of disulfide bonds. Covalent posttranslational modifications (PTMs) of cysteine residues are important mediators of redox regulation and signaling by coupling protein activity to the cellular redox state, and moreover influence stability, function, and localization of proteins. A diverse group of protozoan and metazoan parasites are a major cause of diseases in humans, such as malaria, African trypanosomiasis, leishmaniasis, toxoplasmosis, filariasis, and schistosomiasis. RECENT ADVANCES Human parasites undergo dramatic morphological and metabolic changes while they pass complex life cycles and adapt to changing environments in host and vector. These processes are in part regulated by PTMs of parasitic proteins. In human parasites, posttranslational cysteine modifications are involved in crucial cellular events such as signal transduction (S-glutathionylation and S-nitrosylation), redox regulation of proteins (S-glutathionylation and S-nitrosylation), protein trafficking and subcellular localization (palmitoylation and prenylation), as well as invasion into and egress from host cells (palmitoylation). This review focuses on the occurrence and mechanisms of these cysteine modifications in parasites. CRITICAL ISSUES Studies on cysteine modifications in human parasites are so far largely based on in vitro experiments. FUTURE DIRECTIONS The in vivo regulation of cysteine modifications and their role in parasite development will be of great interest in order to understand redox signaling in parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther Jortzik
- Interdisciplinary Research Center, Justus Liebig University, Giessen, Germany
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Jordão FM, Kimura EA, Katzin AM. Isoprenoid biosynthesis in the erythrocytic stages of Plasmodium falciparum. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2012; 106 Suppl 1:134-41. [PMID: 21881768 DOI: 10.1590/s0074-02762011000900018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2011] [Accepted: 06/15/2011] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of new drugs is one strategy for malaria control. Biochemical pathways localised in the apicoplast of the parasite, such as the synthesis of isoprenic precursors, are excellent targets because they are different or absent in the human host. Isoprenoids are a large and highly diverse group of natural products with many functions and their synthesis is essential for the parasite's survival. During the last few years, the genes, enzymes, intermediates and mechanisms of this biosynthetic route have been elucidated. In this review, we comment on some aspects of the methylerythritol phosphate pathway and discuss the presence of diverse isoprenic products such as dolichol, ubiquinone, carotenoids, menaquinone and isoprenylated proteins, which are biosynthesised during the intraerythrocytic stages of Plasmodium falciparum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabiana Morandi Jordão
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
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12
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Nair SC, Brooks CF, Goodman CD, Sturm A, Strurm A, McFadden GI, Sundriyal S, Anglin JL, Song Y, Moreno SNJ, Striepen B. Apicoplast isoprenoid precursor synthesis and the molecular basis of fosmidomycin resistance in Toxoplasma gondii. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 208:1547-59. [PMID: 21690250 PMCID: PMC3135366 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20110039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Expression of a bacterial transporter protein in Toxoplasma gondii results in parasite susceptibility to Formidomycin, a drug targeting isoprenoid precursor synthesis. Apicomplexa are important pathogens that include the causative agents of malaria, toxoplasmosis, and cryptosporidiosis. Apicomplexan parasites contain a relict chloroplast, the apicoplast. The apicoplast is indispensable and an attractive drug target. The apicoplast is home to a 1-deoxy-d-xylulose-5-phosphate (DOXP) pathway for the synthesis of isoprenoid precursors. This pathway is believed to be the most conserved function of the apicoplast, and fosmidomycin, a specific inhibitor of the pathway, is an effective antimalarial. Surprisingly, fosmidomycin has no effect on most other apicomplexans. Using Toxoplasma gondii, we establish that the pathway is essential in parasites that are highly fosmidomycin resistant. We define the molecular basis of resistance and susceptibility, experimentally testing various host and parasite contributions in T. gondii and Plasmodium. We demonstrate that in T. gondii the parasite plasma membrane is a critical barrier to drug uptake. In strong support of this hypothesis, we engineer de novo drug-sensitive T. gondii parasites by heterologous expression of a bacterial transporter protein. Mice infected with these transgenic parasites can now be cured from a lethal challenge with fosmidomycin. We propose that the varied extent of metabolite exchange between host and parasite is a crucial determinator of drug susceptibility and a predictor of future resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sethu C Nair
- Department of Cellular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
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13
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In vitro and in vivo antiplasmodial activities of risedronate and its interference with protein prenylation in Plasmodium falciparum. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2011; 55:2026-31. [PMID: 21357292 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01820-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
The increasing resistance of malarial parasites to almost all available drugs calls for the identification of new compounds and the detection of novel targets. Here, we establish the antimalarial activities of risedronate, one of the most potent bisphosphonates clinically used to treat bone resorption diseases, against blood stages of Plasmodium falciparum (50% inhibitory concentration [IC50] of 20.3±1.0 μM). We also suggest a mechanism of action for risedronate against the intraerythrocytic stage of P. falciparum and show that protein prenylation seems to be modulated directly by this drug. Risedronate inhibits the transfer of the farnesyl pyrophosphate group to parasite proteins, an effect not observed for the transfer of geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate. Our in vivo experiments further demonstrate that risedronate leads to an 88.9% inhibition of the rodent parasite Plasmodium berghei in mice on the seventh day of treatment; however, risedronate treatment did not result in a general increase of survival rates.
