Polyamine transport and metabolism in mouse mammary gland. General properties and hormonal regulation

Polyamine levels in breast milk are associated with mothers' dietary intake and are higher in preterm than full-term human milk and formulas

BACKGROUND

Polyamine intake from milk is considered essential for post-natal maturation of the immune system and small intestine. The present study aimed to determine polyamine content in human milk after preterm delivery and the association with mothers' dietary intake. In comparison, the polyamine levels were compared with those in term breast milk and some corresponding formulas.

METHODS

Transitional breast milk was collected from 40 mothers delivering after 24-36 weeks of gestation, and from 12 mothers delivering after full term. Food intake was assessed in mothers delivering preterm babies using a 3-day diary. Polyamines were analysed by high-performance liquid chromatography.

RESULTS

The dietary intake of polyamines was significantly associated with breast milk content but weaker for spermine than for spermidine and putrescine. Total polyamine level was higher in preterm than term milk and lower in the corresponding formulas. Putrescine, spermidine and spermine contents [mean (SEM)] in preterm milk were 165.6 (25), 615.5 (80) and 167.7 (16) nmol dL⁻¹, respectively, with the levels of putrescine and spermidine being 50% and 25% higher than in term milk. The content of spermine did not differ.

CONCLUSIONS

Dietary intake of polyamines has an impact on the content in breast milk. The difference between human milk after preterm and term delivery might be considered when using donor human milk for preterm infants. The corresponding formulas had lower contents. Further studies are important for determining the relationship between tissue growth and maturation and optimal intake.

Lower polyamine levels in breast milk of obese mothers compared to mothers with normal body weight

BACKGROUND

Obesity is associated with risks for mother and infant, and the mothers' dietary habits influence breast milk composition. Polyamines are secreted in breast milk and are essential for the regulation of intestinal and immune function in newborns and infants. The present study aimed to investigate the level of polyamines in human milk obtained from obese and normal weight mothers at different times of lactation.

METHODS

Breast milk from 50 mothers was obtained at day 3, and at 1 and 2 months after delivery. The mothers had normal body weight [body mass index (BMI) < 25 kg m(-2) ] or were obese (BMI > 30 kg/m(2) ). A subgroup of obese mothers participated in a weight reduction programme during pregnancy. Polyamines were analysed using high-performance liquid chromatography.

RESULTS

The total polyamine content was significantly lower at all times in breast milk from obese mothers compared to milk from controls. Spermine levels did not differ between groups at any time in contrast to the levels of putrescine and spermidine. Putrescine concentrations were highest on day 3 and spermidine and spermine were highest at 1 month of lactation. The obese mothers, who received dietary advice during pregnancy based on the Nordic Nutrition Recommendations, had higher concentrations of putrescine and spermidine in their milk than the obese mothers without any intervention.

CONCLUSIONS

Polyamine concentrations were lower in breast milk from obese mothers compared to mothers with a normal weight. General dietary intervention in obese mothers increased the polyamine levels, suggesting that the low levels in obesity were at least partly associated with food habits. However, the consistency of spermine suggests a special metabolic function of this polyamine.

Recent advances in the molecular biology of metazoan polyamine transport

Very limited molecular knowledge exists about the identity and protein components of the ubiquitous polyamine transporters found in animal cells. However, a number of reports have been published over the last 5 years on potential candidates for metazoan polyamine permeases. We review the available evidence on these putative polyamine permeases, as well as establish a useful "identikit picture" of the general polyamine transport system, based on its properties as found in a wide spectrum of mammalian cells. Any molecular candidate encoding a putative "general" polyamine permease should fit that provided portrait. The current models proposed for the mechanism of polyamine internalization in mammalian cells are also briefly reviewed.

Characteristics of cellular polyamine transport in prokaryotes and eukaryotes

Polyamine content in cells is regulated by biosynthesis, degradation and transport. In Escherichia coli, there are two polyamine uptake systems, namely spermidine-preferential (PotABCD) and putrescine-specific (PotFGHI), which belong to the family of ATP binding cassette transporters. Putrescine-ornithine and cadaverine-lysine antiporters, PotE and CadB, each consisting of 12 transmembrane segments, are important for cell growth at acidic pH. Spermidine excretion protein (MdtJI) was also recently identified. When putrescine was used as energy source, PuuP functioned as a putrescine transporter. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, there are four kinds of polyamine uptake proteins (DUR3, SAM3, GAP1 and AGP2), consisting of either 12 or 16 transmembrane segments. Among them, DUR3 and SAM3 mostly contribute to polyamine uptake. There are also five kinds of polyamine excretion proteins (TPO1-5), consisting of 12 transmembrane segments. Among them, TPO1 and TPO5 are the most active proteins. Since a polyamine metabolizing enzyme, spermidine/spermine N(1)-acetyltransferase, is not present in yeast, five kinds of excretion proteins may exist. The current status of polyamine transport in mammalian and plant cells are reviewed.

