Multiple, functional DBP sites on the promoter of the cholesterol 7 alpha-hydroxylase P450 gene, CYP7. Proposed role in diurnal regulation of liver gene expression

Computational Identification of Master Regulators Influencing Trypanotolerance in Cattle

African Animal Trypanosomiasis (AAT) is transmitted by the tsetse fly which carries pathogenic trypanosomes in its saliva, thus causing debilitating infection to livestock health. As the disease advances, a multistage progression process is observed based on the progressive clinical signs displayed in the host’s body. Investigation of genes expressed with regular monotonic patterns (known as Monotonically Expressed Genes (MEGs)) and of their master regulators can provide important clue for the understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying the AAT disease. For this purpose, we analysed MEGs for three tissues (liver, spleen and lymph node) of two cattle breeds, namely trypanosusceptible Boran and trypanotolerant N’Dama. Our analysis revealed cattle breed-specific master regulators which are highly related to distinguish the genetic programs in both cattle breeds. Especially the master regulators MYC and DBP found in this study, seem to influence the immune responses strongly, thereby susceptibility and trypanotolerance of Boran and N’Dama respectively. Furthermore, our pathway analysis also bolsters the crucial roles of these master regulators. Taken together, our findings provide novel insights into breed-specific master regulators which orchestrate the regulatory cascades influencing the level of trypanotolerance in cattle breeds and thus could be promising drug targets for future therapeutic interventions.

Up to date on cholesterol 7 alpha-hydroxylase (CYP7A1) in bile acid synthesis

Cholesterol 7 alpha-hydroxylase (CYP7A1, EC1.14) is the first and rate-limiting enzyme in the classic bile acid synthesis pathway. Much progress has been made in understanding the transcriptional regulation of CYP7A1 gene expression and the underlying molecular mechanisms of bile acid feedback regulation of CYP7A1 and bile acid synthesis in the last three decades. Discovery of bile acid-activated receptors and their roles in the regulation of lipid, glucose and energy metabolism have been translated to the development of bile acid-based drug therapies for the treatment of liver-related metabolic diseases such as alcoholic and non-alcoholic fatty liver diseases, liver cirrhosis, diabetes, obesity and hepatocellular carcinoma. This review will provide an update on the advances in our understanding of the molecular biology and mechanistic insights of the regulation of CYP7A1 in bile acid synthesis in the last 40 years.

Identifying Cattle Breed-Specific Partner Choice of Transcription Factors during the African Trypanosomiasis Disease Progression Using Bioinformatics Analysis

African Animal Trypanosomiasis (AAT) is a disease caused by pathogenic trypanosomes which affects millions of livestock every year causing huge economic losses in agricultural production especially in sub-Saharan Africa. The disease is spread by the tsetse fly which carries the parasite in its saliva. During the disease progression, the cattle are prominently subjected to anaemia, weight loss, intermittent fever, chills, neuronal degeneration, congestive heart failure, and finally death. According to their different genetic programs governing the level of tolerance to AAT, cattle breeds are classified as either resistant or susceptible. In this study, we focus on the cattle breeds N’Dama and Boran which are known to be resistant and susceptible to trypanosomiasis, respectively. Despite the rich literature on both breeds, the gene regulatory mechanisms of the underlying biological processes for their resistance and susceptibility have not been extensively studied. To address the limited knowledge about the tissue-specific transcription factor (TF) cooperations associated with trypanosomiasis, we investigated gene expression data from these cattle breeds computationally. Consequently, we identified significant cooperative TF pairs (especially DBP−PPARA and DBP−THAP1 in N’Dama and DBP−PAX8 in Boran liver tissue) which could help understand the underlying AAT tolerance/susceptibility mechanism in both cattle breeds.

Polyphenol Effects on Cholesterol Metabolism via Bile Acid Biosynthesis, CYP7A1: A Review

Atherosclerosis, the main contributor to coronary heart disease, is characterised by an accumulation of lipids such as cholesterol in the arterial wall. Reverse cholesterol transport (RCT) reduces cholesterol via its conversion into bile acids (BAs). During RCT in non-hepatic peripheral tissues, cholesterol is transferred to high-density lipoprotein (HDL) particles and returned to the liver for conversion into BAs predominantly via the rate-limiting enzyme, cholesterol 7 α-hydroxylase (CYP7A1). Numerous reports have described that polyphenol induced increases in BA excretion and corresponding reductions in total and LDL cholesterol in animal and in-vitro studies, but the process whereby this occurs has not been extensively reviewed. There are three main mechanisms by which BA excretion can be augmented: (1) increased expression of CYP7A1; (2) reduced expression of intestinal BA transporters; and (3) changes in the gut microbiota. Here we summarise the BA metabolic pathways focusing on CYP7A1, how its gene is regulated via transcription factors, diurnal rhythms, and microRNAs. Importantly, we will address the following questions: (1) Can polyphenols enhance BA secretion by modulating the CYP7A1 biosynthetic pathway? (2) Can polyphenols alter the BA pool via changes in the gut microbiota? (3) Which polyphenols are the most promising candidates for future research? We conclude that while in rodents some polyphenols induce CYP7A1 expression predominantly by the LXRα pathway, in human cells, this may occur through FXR, NF-KB, and ERK signalling. Additionally, gut microbiota is important for the de-conjugation and excretion of BAs. Puerarin, resveratrol, and quercetin are promising candidates for further research in this area.

The role of transcriptional factor D-site-binding protein in circadian CCL2 gene expression in anti-Thy1 nephritis

Mesangial proliferative glomerulonephritis (MsPGN) is an inflammatory disease, but both the nature of disease progression and its regulation remain unclear. In the present study, we monitored the course of anti-Thy1 nephritis from days 1 to 5 and established gene expression profiles at each time point using microarrays to explore the development of inflammation. According to the gene expression profiles, macrophage infiltration (triggered by CCL2 activation) was evident on day 1 and enhanced inflammation over the next few days. We screened for genes with expression levels similar to CCL2 and found that the upregulation of the circadian gene albumin D-site-binding protein (DBP) was involved in CCL2 activation in mesangial cells. More importantly, CCL2 expression showed oscillatory changes similar to DBP, and DBP induced peak CCL2 expression at 16:00 a clock on day 1 in the anti-Thy1 nephritis model. We knocked down DBP through transfection with a small interfering RNA (siRNA) and used RNA sequencing to identify the DBP-regulated TNF-α-CCL2 pathway. We performed chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing (ChIP-Seq) and the dual luciferase assay to show that DBP bound to the TRIM55 promoter, regulating gene expression and in turn controlling the TNF-α-CCL2 pathway. In conclusion, DBP-regulated circadian CCL2 expression by the TRIM55-TNF pathway in injured mesangial cells at an early stage, which promoted macrophage recruitment and in turn triggered infiltration and inflammation in a model of anti-Thy1 nephritis.