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14
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Seeber F, Soldati-Favre D. Metabolic Pathways in the Apicoplast of Apicomplexa. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2010; 281:161-228. [DOI: 10.1016/s1937-6448(10)81005-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
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Sousa SF, Fernandes PA, Ramos MJ. Molecular dynamics simulations on the critical states of the farnesyltransferase enzyme. Bioorg Med Chem 2009; 17:3369-78. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2009.03.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2008] [Revised: 03/16/2009] [Accepted: 03/20/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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16
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Kohring K, Wiesner J, Altenkämper M, Sakowski J, Silber K, Hillebrecht A, Haebel P, Dahse HM, Ortmann R, Jomaa H, Klebe G, Schlitzer M. Development of Benzophenone-Based Farnesyltransferase Inhibitors as Novel Antimalarials. ChemMedChem 2008; 3:1217-31. [DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.200800043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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17
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Sousa SF, Fernandes PA, Ramos MJ. Enzyme Flexibility and the Catalytic Mechanism of Farnesyltransferase: Targeting the Relation. J Phys Chem B 2008; 112:8681-91. [DOI: 10.1021/jp711214j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sérgio F. Sousa
- REQUIMTE, Departamento de Química, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 687, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
| | - Pedro A. Fernandes
- REQUIMTE, Departamento de Química, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 687, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
| | - Maria João Ramos
- REQUIMTE, Departamento de Química, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 687, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
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18
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Moreno SNJ, Li ZH. Anti-infectives targeting the isoprenoid pathway of Toxoplasma gondii. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2008; 12:253-63. [PMID: 18269336 DOI: 10.1517/14728222.12.3.253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Isoprenoids are an extensive group of natural products with diverse structures consisting of various numbers of five carbon isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) units. OBJECTIVE We review here what is known about the isoprenoid pathway in T. gondii. METHODS Recent primary literature is reviewed. RESULTS/CONCLUSION Genomic evidence points toward the presence of a 1-deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate/2-C-methyl-D-erythritol 4-phosphate (DOXP/MEP) pathway, similar to the one found in plants, which will produce isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP). The DOXP/MEP pathway has been validated as a target in the related Apicomplexan parasite Plasmodium. The DOXP/MEP pathway in Toxoplasma has not been characterized. Downstream in the pathway, the enzyme farnesyl diphosphate synthase (FPPS) has a central role in forming important intermediates since farnesyl diphosphate (FPP) is a precursor of critical molecules with fundamental biological function such as dolichols, heme a, cholesterol, farnesylated proteins and others. Strong evidence indicates that this enzyme is a valid target for drugs since bisphosphonates, which are specific FPPS inhibitors, inhibited parasite growth in vitro and in vivo. Our hypothesis is that the isoprenoid pathway constitutes a major novel target for the treatment of toxoplasmosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia N J Moreno
- University of Georgia, Department of Cellular Biology and Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases, 500 D. W. Brooks Dr, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA.