Polyamine flux in Xenopus oocytes through hemi-gap junctional channels

Diverse polyamine transport systems have been described in different cells, but the molecular entities that mediate polyamine influx and efflux remain incompletely defined. We have previously demonstrated that spermidine efflux from oocytes is a simple electrodiffusive process, inhibitable by external Ca2+, consistent with permeation through a membrane cation channel. Hemi-gap junctional channels in Xenopus oocytes are formed from connexin 38 (Cx38), and produce a calcium-sensitive (Ic) current that is inhibited by external Ca2+. Spermidine efflux is also calcium sensitive, and removal of external calcium increases both Ic currents and spermidine efflux in Xenopus oocytes. Injection of Cx38 cRNA or Cx38 antisense oligonucleotides (to increase or decrease, respectively, Cx38 expression) also increases or decreases spermidine efflux in parallel. Spermidine efflux has a large voltage-dependent component, which is abolished with injection of Cx38 antisense oligonucleotides. In addition, spermidine uptake is significantly increased in Cx38 cRNA-injected oocytes in the absence of external calcium. The data indicate that hemi-gap junctional channels provide the Ca2+-inhibited pathway for electrodiffusive efflux of polyamines from oocytes, and it is likely that hemi-gap junctional channels provide Ca2+ and metabolism-sensitive polyamine permeation pathways in other cells.

Comparative uptake of polyamines by prostate and non-prostate cancer cell lines

The Km and Vmax of [14C]-radiolabeled polyamines were determined for PC-3 and AT3B-1 cell lines. With PC-3 Km values are in the following order: ornithine> spermidine> spermine> putrescine, while with AT3B-1 it was spermidine> ornithine> spermine> putrescine. To determine which of these polyamines exhibit higher accumulation, the relative uptake of all the four amines was studied with prostate (PC-3, AT3B-1, LNCaP) and non-prostate (MCF-7, KLN-205, OVCAR) cell lines at 10 and 20 microM after 1 hour. Spermine and spermidine accumulated at higher levels in prostate (AT3B-1 and LNCaP) over non-prostate cell lines (p < 0.01). Putrescine accumulated more in PC-3 and LNCaP than the non-prostate cancer cells.

Polyamine uptake systems in Escherichia coli

The polyamine content of cells is regulated by biosynthesis, degradation, and transport. In Escherichia coli, the genes for three different polyamine transport systems have been cloned and characterized. Two uptake systems (putrescine-specific and spermidine-preferential) are ABC transporters, each consisting of a periplasmic substrate binding protein, two transmembrane proteins, and a membrane-associated ATPase. The third transport system, catalyzed by PotE, mediates both uptake and excretion of putrescine. In this article, the properties of the first two polyamine uptake systems are reviewed in detail.

Binding of spermidine and putrescine to energized liver mitochondria

The binding of spermidine and putrescine to mitochondrial membranes was studied by applying a thermodynamic model of ligand-receptor interactions developed both for equilibrium and far-from-equilibrium binding processes (V. Di Noto, L. Dalla Via, A. Toninello, and M. Vidali Macromol. Theory Simul. 5, 165-181, 1996). Results demonstrate the presence of two monocoordinated binding sites (S1 and S2) for spermidine and one monocoordinated binding site (S2) for putrescine, all exhibiting high capacity and low affinity. It is proposed that differences in the polyamines' flexibility and hydrophilicity perhaps contributes to the observed variations in their interactions with the two sites. A comparison of the binding parameters of these polyamines with those of spermine reveals differences in the specific function of the S1 and S2 sites, identified in studies of spermine binding (L. Dalla Via, V. Di Noto, D. Siliprandi, and A. Toninello Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1284, 247-252, 1996).

Antizyme-dependent and -independent mechanisms are responsible for increased spermidine transport in amino acid-restricted human cancer cells

Amino acid deprivation can inhibit tumour cell proliferation. Since polyamines are required for cell growth, we hypothesised that their regulatory pathways can respond to amino acid restriction. We report here that exposure of human colon adenocarcinoma Caco-2 cells to a medium restricted for a single amino acid, but not for D-glucose, activates spermidine transport. The increase was rapid and seemed transient with a maximum 4-6 hr after amino acid removal. Kinetics showed that the maximal velocity of transport was solely increased in L-methionine- or L-leucine-deprived cells, indicating increased number of transporters. The intracellular level of complex of ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) with antizyme, a negative regulator of polyamine transport, was decreased by 16-29% in amino acid-deprived cells. However, exposure to limited amounts of amino acid increased transport without altering the ODC-antizyme complex level. We propose that antizyme-independent mechanisms, sensitive to the amino acid concentration, also participate to the control of spermidine transport.

N8-acetyl spermidine protects rat cerebellar granule cells from low K+-induced apoptosis

The endogenous polyamines have been extensively studied with respect to their role in cellular death mechanisms, although the results are contradictory. In contrast, their primary metabolites, the N-acetyl polyamines, have not been much studied. It has been hypothesized that the N-acetyl metabolites may play a role in cellular death mechanisms, and some of the variability between different reports may be due to altered polyamine metabolic capacities. Using primary cultures of rat cerebellar granule cells, the effects of N-acetyl metabolites have been examined on basal, cytosine beta-D-arabinofuranoside (Ara-C)-induced and low K+-induced apoptosis. None of the compounds affected either basal or Ara-C-induced apoptosis at low doses. At higher doses, all compounds were toxic. Two compounds, N8-acetyl spermidine and N1-acetyl spermine, were found to protect cells from low K+-induced apoptosis, which has been shown to be p53-independent. In contrast, the parent polyamines were devoid of protective activity at subtoxic doses. This represents the first time that an antiapoptotic effect of N-acetyl polyamines has been demonstrated. These results raise the possibility that these compounds may act as endogenous neuroprotectants. The lack of effect on basal apoptosis provides evidence of at least two forms of p53-independent apoptosis that can be regulated independently.