Circadian rhythms in liver physiology and liver diseases

In mammals, circadian rhythms function to coordinate a diverse panel of physiological processes with environmental conditions such as food and light. As the driving force for circadian rhythmicity, the molecular clock is a self-sustained transcription-translational feedback loop system consisting of transcription factors, epigenetic modulators, kinases/phosphatases, and ubiquitin E3 ligases. The molecular clock exists not only in the suprachiasmatic nuclei of the hypothalamus but also in the peripheral tissues to regulate cellular and physiological function in a tissue-specific manner. The circadian clock system in the liver plays important roles in regulating metabolism and energy homeostasis. Clock gene mutant animals display impaired glucose and lipid metabolism and are susceptible to diet-induced obesity and metabolic dysfunction, providing strong evidence for the connection between the circadian clock and metabolic homeostasis. Circadian-controlled hepatic metabolism is partially achieved by controlling the expression and/or activity of key metabolic enzymes, transcription factors, signaling molecules, and transporters. Reciprocally, intracellular metabolites modulate the molecular clock activity in response to the energy status. Although still at the early stage, circadian clock dysfunction has been implicated in common chronic liver diseases. Circadian dysregulation of lipid metabolism, detoxification, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and cell-cycle control might contribute to the onset and progression of liver steatosis, fibrosis, and even carcinogenesis. In summary, these findings call for a comprehensive study of the function and mechanisms of hepatic circadian clock to gain better understanding of liver physiology and diseases.

Nuclear receptor control of enterohepatic circulation

Enterohepatic circulation is responsible for the capture of bile acids and other steroids produced or metabolized in the liver and secreted to the intestine, for reabsorption back into the circulation and transport back to the liver. Bile acids are secreted from the liver in the form of mixed micelles that also contain phosphatidylcholines and cholesterol that facilitate the uptake of fats and vitamins from the diet due to the surfactant properties of bile acids and lipids. Bile acids are synthesized in the liver from cholesterol by a cascade of enzymes that carry out oxidation and conjugation reactions, and transported to the bile duct and gall bladder where they are stored before being released into the intestine. Bile flow from the gall bladder to the small intestine is triggered by food intake in accordance with its role in lipid and vitamin absorption from the diet. Bile acids are further metabolized by gut bacteria and are transported back to the circulation. Metabolites produced in the liver are termed primary bile acids or primary conjugated bile salts, while the metabolites generated by bacterial are called secondary bile acids. About 95% of bile acids are reabsorbed in the proximal and distal ileum into the hepatic portal vein and then into the liver sinusoids, where they are efficiently transported into the liver with little remaining in circulation. Each bile acid is reabsorbed about 20 times on average before being eliminated. Enterohepatic circulation is under tight regulation by nuclear receptor signaling, notably by the farnesoid X receptor (FXR).

A combination of transcriptomics and metabolomics uncovers enhanced bile acid biosynthesis in HepG2 cells expressing CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein β (C/EBPβ), hepatocyte nuclear factor 4α (HNF4α), and constitutive androstane receptor (CAR)

The development of hepatoma-based in vitro models to study hepatocyte physiology is an invaluable tool for both industry and academia. Here, we develop an in vitro model based on the HepG2 cell line that produces chenodeoxycholic acid, the main bile acid in humans, in amounts comparable to human hepatocytes. A combination of adenoviral transfections for CCAAT/enhancer-binding protein β (C/EBPβ), hepatocyte nuclear factor 4α (HNF4α), and constitutive androstane receptor (CAR) decreased intracellular glutamate, succinate, leucine, and valine levels in HepG2 cells, suggestive of a switch to catabolism to increase lipogenic acetyl CoA and increased anaplerosis to replenish the tricarboxylic acid cycle. Transcripts of key genes involved in bile acid synthesis were significantly induced by approximately 160-fold. Consistently, chenodeoxycholic acid production rate was increased by more than 20-fold. Comparison between mRNA and bile acid levels suggest that 12-alpha hydroxylation of 7-alpha-hydroxy-4-cholesten-3-one is the limiting step in cholic acid synthesis in HepG2 cells. These data reveal that introduction of three hepatocyte-related transcription factors enhance anabolic reactions in HepG2 cells and provide a suitable model to study bile acid biosynthesis under pathophysiological conditions.

Circadian events in human diseases and in cytochrome P450-related drug metabolism and therapy

The biochemical basis of the mammalian circadian clock can be described by transcriptional-translational feedback loops with a period of about 24 h. Crucial endogenous factors are under circadian control (i.e., body temperature, blood pressure, hormone secretion and metabolite levels). Also, drug metabolism, including phases I-III and the drug-responsive nuclear receptors, is controlled by the clock. Disturbances in circadian rhythm in humans can lead to pathologies, which is exemplified by increased cancer risk in long-term shift workers. On the other hand, best tolerability of drugs with minimum side effects can be achieved if the timing of drug treatment is synchronized with the patients' individual clock. The aim of this review is to underline the importance of accepting the individuals' endogenous clock which can contribute to personalized, patient-friendly optimization of drug therapies.

Primary hepatocyte cultures for pharmaco-toxicological studies: at the busy crossroad of various anti-dedifferentiation strategies

Continuously increasing understanding of the molecular triggers responsible for the onset of diseases, paralleled by an equally dynamic evolution of chemical synthesis and screening methods, offers an abundance of pharmacological agents with a potential to become new successful drugs. However, before patients can benefit of newly developed pharmaceuticals, stringent safety filters need to be applied to weed out unfavourable drug candidates. Cost effectiveness and the need to identify compound liabilities, without exposing humans to unnecessary risks, has stimulated the shift of the safety studies to the earliest stages of drug discovery and development. In this regard, in vivo relevant organotypic in vitro models have high potential to revolutionize the preclinical safety testing. They can enable automation of the process, to match the requirements of high-throughput screening approaches, while satisfying ethical considerations. Cultures of primary hepatocytes became already an inherent part of the preclinical pharmaco-toxicological testing battery, yet their routine use, particularly for long-term assays, is limited by the progressive deterioration of liver-specific features. The availability of suitable hepatic and other organ-specific in vitro models is, however, of paramount importance in the light of changing European legal regulations in the field of chemical compounds of different origin, which gradually restrict the use of animal studies for safety assessment, as currently witnessed in cosmetic industry. Fortunately, research groups worldwide spare no effort to establish hepatic in vitro systems. In the present review, both classical and innovative methodologies to stabilize the in vivo-like hepatocyte phenotype in culture of primary hepatocytes are presented and discussed.