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19
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Ling Y, Li ZH, Miranda K, Oldfield E, Moreno SNJ. The farnesyl-diphosphate/geranylgeranyl-diphosphate synthase of Toxoplasma gondii is a bifunctional enzyme and a molecular target of bisphosphonates. J Biol Chem 2007; 282:30804-16. [PMID: 17724033 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m703178200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Farnesyl-diphosphate synthase (FPPS) catalyzes the synthesis of farnesyl diphosphate, an important precursor of sterols, dolichols, ubiquinones, and prenylated proteins. We report the cloning and characterization of two Toxoplasma gondii farnesyl-diphosphate synthase (TgFPPS) homologs. A single genetic locus produces two transcripts, TgFPPS and TgFPPSi, by alternative splicing. Both isoforms were heterologously expressed in Escherichia coli, but only TgFPPS was active. The protein products predicted from the nucleotide sequences have 646 and 605 amino acids and apparent molecular masses of 69.5 and 64.5 kDa, respectively. Several conserved sequence motifs found in other prenyl-diphosphate synthases are present in both TgFPPSs. TgFPPS was also expressed in the baculovirus system and was biochemically characterized. In contrast to the FPPS of other eukaryotic organisms, TgFPPS is bifunctional, catalyzing the formation of both farnesyl diphosphate and geranylgeranyl diphosphate. TgFPPS localizes to the mitochondria, as determined by the co-localisation of the affinity-purified antibodies against the protein with MitoTracker, and in accord with the presence of an N-terminal mitochondria-targeting signal in the protein. This enzyme is an attractive target for drug development, because the order of inhibition of the enzyme by a number of bisphosphonates is the same as that for inhibition of parasite growth. In summary, we report the first bifunctional farnesyl-diphosphate/geranylgeranyl-diphosphate synthase identified in eukaryotes, which, together with previous results, establishes this enzyme as a valid target for the chemotherapy of toxoplasmosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Ling
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
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20
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Sousa SF, Fernandes PA, Ramos MJ. Theoretical studies on farnesyltransferase: The distances paradox explained. Proteins 2006; 66:205-18. [PMID: 17068802 DOI: 10.1002/prot.21219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
In spite of the enormous interest that has been devoted to its study, the mechanism of the enzyme farnesyltransferase (FTase) remains the subject of several crucial doubts. In this article, we shed a new light in one of the most fundamental dilemmas that characterize the mechanism of this puzzling enzyme commonly referred to as the "distances paradox", which arises from the existence of a large 8-A distance between the two reactive atoms in the reaction catalyzed by this enzyme: a Zn-bound cysteine sulphur atom from a peptidic substrate and the farnesyldiphosphate (FPP) carbon 1. This distance must be overcome for the reaction to occur. In this study, the two possible alternatives were evaluated by combining molecular mechanics (AMBER) and quantum chemical calculations (B3LYP). Basically, our results have shown that an activation of the Zn-bound cysteine thiolate with subsequent displacement from the zinc coordination sphere towards the FPP carbon 1 is not a realistic hypothesis of overcoming the large distance reported in the crystallographic structures of the ternary complexes between the two reactive atoms, but that a rotation involving the FPP molecule can bring the two atoms closer with moderate energetic cost, coherent with previous experimental data. This conclusion opens the door to an understanding of the chemical step in the farnesylation reaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sérgio Filipe Sousa
- REQUIMTE, Departamento de Química, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
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Sousa SF, Fernandes PA, Ramos MJ. Effective tailor-made force field parameterization of the several Zn coordination environments in the puzzling FTase enzyme: opening the door to the full understanding of its elusive catalytic mechanism. Theor Chem Acc 2006. [DOI: 10.1007/s00214-006-0170-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Protein Prenylation: An (Almost) Comprehensive Overview on Discovery History, Enzymology, and Significance in Physiology and Disease. MONATSHEFTE FUR CHEMIE 2006. [DOI: 10.1007/s00706-006-0534-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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Abstract
As an actively dividing organism, the intracellular parasite Toxoplasma gondii must adjust the size and composition of its membranes in order to accommodate changes due to housekeeping activities, to commit division and in fine to produce new viable progenies. Lipid inventory of T. gondii reveals that the biological membranes of this parasite are composed of a complex mixture of neutral and polar lipids. After examination of the origin of T. gondii membrane lipids, three categories of lipids can be described: (i) lipids scavenged by T. gondii from the host cell; (ii) lipids synthesized in large amounts by the parasite, independently from its host cell; and (iii) lipids produced de novo by the parasite, but whose synthesis does not come close to satisfying the entire parasite's needs. These latter must be adeptly acquired from the host environment. To this end, T. gondii diverts a large variety of lipid precursors from host cytoplasm and efficiently manufacture them into complex lipids. This rather remarkable reliance on host lipid resources for parasite survival opens new avenues to restrict parasite growth. Indeed, parasite starvation can be induced upon deprivation from essential host lipids. Lipid analogues with anti-proliferative properties are voraciously taken up by the parasites, which results in parasite membrane defects, and ultimately death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabelle Coppens
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, 615 N. Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA.