The spermidine transport system is regulated by ligand inactivation, endocytosis, and by the Npr1p Ser/Thr protein kinase in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

We have characterized the regulation of spermidine transport in yeast and identified some of the genes involved in its control. Disruption of the SPE2 gene encoding S-adenosylmethionine decarboxylase, which catalyzes an essential step in polyamine biosynthesis, upregulated the initial velocity of spermidine uptake in wild-type cells as well as in the polyamine transport-deficient pcp1 mutants. Exogenous spermidine rapidly inactivated spermidine transport with a half-life of approximately 10-15 min via a process that did not require de novo protein synthesis but was accelerated by cycloheximide addition. Conversely, reactivation of spermidine influx upon polyamine deprivation required active protein synthesis. The stability of polyamine carrier activity was increased 2-fold in polyamine-depleted spe2 deletion mutants, indicating that endogenous polyamines also contribute to the down-regulation of spermidine transport. Ligand-mediated repression of spermidine transport was delayed in end3 and end4 mutants that are deficient in the initial steps of the endocytic pathway, and spermidine uptake activity was increased 4- to 5-fold in end3 mutants relative to parental cells, although the stability of the transport system was similar in both strains. Disruption of the NPR1 gene, which encodes a putative Ser/Thr protein kinase essential for the reactivation of several nitrogen permeases, resulted in a 3-fold decrease in spermidine transport in NH4(+)-rich media but did not prevent its down-regulation by spermidine. The defect in spermidine transport was more pronounced in NH4(+)- than proline-grown npr1 cells, suggesting that NPR1 protects against nitrogen catabolite repression of polyamine uptake activity. These results suggest that (a) the polyamine carrier is an unstable protein subject to down-regulation by spermidine via a process involving ligand inactivation followed by endocytosis and that (b) NPR1 expression fully prevents nitrogen catabolite repression of polyamine transport, unlike the role predicted for that gene by the inactivation/reactivation model proposed for other nitrogen permeases.

Polyamines in goat's colostrum and milk

The concentration and secretion of putrescine (PTR), spermidine (SPD), and spermine (SPM) was examined in colostrum and milk of 60 dairy goats (Polish White and German Brown) during 90 days of lactation. It has been found that milk polyamine pattern is related to breed, age, offspring number, lactation period, milking time, and individual goat-to-goat variations. The mean level of PTR and SPD was significantly higher, whereas SPM level was significantly lower in German Brown than Polish White goats. These differences were maintained during whole observation period (90 days after parturition). Elder goats, bearing two and three kids, secreted colostrum with a higher concentration of PTR and a lower concentration of SPD than young goats having one kid. There was a highly significant positive relationship between the age or litter total weight and PTR concentration in colostrum of Polish White goats. In contrast to PTR, the SPD level was negatively correlated with the age or litter total weight. The daily secretion of PTR, SPD, and SPM progressively increased from the 1st to 90th day of lactation. It was dependent on the increase of milk secretion rate, which could be illustrated by the highly significant correlation between daily milk yield and secretion of SPD in milk of German Brown and Polish White goats. The concentration of SPD in milk sampled in the evening was usually higher than in that from morning milking, however, significant only in the case of German Brown goats. In general, goat's colostrum and milk are rich in polyamines, which the total concentration is the highest when compared to milk of other mammals examined so far (e.g., human, rat, sow, and cow).

Spermidine release from xenopus oocytes. Electrodiffusion through a membrane channel

The mechanism of spermidine release from Xenopus oocytes was examined by measuring release of radioactive [3H]spermidine under different ionic conditions, and under voltage-clamp. In normal solution (2 mM K+), the efflux rate is less than 1% per hour, and is stimulated approximately 2-fold by inclusion of Ca2+ (1 mm) in the incubation medium. Spermidine efflux is stimulated approximately 10-fold in high [K+] (KD98) solution. In KD98 solution, efflux is strongly inhibited by divalent cations (Ki for Ba2+ block of spermidine efflux is approximately 0.1 mM), but not by tetraethylammonium ions or verapamil. Spermidine efflux rates were not different between control oocytes and those expressing HRK1 inward rectifier K+ (Kir) channels. When the membrane potential was clamped, either by changing external [K+] in oocytes expressing HRK1, or by 2-microelectrode voltage-clamp, spermidine efflux was shown to be strongly dependent on voltage, as expected for a simple electrodiffusive process, where spermidine3+ is the effluxing species. This result argues against spermidine diffusing out as an uncharged species, or in exchange for similarly charged counterions. These results are the first conclusive demonstration of a simple electrodiffusive pathway for spermidine efflux from cells.

Precocious cessation of intestinal macromolecular transport and digestive enzymes development by prostaglandin E2 in suckling rats

The effect of repeated oral administration of prostaglandin analogue (dmPGE2) on intestinal macromolecular transport and digestive enzymes development were investigated in the suckling rats. By the administration of dmPGE2 for 7 days, precocious induction of maltase activity, depression of amylase activity and enhancement of trypsin activity in the pancreas occurred. Absorption of bovine IgG was dose dependently depressed by dmPGE2 treatments. The intestinal cessation was also observed in the adrenalectomized pups, but was not influenced by difluoromethyl ornithine administration. These results suggest that oral administration of PGE2 induces precocious maturation of the small intestine and exocrine pancreas and that the intestinal cessation is not directly related to ornithine decarboxylase activity in the suckling rats.