Circadian regulation of the hepatic endobiotic and xenobitoic detoxification pathways: the time matters

Metabolic processes have to be regulated tightly to prevent waste of energy and to ensure sufficient detoxification. Most anabolic processes operate in a timely manner when energy intake is the highest, while catabolism takes place in energy spending periods. Endobiotic and xenobiotic metabolism are therefore under circadian control. Circadian regulation is mediated through the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), a master autonomous oscillator of the brain. Although many peripheral organs have their own oscillators, the SCN is important in orchestrating and entraining organs according to the environmental light cues. However, light is not the only signal for entrainment of internal clocks. For endobiotic and xenobitoic detoxification pathways, the food composition and intake regime are equally important. The rhythm of the liver as an organ where the major metabolic pathways intersect depends on SCN signals, signals from endocrine tissues, and, importantly, the type and time of feeding or xenobiotics ingestion. Several enzymes are involved in detoxification processes. Phase I is composed mainly of cytochromes P450, which are regulated by nuclear receptors. Phase II enzymes modify the phase I metabolites, while phase III includes membrane transporters responsible for the elimination of modified xenobiotics. Phases I-III of drug metabolism are under strong circadian regulation, starting with the drug-sensing nuclear receptors and ending with drug transporters. Disturbed circadian regualtion (jet-lag, shift work, and dysfunction of core clock genes) leads to changed periods of activity, sleep disorders, disturbed glucose homeostasis, breast or colon cancer, and metabolic syndrome. As many xenobiotics influence the circadian rhythm of the liver, bad drug administration timing can worsen the above listed effects. This review will cover the major hepatic circadian regulation of endogenous and xenobiotic metabolic pathways and will provide examples of how good timing of drug administration can change drug failure to treatment success.

Characterization of the core mammalian clock component, NPAS2, as a REV-ERBalpha/RORalpha target gene

The mammalian clock is regulated at the cellular level by a transcriptional/translational feedback loop. BMAL1/clock (or NPAS2) heterodimers activate the expression of the period (PER) and cryptochrome (CRY) genes acting as transcription factors directed to the PER and CRY promoters via E-box elements. PER and CRY proteins form heterodimers and suppress the activity of the BMAL1/clock (or NPAS2) completing the feedback loop. The circadian expression of BMAL1 is influenced by retinoic acid receptor-related orphan receptor α (RORα) and REV-ERBα, two nuclear receptors that target a ROR-response element in the promoter of the BMAL1 gene. Given that BMAL1 functions as an obligate heterodimer with either clock or NPAS2, it is unclear how the expression of the partner is coordinated with BMAL1 expression. Here, we demonstrate that NPAS2 is also a RORα and REV-ERBα target gene. Using a ChIP/microarray screen, we identified both RORα and REV-ERBα occupancy of the NPAS2 promoter. We identified two functional ROREs within the NPAS2 promoter and also demonstrate that both RORα and REV-ERBα regulate the expression of NPAS2 mRNA. These data suggest a mechanism by which RORα and REV-ERBα coordinately regulate the expression of the positive arm of the circadian rhythm feedback loop.

REV-ERBalpha participates in circadian SREBP signaling and bile acid homeostasis

The nuclear receptor REV-ERBα shapes the daily activity profile of Sterol Response Element Binding Protein (SREBP) and thereby participates in the circadian control of cholesterol and bile acid synthesis in the liver.

In mammals, many aspects of behavior and physiology, and in particular cellular metabolism, are coordinated by the circadian timing system. Molecular clocks are thought to rely on negative feedback loops in clock gene expression that engender oscillations in the accumulation of transcriptional regulatory proteins, such as the orphan receptor REV-ERBα. Circadian transcription factors then drive daily rhythms in the expression of clock-controlled output genes, for example genes encoding enzymes and regulators of cellular metabolism. To gain insight into clock output functions of REV-ERBα, we carried out genome-wide transcriptome profiling experiments with liver RNA from wild-type mice, Rev-erbα knock-out mice, or REV-ERBα overexpressing mice. On the basis of these genetic loss- and gain-of-function experiments, we concluded that REV-ERBα participates in the circadian modulation of sterol regulatory element-binding protein (SREBP) activity, and thereby in the daily expression of SREBP target genes involved in cholesterol and lipid metabolism. This control is exerted via the cyclic transcription of Insig2, encoding a trans-membrane protein that sequesters SREBP proteins to the endoplasmic reticulum membranes and thereby interferes with the proteolytic activation of SREBPs in Golgi membranes. REV-ERBα also participates in the cyclic expression of cholesterol-7α-hydroxylase (CYP7A1), the rate-limiting enzyme in converting cholesterol to bile acids. Our findings suggest that this control acts via the stimulation of LXR nuclear receptors by cyclically produced oxysterols. In conclusion, our study suggests that rhythmic cholesterol and bile acid metabolism is not just driven by alternating feeding–fasting cycles, but also by REV-ERBα, a component of the circadian clockwork circuitry.

The mammalian circadian timing system has a hierarchical architecture: a central pacemaker in the brain's suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) synchronizes subsidiary oscillators present in most peripheral cell types. In both SCN neurons and peripheral cells, circadian oscillators are thought to rely on two negative feedback loops. A major feedback loop involves the two cryptochromes CRY1 and CRY2 and the two period proteins PER1 and PER2, which serve as transcriptional repressors for their own genes. An accessory feedback loop couples the expression and activity of the transcriptional activators CLOCK and BMAL1 to the expression of cryptochrome and period proteins. The orphan nuclear receptor REV-ERBα is a key player in this accessory feedback loop, in that it periodically represses Bmal1 transcription. In liver, molecular clocks mediate the temporal gating of metabolic processes. Here we demonstrate that hepatocyte clocks participate in the control of cholesterol and bile acid homeostasis. According to this scenario, REV-ERBα shapes the circadian expression pattern of insulin-induced gene 2 (INSIG2), a resident protein of the endoplasmic reticulum that interferes with the proteolytic activation of sterol response element binding proteins (SREBPs). In turn SREBPs govern the rhythmic expression of enzymes with key functions in sterol and fatty acid synthesis. The circadian production of sterols (in particular oxysterols) may engender the cyclic activation of LXR nuclear receptors, which serve as critical activators of Cyp7a1 transcription. CYP7A1, also known as cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase, catalyzes the rate-limiting step in bile acid synthesis.