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Eastman RT, Buckner FS, Yokoyama K, Gelb MH, Van Voorhis WC. Thematic review series: lipid posttranslational modifications. Fighting parasitic disease by blocking protein farnesylation. J Lipid Res 2005; 47:233-40. [PMID: 16339110 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.r500016-jlr200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Protein farnesylation is a form of posttranslational modification that occurs in most, if not all, eukaryotic cells. Inhibitors of protein farnesyltransferase (PFTIs) have been developed as anticancer chemotherapeutic agents. Using the knowledge gained from the development of PFTIs for the treatment of cancer, researchers are currently investigating the use of PFTIs for the treatment of eukaryotic pathogens. This "piggy-back" approach not only accelerates the development of a chemotherapeutic agent for protozoan pathogens but is also a means of mitigating the costs associated with de novo drug design. PFTIs have already been shown to be efficacious in the treatment of eukaryotic pathogens in animal models, including both Trypanosoma brucei, the causative agent of African sleeping sickness, and Plasmodium falciparum, one of the causative agents of malaria. Here, current evidence and progress are summarized that support the targeting of protein farnesyltransferase for the treatment of parasitic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard T Eastman
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
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25
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Sonda S, Hehl AB. Lipid biology of Apicomplexa: perspectives for new drug targets, particularly for Toxoplasma gondii. Trends Parasitol 2005; 22:41-7. [PMID: 16300997 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2005.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2005] [Revised: 09/20/2005] [Accepted: 11/07/2005] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Development of effective therapies for intracellular eukaryotic pathogens is a serious challenge, given the protected location of these pathogens and the similarity of their biology to that of the host. Identifying cellular processes that are unique to the parasite is therefore a crucial step towards defining appropriate drug targets. In the case of the apicomplexan parasite Toxoplasma gondii, the need to find alternative treatments is imperative because of the poor tolerability and frequent side-effects associated with existing therapeutic strategies. The discovery that the parasite uses lipid synthetic pathways which are different from, or absent in, the mammalian host is now driving a renewed interest in T. gondii lipid biology. Recent achievements in this field are promising and suggest that the elucidation of lipid pathways will provide new opportunities for designing potent antiparasitic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Sonda
- Institute of Parasitology, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 266a, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland.
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26
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Kettler K, Wiesner J, Silber K, Haebel P, Ortmann R, Sattler I, Dahse HM, Jomaa H, Klebe G, Schlitzer M. Non-thiol farnesyltransferase inhibitors: N-(4-aminoacylamino-3-benzoylphenyl)-3-[5-(4-nitrophenyl)-2 furyl]acrylic acid amides and their antimalarial activity. Eur J Med Chem 2005; 40:93-101. [PMID: 15642414 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2004.09.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2004] [Revised: 09/01/2004] [Accepted: 09/06/2004] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Water solubility was previously found to be essential for in vivo-antimalarial activity of a novel type of benzophenone-based farnesyltransferase inhibitors. Introduction of a alpha-amino group into the phenylacetic acid substructure provided more soluble compounds with high farnesyltransferase inhibitory activity. The in vitro-antimalarial activity was detrimentally influenced by this structural modification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katja Kettler
- Department für Pharmazie, Zentrum für Pharmaforschung, Ludwig-Maximilians Universität München, Butenandtstrasse 5-13, 81377 München, Germany
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Maurer-Stroh S, Washietl S, Eisenhaber F. Protein prenyltransferases: anchor size, pseudogenes and parasites. Biol Chem 2003; 384:977-89. [PMID: 12956414 DOI: 10.1515/bc.2003.110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Lipid modification of eukaryotic proteins by protein prenyltransferases is required for critical signaling pathways, cell cycle progression, cytoskeleton remodeling, induction of apoptosis and vesicular trafficking. This review analyzes the influence of distinct states of sequential posttranslational processing that can be obtained after single or double prenylation, reversible palmitoylation, proteolytic cleavage of the C-terminus and possible reversible carboxymethylation. This series of modifications, as well as the exact length of the prenyl anchor, are determinants in protein-membrane and specific protein-protein interactions of protein prenyltransferase substrates. Furthermore, the occurrence and distribution of pseudogenes of protein prenyltransferase subunits are discussed. Besides being developed as anti-cancer agents, prenyltransferase inhibitors are effective against an increasing number of parasitic diseases. Extensive screens for protein prenyltransferases in genomic data of fungal and protozoan pathogens unveil a series of new pharmacologic targets for prenyltransferase inhibition, including the parasites Brugia malayi, Onchocerca volvulus, Aspergillus nidulans, Pneumocystis carinii, Entamoeba histolytica, Strongyloides stercoralis, Trichinella spiralis and Cryptosporidium parvum.