Polyamine transport regulation by calcium and calmodulin: role of Ca(2+)-ATPase

The study was conducted on human leukemia (K 562) cells to characterize the mechanisms implicated in the regulation of the polyamine spermidine (Spd) transport process. The antagonists of calmodulin, trifluoperazine (TFP), W-7 (N-[6-aminohexyl]-5-chloro-1-naphthelenesulfonamide), or mellitin inhibited significantly polyamine Spd uptake in these cells. The translocation of calmodulin towards plasma membrane and a concomitant decrease in its contents in cytosol were directly correlated with the time course increases similar to that of Spd uptake, indicating that calmodulin is recruited towards plasma membrane during the Spd transport process. Diminution of free intracellular calcium, (Ca2+)i, by preincubating the cells in BAPTA (bis[2-amino-5-methylphenoxyl]-ethane-N,N,N',N',-tetraacetate) buffer inhibited Spd transport significantly. Addition of lanthanum (LAN), a molecule known to inhibit Ca2+ efflux via Ca(2+)-ATPase, curtailed Spd uptake by these cells. LAN inhibited Vmax, but not the Km, of Spd uptake, indicating that the former does not directly interact with the polyamine transporter; rather it regulates the transport process, probably via its action on Ca(2+)-ATPase. Calmodulin-stimulated uptake of 45Ca2+ by inside-out vesicles of K 562 cells, a measure of Ca(2+)-ATPase activity. Furthermore, addition of LAN inhibited both basal and calmodulin-stimulated activity of Ca(2+)-ATPase. Thapsigargin (THAP), a molecule known to elevate (Ca2+)i due to its action on the endoplasmic reticulum, increased Spd transport whereas addition of LAN inhibited THAP-stimulated Spd transport activity. THAP increased free (Ca2+)i in these cells, and a pre-addition of LAN to these cells curtailed the THAP-stimulated increases of (Ca2+)i concentrations. Addition of Spd brought about elevations in (Ca2+)i contents. Caffeine also increased (Ca2+)i in these cells; however, it failed to stimulate significantly the Spd uptake process, indicating that (Ca2+)i which is involved in the regulation of polyamine transport pathways does not belong to the calcium-induced calcium-release (CICR) pool. Replacement of Ca2+ from the incubation medium (i.e., 0% Ca2+) resulted in higher uptake activity as compared to that in 100% Ca2+ medium, demonstrating that in 100% Ca2+ medium the calcium efflux process is quickly compensated by calcium refilling/influx from the extracellular medium, while in 0% Ca2+ medium there is perpetual efflux of (Ca2+)i which contributes to higher Spd uptake process. The results of this study suggest that an increase in free (Ca2+)i and its release from the cells via Ca(2+)-ATPase, and concomitant activation of calmodulin, which controls Ca(2+)-pump activity, are involved in the regulation of the Spd uptake process in human leukemia cells.

Differential regulation of putrescine uptake in Trypanosoma cruzi and other trypanosomatids

Putrescine uptake in Trypanosoma cruzi epimastigotes is 10 to 50-fold higher than in Leishmania mexicana or Crithidia fasciculata. Polyamine transport in all these trypanosomatids is an energy-dependent process strongly inhibited by the presence of 2,4-dinitrophenol or KCN. Putrescine uptake in T. cruzi and L. mexicana was markedly decreased by the proton ionophore carbonylcyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone but it was not affected by ouabain, a Na(+)-K+ pump inhibitor. The depletion of intracellular polyamines by treatment of parasite cultures with alpha-difluoromethylornithine elicited a marked induction of putrescine uptake in L. mexicana and C. fasciculata by increasing considerably the Vmax of this process. Conversely, the uptake of putrescine in T. cruzi was essentially unchanged by the same treatment. The differential regulation of putrescine transport in T. cruzi might be related to some distinctive features of polyamine metabolism in this parasite.

Proton potential-dependent polyamine transport by vacuolar membrane vesicles of Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Vacuolar membrane vesicles of Saccharomyces cerevisiae accumulated spermine and spermidine in the presence of ATP, not in the presence of ADP. Spermine and spermidine transport at pH 7.4 showed saturation kinetics with Km values of 0.2 mM and 0.7 mM, respectively. Spermine uptake was competitively inhibited by spermidine and putrescine, but was not affected by seven amino acids, substrates of active transport systems of vacuolar membrane. Spermine transport was inhibited by the H(+)-ATPase-specific inhibitors bafilomycin A1 and N,N'-dicyclohexylcarbodiimide, but not by vanadate. It was also sensitive to Cu2+ or Zn2+ ions, inhibitors of vacuolar H(+)-ATPase. Both 3,5-di-tert-butyl-4-hydroxybenzilidenemalononitrile (SF6847) and nigericin blocked completely the spermine uptake, but valinomycin did not. [14C]Spermine accumulated in the vesicles was exchangeable with unlabeled spermine and spermidine. However, it was released by a protonophore only in the presence of a counterion such as Ca2+. These results indicate that a polyamine-specific transport system depending on a proton potential functions in the vacuolar membrane of this organism.