Transient gene delivery for functional enrichment of differentiating embryonic stem cells

There is a critical need for new sources of hepatocytes, both clinically to provide support for patients with liver failure and in drug discovery for toxicity, metabolic and pharmacokinetic screening of new drug entities. We have reported previously a variety of methods for differentiating murine embryonic stem (ES) cells into hepatocyte-like cells. One major challenge of our work and others in the field has been the ability to selectively purify and enrich these cells from a heterogeneous population. Traditional approaches for inserting new genes (e.g., stable transfection, knock-in, retroviral transduction) involve permanent alterations in the genome. These approaches can lead to mutations and involve the extra costs and time of developing, validating and maintaining new cell lines. We have developed a transient gene delivery system that uses fluorescent gene reporters for purification of the cells. Following a transient transfection, the cells are purified through a fluorescence-activated cell sorter (FACS), re-plated in secondary culture and subsequent phenotypic analysis is performed. In an effort to test the ability of the reporters to work in a transient environment for our differentiation system, we engineered two non-viral plasmid reporters, the first driven by the mouse albumin enhancer/promoter and the second by the mouse cytochrome P450 7A1 (Cyp7A1) promoter. We optimized the transfection efficiency of delivering these genes into spontaneously differentiated ES cells and sorted independent fractions positive for each reporter 17 days after inducing differentiation. We found that cells sorted based on the Cyp7A1 promoter showed significant enrichment in terms of albumin secretion, urea secretion and cytochrome P450 1A2 detoxification activity as compared to enrichment garnered by the albumin promoter-based cell sort. Development of gene reporter systems that allow us to identify, purify and assess homogeneous populations of cells is important in better understanding stem cell differentiation pathways. And engineering cellular systems without making permanent gene changes will be critical for the generation of clinically acceptable cellular material in the future.

Regulatory mechanism governing the diurnal rhythm of intestinal H+/peptide cotransporter 1 (PEPT1)

The intestinal H(+)/peptide cotransporter 1 (PEPT1) plays important roles as a nutrient and drug transporter. Previously, we reported that rat intestinal PEPT1 showed a diurnal rhythm and that this rhythm is closely related to the feeding schedule. Furthermore, we also demonstrated that transcription factors, Sp1, Cdx2, and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-alpha (PPAR-alpha) contribute to the basal, intestine-specific, and fasting-induced expression of PEPT1, respectively. In this study, to clarify the molecular mechanism governing the diurnal rhythm of PEPT1 expression, we compared expression profiles of these transcription factors under two kinds of feeding schedules. The intestinal Sp1 and Cdx2 did not show a circadian accumulation of mRNA or response to the daytime feeding regimen. Plasma free fatty acids, endogenous PPAR-alpha ligands, exhibited a robust circadian fluctuation in phase with that of PEPT1. However, subsequent experiments using PPAR-alpha-null mice revealed the absence of any association between the circadian rhythm of PEPT1 and PPAR-alpha. We then focused on the clock genes (Clock, Bmal1, Per1-2, and Cry1) and clock-controlled gene, albumin D site-binding protein (DBP). A robust and coordinated circadian expression of the clock genes was observed, and daytime feeding entirely inverted the phase except for Clock. The expression of DBP was in phase with that of PEPT1 in both groups. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays and reporter assays revealed that DBP has the ability to bind the DBP binding site located in the distal promoter region of the rat PEPT1 gene and induce the transcriptional activity. These findings indicate that DBP plays pivotal roles in the circadian oscillation of PEPT1.

Increased cholesterol 7alpha-hydroxylase expression and size of the bile acid pool in the lactating rat

Maximal bile acid secretory rates and expression of bile acid transporters in liver and ileum are increased in lactation, possibly to facilitate increased enterohepatic recirculation of bile acids. We determined changes in the size and composition of the bile acid pool and key enzymes of the bile acid synthetic pathway [cholesterol 7alpha-hydroxylase (Cyp7a1), sterol 27-hydroxylase (Cyp27a1), and sterol 12alpha-hydroxylase (Cyp8b1)] in lactating rats relative to female virgin controls. The bile acid pool increased 1.9 to 2.5-fold [postpartum (PP) days 10, 14, and 19-23], compared with controls. A 1.5-fold increase in cholic acids and a 14 to 20% decrease in muricholic acids in lactation significantly increased the hydrophobicity index. In contrast, the hepatic concentration of bile acids and small heterodimer partner mRNA were unchanged in lactation. A 2.8-fold increase in Cyp7a1 mRNA expression at 16 h (10 h of light) demonstrated a shift in the diurnal rhythm at day 10 PP; Cyp7a1 protein expression and cholesterol 7alpha-hydroxylase activity were significantly increased at this time and remained elevated at day 14 PP but decreased to control levels by day 21 PP. There was an overall decrease in Cyp27a1 mRNA expression and a 20% decrease in Cyp27a1 protein expression, but there was no change in Cyp8b1 mRNA or protein expression at day 10 PP. The increase in Cyp7a1 expression PP provides a mechanism for the increase in the bile acid pool.

Injection of LPS causes transient suppression of biological clock genes in rats

BACKGROUND

The biological clock regulates circadian rhythm and is important for sustaining homeostasis. Here we examined the response of biological clock genes to systemic inflammatory stimulation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

At 08:00 h (= Zeitgeber time [ZT] 01), male Wistar rats (7-wk-old) maintained on a 12:12 h light:dark cycle (light on 07:00-19:00 h) received intravenous injection of 1 mg/kg lipopolysaccharide (LPS group) or 0.3 mL saline (control group). They were then sacrificed every 4 h (09:00 h = ZT 02, 13:00 h = ZT 06, 17:00 h = ZT 10, 21:00 h = ZT 14, 01:00 h = ZT 18, 05:00 h = ZT 22) over a 2-d period, and blood, brain, and liver samples were obtained for analysis (n = 4 at each time for each group). The expression levels of clock gene, rPer2, and those of clock controlled gene, rDBP, were quantified in the suprachiasmatic nucleus by in situ hybridization, while those of rPer1, rPer2, rDBP, rPPARA, and rFKBP51 in the liver were determined by quantitative RT-PCR.

RESULTS

In the suprachiasmatic nucleus of control rats, rPer2 and rDBP mRNA expression levels showed robust circadian patterns with peak levels at ZT 06 and ZT 10, respectively. LPS significantly suppressed both genes on day 1 but recovery was noted on day 2. Similarly, LPS significantly suppressed rPer1, rPer2, rDBP, rPPARA, and rFKBP51 mRNA expression levels in the liver on day 1 but recovery was noted on day 2, whereas a robust circadian pattern was noted in the control group.

CONCLUSION

Our results indicate that LPS causes transient suppression of the biological clock genes and suggest that the biological clock plays an important role in the response to systemic inflammatory stimulation.