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Adjei AA. Farnesyltransferase inhibitors. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2003; 21:127-44. [PMID: 15338743 DOI: 10.1016/s0921-4410(03)21006-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/30/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Alex A Adjei
- Division of Medical Oncology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA.
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Chakrabarti D, Da Silva T, Barger J, Paquette S, Patel H, Patterson S, Allen CM. Protein farnesyltransferase and protein prenylation in Plasmodium falciparum. J Biol Chem 2002; 277:42066-73. [PMID: 12194969 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m202860200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Comparison of the malaria parasite and mammalian protein prenyltransferases and their cellular substrates is important for establishing this enzyme as a target for developing antimalarial agents. Nineteen heptapeptides differing only in their carboxyl-terminal amino acid were tested as alternative substrates of partially purified Plasmodium falciparum protein farnesyltransferase. Only NRSCAIM and NRSCAIQ serve as substrates, with NRSCAIM being the best. Peptidomimetics, FTI-276 and GGTI-287, inhibit the transferase with IC(50) values of 1 and 32 nm, respectively. Incubation of P. falciparum-infected erythrocytes with [(3)H]farnesol labels 50- and 22-28-kDa proteins, whereas [(3)H]geranylgeraniol labels only 22-28-kDa proteins. The 50-kDa protein is shown to be farnesylated, whereas the 22-28-kDa proteins are geranylgeranylated, irrespective of the labeling prenol. Protein labeling is inhibited more than 50% by either 5 microm FTI-277 or GGTI-298. The same concentration of inhibitors also inhibits parasite growth from the ring stage by 50%, decreases expression of prenylated proteins as measured with prenyl-specific antibody, and inhibits parasite differentiation beyond the trophozoite stage. Furthermore, differentiation specific prenylation of P. falciparum proteins is demonstrated. Protein labeling is detected predominantly during the trophozoite to schizont and schizont to ring transitions. These results demonstrate unique properties of protein prenylation in P. falciparum: a limited specificity of the farnesyltransferase for peptide substrates compared with mammalian enzymes, the ability to use farnesol to label both farnesyl and geranylgeranyl moieties on proteins, differentiation specific protein prenylation, and the ability of peptidomimetic prenyltransferase inhibitors to block parasite differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Debopam Chakrabarti
- Department of Molecular Biology and Microbiology, University of Central Florida, Orlando 32816, USA
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Abstract
Coccidia provide a rich hunting ground for drug-designers, as there are significant biochemical differences between the parasites and their hosts. Recent years have brought the discovery of the plastid and its possible metabolic machinery, characterisation of acidocalcisomes, reports on the apparent absence from some coccidia of a typical mitochondrion, and the discovery of the mannitol cycle and shikimate pathway in the parasites. Moreover, modern technologies such as genomics and proteomics are bringing new insights into the biochemistry of coccidia and highlighting possible drug targets in abundance. A major issue for would-be drug discoverers is to decide upon the targets to prioritise. This review provides an update on recent findings on how coccidia differ biochemically from vertebrates. It includes discoveries within coccidian parasites themselves but also uses findings in Plasmodium to provide an overview of biochemical features that may be characteristics of many apicomplexan parasites and so potential targets for broad-spectrum drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- G H Coombs
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Institute of Biomedical and Life Sciences, Joseph Black Building, University of Glasgow, G12 8QQ, Glasgow, UK.
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