Putrescine uptake and release by a normal rat small intestine crypt cell line, IEC-6

IEC-6 cells were cultured on permeable filter inserts with separate access to the apical and basolateral sides. [3H]Putrescine uptake favored the apical side and its release (in Earle's balanced salt solution containing 0.1% bovine serum albumin) was six times greater in the apical-to-basolateral than in the basolateral-to-apical direction. Release in DMEM did not show this preference. The uptake of [3H]putrescine was stimulated approximately 1.3 times the basal level by 10 mM asparagine (ASN) or 5% dialyzed fetal bovine serum whether the [3H]putrescine was added at a concentration of 1 or 100 nM. The increased uptake was maintained for up to 6 h. When [3H]putrescine was removed after 4 h of uptake, the cells continued to release it into the medium on both sides for up to 4 h. Stimulated cells released only 50% as much as unstimulated cells. Unlabeled putrescine reduced the uptake of [3H]putrescine with an IC50 of 1.81 x 10(-6) M (r = 0.9476) and 1.02 x 10(-6) M (r = 0.9967) for unstimulated and ASN-stimulated cells, respectively. When the intracellular putrescine was reduced by difluoromethylornithine, the uptake of [3H]-putrescine was not changed, but its release was inhibited. Sodium was not required for [3H]putrescine uptake or release. Although the stimulated cells attained intracellular levels of [3H]putrescine which, if expressed as concentration based on cell volume, were up to 500 times the original extracellular concentration, a true concentration gradient could not be proven because 85% of the [3H]putrescine was probably bound to polyanions as shown by butanol extraction.

Effects of DL-alpha-difluoromethylornithine, 4-deoxypyridoxine and methylglyoxal bis(guanylhydrazone) on allograft prolongation

DL-alpha-difluoromethylornithine (DFMO), 4-deoxypyridoxine (4-DOP), and methylglyoxal bis (guanylhydrazone) (MGBG) were tested as inhibitors of acute skin graft rejection. Proximal full thickness tail skins were exchanged between C57BL/6 and Balb/C mice. Distal autografts were placed to monitor healing. Inhibitors were given singly or in combination, either orally or by injection, in various schedules to 10 groups of mice. Compared to controls, singly treated mice had significant mean prolongation of allografts ranging from 126% to 141%. Likewise, DFMO plus MGBG extended mean time of complete rejection ranging from 172% to 206%. Autografts remained intact. Some grafts persisted after discontinued immunosuppression. Complete rejection was preceded by a decline in vascularity of the graft bed and/or gradual replacement by host tissue. Graft protection in such stringent circumstances i.e., the use of skin in strains with complete histoincompatibility at the H-2 MHC loci, clearly indicate the anti-rejection effects of polyamine synthesis inhibitors. Moreover, primary and secondary effects of DFMO establish the critical role of polyamine pathway activation in acute rejection. In doses and schedules used, toxicity was encountered when DFMO and 4-DOP were used in combination and when increased amounts of MGBG were administered.

Regulation of the Na(+)-dependent and the Na(+)-independent polyamine transporters in renal epithelial cells (LLC-PK1)

We have studied the regulation of the Na(+)-dependent and Na(+)-independent polyamine transport pathways in the renal LLC-PK1 cell line. Most of the experiments were performed in the presence of 5 mM DL-2-difluoromethylornithine (DFMO) in order to inhibit the cellular synthesis of polyamines. The activity of both transporters as measured by putrescine uptake was increased by growth-promoting stimuli and decreased by exogenous polyamines. The time course of the increase in uptake activity induced by fetal calf serum could be fitted by a single exponential, and the process was three times faster for the Na(+)-dependent than for the Na(+)-independent transporter. Maximum activity was reached after more than 24 h. This increase could be inhibited by actinomycin D and by cycloheximide. Other growth-promoting stimuli, such as subconfluent cell density, as well as growth factors also induced an increase in the transport activity. Particularly, there was a marked stimulation of the Na(+)-dependent pathway by epidermal growth factor in combination with insulin. On the other hand, the transport activity decayed very rapidly upon addition of exogenous polyamines (t1/2 less than 60 min). The diamine putrescine was much less effective in this respect than the polyamines spermidine and spermine. The non-metabolizable substrate methylglyoxal bis(guanylhydrazone) did not induce a decay of the transport activity, but it protected the Na(+)-dependent pathway against the polyamine-induced decay. Inhibition of the protein synthesis by cycloheximide did not induce a rapid decrease of the transport activity; neither did it affect the polyamine-induced decay. These observations suggest that this polyamine-induced decay is not owing to an inhibitory effect on the rate of synthesis of the transporters, but rather to a degradation or an inactivation of the transporters. The polyamine-induced decay slowed down at lower cell density. This effect was particularly pronounced for the Na(+)-dependent transporter. Since the uptake of polyamines was increased at low cell density, the decreased rate of decay in this condition pleads against a simple mechanism of transinhibition by the substrate. In conclusion, both transport pathways were similarly affected by the regulatory parameters, but the Na(+)-dependent transporter was more rapidly and more effectively regulated. The numerous interacting regulatory steps furthermore suggest a physiological role for these transporters, such as an involvement in urinary polyamine disposal.