Involvement of CCAAT/enhancer binding protein-beta (C/EBPbeta) in epigenetic regulation of mouse methionine adenosyltransferase 1A gene expression

Methionine adenosyltransferase (MAT) catalyzes the synthesis of S-adenosylmethionine, the main methyl donor in cellular transmethylation reactions and the aminopropyl moiety in polyamine biosynthesis. In mammals, two different genes, MAT1A and MAT2A, encode catalytic polypeptides of liver-specific MAT I/III and ubiquitous MAT II, respectively. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction showed that MAT1A gene expression was at a detectable level in embryonic day 14 mouse fetal liver and subsequently increased. Bisulfite genomic sequencing indicated that the methylation status of 10CpG sites in the MAT1A promoter proximal region was appreciably correlated with the gene expression in mouse developing liver and in adult hepatic cells; hepatic stellate cells and hepatocytes. When mouse hepatoma-derived Hepa-1 cells showing extremely low expression of MAT1A gene were treated with 5-aza-2'-deoxycytidine and trichostatin A, MAT1A gene expression was enhanced. In addition, in vitro methylation of the MAT1A promoter region suppressed the MAT1A promoter activity in reporter assay. Next, we performed electrophoretic mobility shift assay and found that the transcriptional factor CCAAT/enhancer binding protein-beta (C/EBPbeta) specifically binds to a putative binding site of C/EBPbeta in the MAT1A promoter. Suppression of C/EBPbeta expression by short hairpin RNA decreased the MAT1A promoter activity and MAT1A gene expression, and inhibition of C/EBPbeta binding to MAT1A by site-directed mutagenesis also showed similar results. Western blot analysis and chromatin immunoprecipitation assay indicated that C/EBPbeta binding is dependent on DNA methylation status. Based on these findings, we conclude that C/EBPbeta plays an important role in epigenetic regulation of the mature hepatic gene MAT1A.

Multiple mechanisms regulate circadian expression of the gene for cholesterol 7alpha-hydroxylase (Cyp7a), a key enzyme in hepatic bile acid biosynthesis

Cholesterol 7alpha-hydroxylase (CYP7A) and sterol 12alpha-hydroxylase (CYP8B) in bile acid biosynthesis and 3-hydroxyl-3-methylglutaryl CoA reductase (HMGCR) in cholesterol biosynthesis are the key enzymes in hepatic metabolic pathways, and their transcripts exhibit circadian expression profiles in rodent liver. The authors determined transcript levels of these enzymes and the regulatory factors for Cyp7a--including Dbp, Dec2, E4bp4, Hnf4alpha, Pparalpha, Lxralpha, Rev-erbalpha, and Rev-erbbeta--in the liver of wild-type and homozygous Clock mutant mice (Clock/Clock) and examined the effects of these transcription factors on the transcription activities of Cyp7a. The expression profile of the Cyp7a transcript in wild-type mice showed a strong circadian rhythm in both the 12L:12D light-dark cycle and constant darkness, and that in Clock/Clock also exhibited a circadian rhythm at an enhanced level with a lower amplitude, although its protein level became arrhythmic at a high level. The expression profile of Cyp8b mRNA in wild-type mice showed a shifted circadian rhythm from that of Cyp7a, becoming arrhythmic in Clock/Clock at an expression level comparable to that of wild-type mice. The expression profile of Hmgcr mRNA also lost its strong circadian rhythm in Clock/Clock , showing an expression level comparable to that of wild-type mice. The expressions of Dbp, Dec2, Rev-erbalpha, and Rev-erb beta--potent regulators for Cyp7a expression--were abolished or became arrhythmic in Clock/Clock, while other regulators for Cyp7a-Lxralpha, Hnf4alpha, Pparalpha, and E4bp4--had either less affected or enhanced expression in Clock/Clock. In luciferase reporter assays, REV-ERBalpha/beta, DBP, LXRalpha, and HNF4alpha increased the promoter activity of Cyp7a, whereas DEC2 abolished the transcription from the Cyp7a promoter: E4BP4 and PPARalpha were moderate negative regulators. Furthermore, knockdown of REV-ERBalpha/beta with siRNA suppressed Cyp7a transcript levels, and in the electrophoretic mobility shift assay, REV-ERBalpha/beta bound to the promoter of Cyp7a . These observations suggest that (1) active CLOCK is essential for the robust circadian expression of hepatic metabolic enzymes (Cyp7a, Cyp8b, and Hmgcr); (2) clock-controlled genes--DBP, DEC2, and REV-ERBalpha/beta--are direct regulators required for the robust circadian rhythm of Cyp7a; and (3) the circadian rhythm of Cyp7a is regulated by multiple transcription factors, including DBP, REV-ERBalpha/beta, LXRalpha, HNF4alpha DEC2, E4BP4, and PPARalpha.

The pharmacological exploitation of cholesterol 7alpha-hydroxylase, the key enzyme in bile acid synthesis: from binding resins to chromatin remodelling to reduce plasma cholesterol

Mammals dispose of cholesterol mainly through 7alpha-hydroxylated bile acids, and the enzyme catalyzing the 7alpha-hydroxylation, cholesterol 7alpha-hydroxylase (CYP7A1), has a deep impact on cholesterol homeostasis. In this review, we present the study of regulation of CYP7A1 as a good exemplification of the extraordinary contribution of molecular biology to the advancement of our understanding of metabolic pathways that has taken place in the last 2 decades. Since the cloning of the gene from different species, experimental evidence has accumulated, indicating that the enzyme is mainly regulated at the transcriptional level and that bile acids are the most important physiological inhibitors of CYP7A1 transcription. Multiple mechanisms are involved in the control of CYP7A1 transcription and a variety of transcription factors and nuclear receptors participate in sophisticated regulatory networks. A higher order of transcriptional regulation, stemming from the so-called histone code, also applies to CYP7A1, and recent findings clearly indicate that chromatin remodelling events have profound effects on its expression. CYP7A1 also acts as a sensor of signals coming from the gut, thus representing another line of defence against the toxic effects of bile acids and a downstream target of agents acting at the intestinal level. From the pharmacological point of view, bile acid binding resins were the first primitive approach targeting the negative feed-back regulation of CYP7A1 to reduce plasma cholesterol. In recent years, new drugs have been designed based on recent discoveries of the regulatory network, thus confirming the position of CYP7A1 as a focus for innovative pharmacological intervention.

Functional interaction of hepatic nuclear factor-4 and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma coactivator 1alpha in CYP7A1 regulation is inhibited by a key lipogenic activator, sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1c

Insulin inhibits transcription of cholesterol 7alpha-hydroxylase (Cyp7a1), a key gene in bile acid synthesis, and the hepatic nuclear factor-4 (HNF-4) site in the promoter was identified as a negative insulin response sequence. Using a fasting/feeding protocol in mice and insulin treatment in HepG2 cells, we explored the inhibition mechanisms. Expression of sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1c (SREBP-1c), an insulin-induced lipogenic factor, inversely correlated with Cyp7a1 expression in mouse liver. Interaction of HNF-4 with its coactivator, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma coactivator 1alpha (PGC-1alpha), was observed in livers of fasted mice and was reduced after feeding. Conversely, HNF-4 interaction with SREBP-1c was increased after feeding. In vitro studies suggested that SREBP-1c competed with PGC-1alpha for direct interaction with the AF2 domain of HNF-4. Reporter assays showed that SREBP-1c, but not of a SREBP-1c mutant lacking the HNF-4 interacting domain, inhibited HNF-4/PGC-1alpha transactivation of Cyp7a1. SREBP-1c also inhibited PGC-1alpha-coactivation of estrogen receptor, constitutive androstane receptor, pregnane X receptor, and farnesoid X receptor, implying inhibition of HNF-4 by SREBP-1c could extend to other nuclear receptors. In chromatin immunoprecipitation studies, HNF-4 binding to the promoter was not altered, but PGC-1alpha was dissociated, SREBP-1c and histone deacetylase-2 (HDAC2) were recruited, and acetylation of histone H3 was decreased upon feeding. Adenovirus-mediated expression of a SREBP-1c dominant-negative mutant, which blocks the interaction of SREBP-1c and HNF-4, partially but significantly reversed the inhibition of Cyp7a1 after feeding. Our data show that SREBP-1c functions as a non-DNA-binding inhibitor and mediates, in part, suppression of Cyp7a1 by blocking functional interaction of HNF-4 and PGC-1alpha. This mechanism may be relevant to known repression of many other HNF-4 target genes upon feeding.

High-fat feeding exerts minimal effects on rhythmic mRNA expression of clock genes in mouse peripheral tissues

Recent studies have suggested that the impairment of the circadian molecular clock in peripheral tissues, including adipose tissue, is involved in the development of metabolic syndrome. Although the disorder is often caused by dietary obesity, it remains to be elucidated whether dietary obesity or high-caloric intake per se affects the molecular clock system. To address this issue, this study investigated the effect of high-fat feeding on the rhythmic mRNA expression of clock genes (Clock, Bmal1, Per1, Per2, Cry1, Cry2, and Dbp) in mouse visceral adipose tissue and liver. Mice fed a high-fat diet for 8 wks developed a mild but overt metabolic syndrome of obesity, hyperlipidemia, and hyperglycemia. However, the high-fat feeding had only minimal effects on the rhythmic expression of the clock genes examined in both tissues. On the other hand, daily rhythmicity in the transcript level of cholesterol 7alpha-hydroxylase, a hepatic enzyme controlling circadian cholesterol homeostasis, disappeared in the mice on high-fat chow. These results suggest that high-fat feeding and mild metabolic syndrome scarcely alter the molecular clock system in mouse peripheral tissues, and that physiological circadian rhythms could be affected without altering the system. Further studies are needed to better understand the role of the circadian molecular clock in the development of metabolic syndrome. The first two authors contributed equally to this study.

Bile acid synthesis in humans has a rapid diurnal variation that is asynchronous with cholesterol synthesis

BACKGROUND & AIMS

The conversion of cholesterol to bile acids by the liver is an important regulator of body cholesterol homeostasis. In rodents, both cholesterol and bile acid synthesis have marked diurnal rhythms that peak synchronously at midnight. The aim of this study was to establish whether such diurnal rhythms are also present in healthy humans.

METHODS

Serum levels of the markers 7alpha-hydroxy-4-cholesten-3-one (C4) monitoring bile acid biosynthesis and lathosterol reflecting cholesterol synthesis were determined at 90-minute intervals in 8 human volunteers during standardized dietary conditions.

RESULTS

Serum C4 showed 2 distinct peaks (2- to 4-fold above baseline) during a 24-hour period, the first at 1:00 pm and the second at 9:00 pm. During the night, C4 levels declined, and they returned to baseline levels the next morning. In contrast, serum lathosterol levels peaked at night, between midnight and 4:00 am. The diurnal changes of C4 were not synchronous with serum lipid changes or with the postprandial increase in serum bile acids and were maintained in cholecystectomized subjects.

CONCLUSIONS

Bile acid synthesis in humans has a diurnal rhythm, with 2 peaks during the daytime, that is opposite from the circadian rhythm of cholesterol synthesis. This is completely different from the pattern in rodents and indicates the presence of an important species variation in the regulation of cholesterol homeostasis.

Regulation of bile acid biosynthesis by hepatocyte nuclear factor 4alpha

Hepatocyte nuclear factor 4alpha (HNF4alpha) regulates many genes that are preferentially expressed in liver. Mice lacking hepatic expression of HNF4alpha (HNF4alphaDeltaL) exhibited markedly increased levels of serum bile acids (BAs) compared with HNF4alpha-floxed (HNF4alphaF/F) mice. The expression of genes involved in the hydroxylation and side chain beta-oxidation of cholesterol, including oxysterol 7alpha-hydroxylase, sterol 12alpha-hydroxylase (CYP8B1), and sterol carrier protein x, was markedly decreased in HNF4alphaDeltaL mice. Cholesterol 7alpha-hydroxylase mRNA and protein were diminished only during the dark cycle in HNF4alphaDeltaL mice, whereas expression in the light cycle was not different between HNF4alphaDeltaL and HNF4alphaF/F mice. Because CYP8B1 expression was reduced in HNF4alphaDeltaL mice, it was studied in more detail. In agreement with the mRNA levels, CYP8B1 enzyme activity was absent in HNF4alphaDeltaL mice. An HNF4alpha binding site was found in the mouse Cyp8b1 promoter that was able to direct HNF4alpha-dependent transcription. Surprisingly, cholic acid-derived BAs, produced as a result of CYP8B1 activity, were still observed in the serum and gallbladder of these mice. These studies reveal that HNF4alpha plays a central role in BA homeostasis by regulation of genes involved in BA biosynthesis, including hydroxylation and side chain beta-oxidation of cholesterol in vivo.

Bioinformatic analysis of circadian gene oscillation in mouse aorta

BACKGROUND

Circadian rhythmicity of many aspects of cardiovascular function-blood pressure, coagulation and contractile function-is well established, as is diurnal variation in important clinical events, such as myocardial infarction and stroke. Here, we undertake studies to globally assess circadian gene expression in murine aorta.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Aortae from mice were harvested at 4-hour intervals for 2 circadian cycles (48 hours). Gene expression was assessed by expression profiling and subjected to a gene ontology bioinformatics analysis. Three hundred thirty transcripts exhibited a circadian pattern of oscillation in mouse aorta, including those intrinsic to the function of the molecular clock. In addition, many genes relevant to protein folding, protein degradation, glucose and lipid metabolism, adipocyte maturation, vascular integrity, and the response to injury are also included in this subset of roughly 7000 genes screened for circadian oscillation.

CONCLUSIONS

Detection of functional cassettes of vascular genes that exhibit circadian regulation in the mouse will facilitate elucidation of the mechanisms by which the molecular clock may interact with environmental variables to modulate cardiovascular function and the response to therapeutic interventions.