Characterisation of putrescine uptake by cultured adult mouse hepatocytes

Uptake of polyamines by cultured cells has been shown to be influenced by growth rate and/or differentiation. In this study, we have investigated whether the fully differentiated, non-proliferating adult mouse hepatocyte is capable of accumulating extracellular putrescine. When hepatocytes were cultured from 4 to 48 h, uptake of putrescine was found to increase substantially with time spent in culture. The Vmax for putrescine uptake increased 22-fold during this period with no change in apparent Km. Treatment of the cells with cycloheximide or actinomycin D at concentrations that did not affect cell viability inhibited the induction of putrescine uptake. Endogenous putrescine levels increased from 19.7 nmol/mg DNA after 4 h in culture to over 500 nmol/mg DNA after 48 h in culture. This increase was accompanied by a loss of over 90% of ornithine decarboxylase activity. Spermidine levels did not change over this time period, whereas spermine levels decreased by 35%. Difluoromethylornithine prevented the observed increase in intracellular putrescine but did not affect putrescine uptake. The increase in putrescine transport was not inhibited by culturing the hepatocytes in a high concentration of putrescine, spermidine or spermine. Moreover, the induction process was not stimulated by foetal calf serum but was selectively inhibited by the differentiating agents dimethylsulfoxide and retinoic acid. The results from those studies show that cultured mouse hepatocytes express a putrescine transport system that is poorly regulated by extracellular polyamines. The expression of the transporter requires the synthesis of mRNA and protein, and appears to be related to a time-dependent change in hepatocyte phenotype.

Epidermal growth factor: modulator of murine embryonic palate mesenchymal cell proliferation, polyamine biosynthesis, and polyamine transport

Polyamines (putrescine, spermidine, and spermine) are normal cellular constituents able to modulate cellular proliferation and differentiation in a number of tissues and cell types. This investigation explores the response of murine embryonic palate mesenchymal (MEPM) cells to epidermal growth factor (EGF) in terms of biosynthesis of putrescine and its transport across the plasma membrane and tests the hypothesis that polyamine transport can serve as an alternative mechanism (other than biosynthesis) for elevating intracellular polyamines during stimulation of MEPM cellular proliferation. MEPM cells treated with EGF were stimulated to proliferate and showed a dose- and time-dependent stimulation of ornithine decarboxylase (ODC) which was maximal at 4-6 hours. EGF also stimulated the initial rate of putrescine transport in a dose- and time-dependent manner. This stimulation was found to be maximal 3 hours after treatment and specific for the putrescine transport system. The kinetic parameters of putrescine transport shifted from 2.52 microM (Km) and 23.6 nmol/mg protein/15 minutes (Vmax) in nonstimulated cells to 4.48 microM (Km) and 39.8 nmol/mg protein/15 minutes (Vmax) in EGF-treated cells. This kinetic shift did not require de novo protein or RNA synthesis, as cycloheximide (10 micrograms/ml) and actinomycin D (50 micrograms/ml) had little effect on the ability of EGF to stimulate the initial rate of putrescine uptake. The rate of transport, however, was found to be inversely related to cell density. The addition of exogenous putrescine concomitantly with EGF blocked the induction of ODC, while in the presence of difluoromethylornithine (DFMO) (irreversible inhibitor of ODC) the initial rate of putrescine transport remained elevated throughout the time course studied. This stimulation of putrescine uptake caused by polyamine deprivation was reversed by exogenous putrescine and Ca++ while alpha-aminoisobutyric acid (AIB) further stimulated the rate of uptake. EGF's ability to stimulate cellular DNA synthesis was inhibited by DFMO. If DFMO-treated cells were stimulated with EGF in the presence of exogenous putrescine, this stimulatory effect was preserved. These studies indicate that the rate of polyamine transportation is highly responsive to a signal which initiates biosynthesis of polyamines. Further, this transportation system provides a compensatory mechanism allowing the cell to increase intracellular levels of polyamines when environmental conditions inhibit biosynthesis or when polyamines are abundant.

Polyamine transport systems in the LLC-PK1 renal epithelial established cell line

LLC-PK1 cells were brought to a quiescent state by treatment with DL-2-difluoromethylornithine (DFMO), a specific inhibitor of L-ornithine decarboxylase (ODC). The inhibition of ODC, which is the key enzyme for polyamine synthesis, strongly reduced the cellular content of putrescine and spermidine. The cells resumed DNA-synthesis followed by mitosis when exogenous putrescine was added. DFMO treatment strongly stimulated the putrescine uptake capability. A kinetic analysis of the initial uptake rates revealed a saturable Na+-dependent and a saturable Na+-independent pathway on top of non-saturable diffusion. The stimulation by DFMO was exclusively due to an effect on the Vmax values of the saturable pathways. The Na+-dependent transporter had a higher affinity for putrescine (apparent Km = 4.7 +/- 0.7 microM) than the Na+-independent transporter (apparent Km = 29.8 +/- 3.5 microM). As a consequence, although the latter transporter had a higher Vmax, the Na+-dependent transport was more important at a physiological putrescine concentration. Putrescine uptake by both transporters was inhibited with similar relative affinities by spermidine, spermine as well as by the antileukemic agent, methylglyoxal bis(guanylhydrazone), but not by amino acids. The activity of the Na+-dependent transporter was very much dependent on SH-group reagents, whereas the Na+-independent transporter was not affected. Both transporters were inhibited by metabolic inhibitors and by ionophores but the Na+-dependent transporter was affected to a greater extent. For both transporters there was a down-regulation in response to exogenous putrescine. This suggests that the polyamine transporters in LLC-PK1 are adaptively regulated and may contribute to the regulation of the cellular polyamine level and cellular proliferation.