It's all in the timing: many clocks, many outputs

It is thought that circadian regulation of physiology and behavior imparts survival advantages to organisms that use clocks. In mammals, a master clock resident in the SCN synchronizes other central and peripheral oscillators to evoke this regulation. This master oscillator consists of interlocking transcriptional-translational feedback loops, and it regulates both core clock genes necessary for oscillator maintenance as well as specific output genes that directly or indirectly mediate physiology under circadian control. It is now clear that both neuroanatomic and molecular outputs of the clock are necessary for proper circadian clock function. Recent technology has improved our understanding of these processes, elucidating the anatomic outputs of the SCN, as well as the molecular outputs of both central and peripheral oscillators that mediate observed physiological changes.

MHC class II-related genes expression in porcine-serum-induced rat hepatic fibrosis

Genes, especially MHC class II-related genes, expression was examined in porcine-serum (PS)-induced hepatic fibrosis model. Brown-Norway (BN) and Wistar rats were injected intraperitoneally with 0.5 ml sterile porcine serum twice a week for 1, 2, 3, 4, and 8 weeks. Histopathologically, inflammation started at 2 weeks in BN and at 4 weeks in Wistar rats, and hepatic fibrosis developed at 4 weeks in BN rats and at 8 weeks in Wistar rats. Microarray analysis done at 2 and 4 weeks revealed that the expression of MHC class II-related genes and acute phase inflammation-related genes significantly increased at 2 weeks in BN and at 4 weeks in Wistar rats. On the other hand, the expression of some transcription-related genes was down-regulated in both strains. In BN rats, the results of semiquantitative RT-PCR analysis done on four MHC class II-related genes mRNAs corresponded well with those of microarray analysis. MHC class II is considered to be involved in the initiation of PS-induced hepatic fibrosis in rats.

Liver-enriched transcription factors in liver function and development. Part II: the C/EBPs and D site-binding protein in cell cycle control, carcinogenesis, circadian gene regulation, liver regeneration, apoptosis, and liver-specific gene regulation

In the first part of our review (see Pharmacol Rev 2002;54:129-158), we discussed the basic principles of gene transcription and the complex interactions within the network of hepatocyte nuclear factors, coactivators, ligands, and corepressors in targeted liver-specific gene expression. Now we summarize the role of basic region/leucine zipper protein family members and particularly the albumin D site-binding protein (DBP) and the CAAT/enhancer-binding proteins (C/EBPs) for their importance in liver-specific gene expression and their role in liver function and development. Specifically, regulatory networks and molecular interactions were examined in detail, and the experimental findings summarized in this review point to pivotal roles of DBP and C/EBPs in cell cycle control, carcinogenesis, circadian gene regulation, liver regeneration, apoptosis, and liver-specific gene regulation. These regulatory proteins are therefore of great importance in liver physiology, liver disease, and liver development. Furthermore, interpretation of the vast data generated by novel genomic platform technologies requires a thorough understanding of regulatory networks and particularly the hierarchies that govern transcription and translation of proteins as well as intracellular protein modifications. Thus, this review aims to stimulate discussions on directions of future research and particularly the identification of molecular targets for pharmacological intervention of liver disease.

Rhythmic expression of DEC1 and DEC2 in peripheral tissues: DEC2 is a potent suppressor for hepatic cytochrome P450s opposing DBP

The mammalian master molecular clock consisting of several clock gene products in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) drives circadian rhythms in behaviour and physiology. Molecular clocks consisting of the same components also exist in various peripheral organs. DEC1 and DEC2, basic helix-loop-helix transcription factors, were recently reported to be involved in the central clock in the SCN. We examined the expression profile of DEC1 and DEC2 in the periphery and their roles in the regulation of oscillating target genes in the liver. Levels of DEC1 and DEC2 mRNA exhibited a day-night variation in various peripheral tissues of rats. In the liver, their expression was high during the subjective night. Transfection assays showed that DEC2, but not DEC1, suppressed the transcription of the cholesterol 7alpha-hydroxylase gene (CYP7A), overwhelming the potent enhancement by D-site binding protein (DBP). Electrophoretic mobility shift assays indicated that DEC2 binds to the E-box (CACATG) at the -219/-214 region of CYP7A. The transcriptional activities of the other sterol metabolizing cytochrome P450s (Cyps), CYP8B and CYP51, were also suppressed by DEC2 but not DEC1. DEC2, but not DEC1, works as a direct output mediator that transmits the circadian signals to the hepatic functions, including the CYP7A, CYP8B, and CYP51 expression.

In vivo regulation of murine CYP7A1 by HNF-6: a novel mechanism for diminished CYP7A1 expression in biliary obstruction

Disruption of the enterohepatic bile acid circulation during biliary tract obstruction leads to profound perturbation of the cholesterol and bile acid metabolic pathways. Several families of nuclear receptor proteins have been shown to modulate this critical process by regulating hepatic cholesterol catabolism and bile acid synthesis through the transcriptional control of cholesterol 7-alpha hydroxylase (CYP7A1). Hepatocyte nuclear factor (HNF) 6 (also known as OC-1) is a member of the ONECUT family of transcription factors that activate numerous hepatic target genes essential to liver function. We have previously shown that hepatic expression of mouse HNF-6 messenger RNA (mRNA) and protein significantly decrease following bile duct ligation. Because CYP7A1 contains potential HNF-6 binding sites in its promoter region, we tested the hypothesis that HNF-6 transcriptionally regulates CYP7A1. Following bile duct ligation, we demonstrated that diminished HNF-6 mRNA levels correlate with a reduction in CYP7A1 mRNA expression. Increasing hepatic levels of HNF-6 either by infection with recombinant adenovirus vector expressing HNF-6 cDNA by growth hormone treatment leads to an induction of CYP7A1 mRNA. To directly evaluate if HNF-6 is a transcriptional activator for CYP7A1, we used deletional and mutational analyses of CYP7A1 promoter sequences and defined sequences -206/-194 to be critical for CYP7A1 transcriptional stimulation by HNF-6 in cotransfection assays. In conclusion, the HNF-6 protein is a component of the complex network of hepatic transcription factors that regulates the expression of hepatic genes essential for bile acid homeostasis and cholesterol/lipid metabolism in normal and pathological conditions.

Regulation of P450 genes by liver-enriched transcription factors and nuclear receptors

Cytochrome P450s (P450s) constitute a superfamily of heme-proteins that play an important role in the activation of chemical carcinogens, detoxification of numerous xenobiotics as well as in the oxidative metabolism of endogenous compounds such as steroids, fatty acids, prostaglandins, and leukotrienes. In addition, some P450s have important roles in physiological processes, such as steroidogenesis and the maintenance of bile acid and cholesterol homeostasis. Given their importance, the molecular mechanisms of P450 gene regulation have been intensely studied. Direct interactions between transcription factors, including nuclear receptors, with the promoters of P450 genes represent one of the primary means by which the expression of these genes is controlled. In this review, several liver-enriched transcription factors that play a role in the tissue-specific, developmental, and temporal regulation of P450s are discussed. In addition, the nuclear receptors that play a role in the fine control of cholesterol and bile acid homeostasis, in part, through their modulation of specific P450s, are discussed.