Characterization of the inducible polyamine transporter in bovine lymphocytes

The polyamine uptake system in bovine lymphocytes was activated by concanavalin A. The system was common to putrescine, spermidine and spermine. The Kt values for uptake activities of putrescine, spermidine and spermine were 3.7 microM, 0.38 microM and 0.23 microM in that order. The uptake activity was inhibited by carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone, gramicidin D or valinomycin in the presence of 20 mM K+ suggesting that polyamine uptake depends on the membrane potential. The uptake activity appeared 10 h after addition of concanavalin A, and the maximum was reached at 28 h indicating that induction of the polyamine transporter precedes the initiation of DNA synthesis. Addition of polyamine antimetabolites, such as alpha-difluoromethylornithine and ethylglyoxal bis(guanylhydrazone), to the medium enhanced at least eightfold the induction of the polyamine transporter. The induction was repressed by addition of 50 microM spermidine or spermine, but not putrescine. We propose here that the induction of the membrane-potential-dependent polyamine transporter is regulated by the intracellular level of spermidine and spermine.

Characterization of a polyamine transport system in murine embryonic palate mesenchymal cells

Polyamines (putrescine, spermidine, and spermine) are normal cellular constituents able to modulate cellular proliferation and differentiation in a number of developing systems. Ornithine decarboxylase (ODC), the rate-limiting enzyme in the polyamine biosynthetic pathway, has been shown to be causally related to an increase in glycosaminoglycan synthesis in murine embryonic palatal mesenchyme cells (MEPM). In order to understand other mechanisms that exist to regulate polyamine levels in cells derived from the developing craniofacial area, the present study investigated the capacity of MEPM cells to accumulate exogenous putrescine and tests the hypothesis that polyamine transport can serve as an adaptational response of MEPM cells to a change in their ability to synthesize polyamines. Transport was initiated in confluent cultures of MEPM cells by the addition of 0.1 microCi/ml of 14C-putrescine. The rate of transport, monitored for 20-120 minutes, was found to be a time-dependent saturable process. The rate of initial transport, determined by incubating MEPM cells for 15 minutes in the presence of different concentrations (1.0-20.0 microM) of 14C-putrescine, was also found to be saturable, suggesting a carrier-mediated event. Lineweaver-Burk analysis of these data revealed an apparent Km of 5.78 microM and a Vmax of 2.63 nmol/mg protein/15 minutes. Transport measured either at 4 degrees C or in the presence of 2-4 DNP was dramatically inhibited. Thus, putrescine transport is an active process, dependent upon metabolic energy. Conditions in which 1) NaCl was iso-osmotically replaced with choline chloride or 2) the Na+-electrochemical gradient was dissipated with Na+, K+-specific ionophores resulted in a decreased rate of transport indicating that putrescine transport in these cells is Na+ dependent. Noncompetitive inhibition assays utilizing sulfhydryl reagents that blocked sulfhydryl groups inhibited putrescine transport, suggesting that sulfhydryl groups are important for putrescine uptake. Competitive inhibition assays demonstrated that while spermidine and spermine inhibited putrescine uptake, ornithine did not inhibit transport. Spermidine, spermine, and putrescine thus appear to share a common transport system that is separate from that for ornithine. Putrescine transport is subject to adaptive regulation in both exponentially growing and confluent cultures of MEPM cells.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Methylglyoxal-bis(guanylhydrazone)-resistant Chinese hamster ovary cells: genetic evidence that more than a single locus controls uptake

Chinese hamster ovary cells spontaneously resistant to the cytotoxic action of methylglyoxal-bis(guanylhydrazone) have been isolated in a multistep selection scheme. A low-level resistant isolate has been shown to be defective in the ability to accumulate the drug intracellularly. This was reflected in a 10-fold lower Vmax than wild-type cells for drug uptake as well as a slight enhancement of drug efflux. More highly resistant isolates selected from this low-level resistant isolate were totally deficient in the ability to take up the drug. A partial revertant, selected from this low-level resistant isolate, retained some change in the Vmax for uptake but lost the accelerated rate of efflux characteristic of the low-level resistant line. Genetic analysis by somatic cell hybridization indicated that the low-level resistant phenotype was recessive to the wild-type phenotype. In addition, the low-level resistant phenotype could be complemented by a previously isolated highly resistant cell also defective in drug uptake (Mandel and Flintoff (1978) J. Cell. Physiol., 97: 335-344). Taken together, these data suggest that more than one locus controls drug uptake in Chinese hamster ovary cells.

Effects of the polyamine spermine on binding of follicle-stimulating hormone to membrane-bound immature bovine testis receptors

The effect of the polyamine, spermine, on the interaction of human 125I-labeled FSH with membrane-bound receptors derived from bovine calf testes has been examined. Concentrations of spermine less than 0.01 M resulted in a slight but insignificant (P greater than 0.10) enhancement of FSH concentrations of 0.01 M and above caused a progressive reduction of FSH binding. Membrane receptors incubated in the presence of spermine at concentrations inhibitory to human 125I-FSH binding (0.01-0.04 M) resulted in an 8-50% decrease in the apparent FSH receptor concentration and a 10-65% decrease in the affinity constant as determined by computerized analysis of the isothermic ligand-binding data. Within the temperature range 4-20 degrees C, simultaneous addition of spermine (0.025 M) increased the reversibility of human 125I-FSH binding approx. 10% (P less than 0.005). Delayed addition of spermine (0.01-0.04 M) resulted in a dose-related dissociation of human 125I-FSH already bound to its receptor (P less than 0.05). However, preincubation of membrane receptors with spermine (0.002-0.04 M) at 4 degrees C or 34 degrees C followed by washing and addition of human 125I-FSH, resulted in an increase in hormone binding (P less than 0.05) over that of controls. If membrane receptor was incubated at 34 degrees C with spermine in the absence of radioligand, the usual loss of hormone binding was reduced (P less than 0.05), while membrane receptor incubated with spermine at 4 degrees C exhibited hormone binding greater (P less than 0.05) than that observed before treatment. Thus, the mechanism of inhibition of human 125I-FSH binding to membrane receptors appears to be correlated with an increase in reversibility of the membrane receptor-human 125I-FSH complex and is expressed as a decrease in the calculated receptor concentration and affinity constant of that interaction. Second, spermine appears to stabilize the membrane receptor in the absence of ligand, presumably through a membrane effect. These data suggest that spermine, and possibly other polyamines, which are endogenous to eukaryotic cells and undergo increases in concentration following stimulation by trophic hormone may play a role in the modulation of the ligand-membrane receptor interaction, in part, through direct effects on the membrane and/or the receptor.

Polyamines and putreanine relax respiratory tract smooth muscle in the guinea-pig

Spermidine, spermine, and putreanine, a metabolite of spermidine, caused transient relaxation of the isolated guinea-pig trachealis. The spermidine effect was not blocked by ouabain, propranolol or indomethacin. Spermidine treatment was shown to desensitize the tissue to subsequent additions of spermidine. After exposure to spermidine and repeated washes with spermidine-free solution, trachealis responded to KCl (30 mM) with a paradoxical relaxation. This relaxation was not blocked by propranolol, ouabain or indomethacin.

Polyamine uptake by bovine adrenocortical cells

Bovine adrenocortical cells of fasciculo-reticulata origin in primary culture actively accumulate polyamines from the extracellular medium in an energy-dependent process. At low extracellular concentration (e.g., 1 microM putrescine), the transport system resulted in a several-hundred-fold concentration of polyamine in the cellular compartment within 1-2 h of incubation. Putrescine uptake appeared to be the sum of a sodium-dependent, saturable process, with an apparent Km of about 10 microM and of a non-saturable, sodium-independent component. By contrast, spermine was taken up by the cells mostly in a sodium-independent manner. Cross-competition experiments suggested that both polyamines were at least partly transported by the same system. Using specific corresponding probes, it was shown that the polyamine uptake was independent of the amino acid transport systems of the A, L and N types known in a number of cell systems. Adrenocortical cell polyamine content is known to be modulated by adrenocorticotropin through induction of ornithine decarboxylase activity. The existence of a specific uptake system in these cells opens the possibility of a more rapid pathway for the regulation of cellular polyamine levels. It remains to be examined whether this polyamine transport system is under hormonal control, and whether this can support the suggestion that polyamines may represent a form of intracellular messengers in the mechanism of hormone action.

Polyamine requirement for prolactin action on macromolecular synthesis in the MCF-7 human mammary epithelial cell line

The actions of insulin, hydrocortisone, prolactin and growth hormone on the synthesis of macromolecules in MCF-7 cells was determined in a serum-free defined medium. The inclusion of the polyamine spermidine in the medium was shown to enhance the insulin stimulation of the rate of [3H]uridine incorporation into RNA in a manner similar to that demonstrated for hydrocortisone. Spermidine, in addition to insulin and hydrocortisone, was also essential for prolactin to manifest a stimulation of the rate of [3H]uridine incorporation; this effect of spermidine was optimal with spermidine concentrations between 1 and 5 mM. Prolactin also stimulated the rate of [3H]leucine incorporation into total cellular protein and into an isoelectrically precipitable (pH 4.6) phosphoprotein fraction. The actions of prolactin on total protein and phosphoprotein synthesis were only expressed if spermidine, in addition to insulin and hydrocortisone, was contained in the culture medium. All of the prolactin responses were observed employing physiological concentrations of prolactin. Specificity of the prolactin responses was established by demonstrating that porcine growth hormone had no effects on RNA or phosphoprotein synthesis in the MCF-7 cells.

Binding of 14C-spermidine to melanin in vivo and in vitro

It has been shown that melanin has the properties of a polyanion and may in vivo and in vitro bind inorganic cations and drugs which are positively charged at physiological pH by a cation-exchange mechanism. In the present study, we explored if the organic aliphatic polycation spermidine would bind to melanin in vivo after administration of 14C-spermidine to pigmented mice and in vitro at incubation with pigment from beef-eyes. The results showed a high labelling of the pigmented tissues in the mice after the administration of 14C-spermidine. At long survival intervals, the radioactivity in the melanin was higher than in any other tissue. A strong melanin affinity of 14C-spermidine was found in vitro. An analysis of the binding by the method of Scatchard showed that the data could be best fitted by the assumption of two classes of binding sites. The in vivo bound material could be displaced by in vitro incubation in solutions containing inorganic cation-chloride salts or HCl and HCl was also very effective in inhibiting the melanin-binding of 14C-spermidine in vitro. The results indicate that an electrostatic interaction between spermidine and melanin will occur both in vivo and in vitro.