Surgical restoration of portal flow corrects procoagulant and anticoagulant deficiencies associated with extrahepatic portal vein thrombosis

Extrahepatic portal vein thrombosis (EHPVT) is associated with abnormal circulating procoagulants and anticoagulants. Eleven children with EHPVT and abnormal coagulation factors underwent a mesenterico-left portal vein bypass to restore portal flow. Coagulation factors had returned to normal by one year. The data suggest that portal venous flow is essential for maintaining normal coagulation.

Implications of circadian gene expression in kidney, liver and the effects of fasting on pharmacogenomic studies

Pharmacogenomics offers the potential to define metabolic pathways and to provide increased knowledge of drug actions. We studied relative levels of gene expression in the rat using a microarray with 8448 rat UniGenes (1928 known genes, 6520 unknown ESTs) in the liver and kidney as a function of time of day and then of feeding regime, which are common variables in preclinical pharmacogenomic studies. We identified 597 genes, including several key metabolic pathways, whose relative expression levels are significantly affected by time of day: expression of some was further modified by feeding state. These would have sparked interest in a pharmacogenomic study. Our study demonstrates that two common variables in pharmacogenomic studies can have dramatic effects on gene expression. This study provides investigators with baseline information for both kidney and liver with respect to 'normal' changes in gene expression influenced by time of day and feeding state. It also identifies 18 new genes that should be investigated for a role in circadian rhythms in peripheral tissues.

Regulation of mRNA stability in mammalian cells

The regulation of mRNA decay is a major control point in gene expression. The stability of a particular mRNA is controlled by specific interactions between its structural elements and RNA-binding proteins that can be general or mRNA-specific. Regulated mRNA stability is achieved through fluctuations in half-lives in response to developmental or environmental stimuli like nutrient levels, cytokines, hormones and temperature shifts as well as environmental stresses like hypoxia, hypocalcemia, viral infection, and tissue injury. Furthermore, in specific disorders like some forms of neoplasia, thalassemia and Alzheimer's disease, deregulated mRNA stability can lead to the aberrant accumulation of mRNAs and the proteins they encode. This review presents a discussion of some recently identified examples of regulated and deregulated mRNA stability in order to illustrate the diversity of genes regulated by alterations in the degradation rates of their mRNAs.

Restricted feeding entrains liver clock without participation of the suprachiasmatic nucleus

BACKGROUND

There are two main stimuli that entrain the circadian rhythm, the light-dark cycle (LD) and restricted feeding (RF). Light-induced entrainment requires induction of the Per1 and Per2 genes in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), the locus of a main oscillator. In this experiment, we determined whether RF resets the expression of circadian clock genes in the mouse liver with or without participation of the SCN.

RESULTS

Mice were allowed access to food for 4 h during the daytime (7 h advance of feeding time) under LD or constant darkness (DD). The peaks of mPer1, mPer2, D-site-binding protein (Dbp) and cholesterol 7alpha-hydroxylase (Cyp7A) mRNA in the liver were advanced 6-12 h after 6 days of RF, whereas those in SCN were unaffected. The advance of mPer expression in the liver by RF was still observed in SCN-lesioned mice. A 7 h advance in the LD cycle advanced the peaks of clock gene expression in both the liver and SCN, whereas, a shift in the LD did not move the phase of the liver clock when the shift was carried out under a fixed RF schedule during the night-time.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that restricted feeding strongly entrained the expression of circadian clock genes in the liver without the participation of an SCN clock function.

The DBP transcriptional activation domain is highly homologous to that of HLF and TEF and is not responsible for the tissue type-specific transcriptional activity of DBP

DBP, HLF and TEF comprise a distinct subfamily of mammalian bZIP proteins that plays an important role in regulation of tissue-specific gene expression, particularly in the liver. In this report we demonstrate that DBP contains a 38 amino acid TAD which is highly homologous to the HLF and TEF TADs that we have delineated previously. Deletion of this domain completely abrogates transcriptional activity of native DBP and GAL4-DBP fusion proteins. This domain functions as a modular TAD that is a potent transcriptional activator when fused to the GAL4 DBD. While DBP itself is a liver-specific transactivator, the DBP TAD is active in a variety of cell types, indicating that liver-specific activity is not an intrinsic property of the TAD and must be conferred by other regions of the protein. Using GAL4-HLF fusion proteins, we further refine the core TAD of PAR proteins to a region of 13 amino acids. Recently described PAR-bZIP proteins from Drosophila and zebrafish also contain domains that share strong homology with the TAD of mammalian PAR proteins, making this one of the most highly evolutionarily conserved TADs identified to date.

Cell biology of cytochrome P-450 in the liver

Cytochromes P-450 (P-450) are members of a multigene superfamily of hemoproteins consisting the microsomal monooxygenase system with NADPH P-450 reductase (reductase) and/or reducing equivalents. Expression of many P-450 isoforms in hepatocytes is shown to be regulated at the level of transcription through interaction between cis-acting elements in the genes and DNA-binding (transacting) factors. Some isoforms of the CYP1A, 2B, 2E, and 3A subfamilies are regulated at the posttranscriptional level. For the topology of P-450 and reductase molecules in ER membrane of hepatocytes, models from stopped flow analysis and electron spin resonance are proposed. The densities of total P-450 and reductase molecules are revealed to be high enough to support the cluster model, suggesting that about ten P-450 molecules form an aggregate and surround one reductase molecule, and therefore the two enzymes form large micelles. ER proliferation after PB administration, which had been correlated with increase in P-450 level, is shown to be probably independent of the increase in P-450 level. There are considerable discrepancies among results reported on sublobular expression of various P-450 isoforms. Causes of the discrepancies are likely to be differences in experimental conditions of histochemical detection carried out and/or in species, strain, and/or sex.

One or more labile proteins regulate the stability of chimeric mRNAs containing the 3'-untranslated region of cholesterol-7alpha -hydroxylase mRNA

Multiple AUUUA elements similar to those that regulate the degradation of several different mRNAs are conserved in the 3'-untranslated region (3'-UTR) of cholesterol-7alpha-hydroxylase (CYP7A1) mRNAs from several species. We examined if stabilization of mRNA decay could account for the >20-fold increase in the expression of CYP7A1 mRNA without a detectable change in transcription following dexamethasone treatment of rat hepatoma cells (L35 cells). Following RNA polymerase II-dependent transcription block or protein synthesis block, the decay of CYP7A1 mRNA displayed a short half-life ( approximately 30 min). Control experiments showed that in cells pre-treated with a RNA polymerase II inhibitor, dexamethasone had no detectable effect on CYP7A1 mRNA decay. Stable expression of luciferase reporter mRNAs in L35 cells showed that the CYP7A1 3'-UTR was required to observe a dexamethasone induction. To examine the hypothesis that a labile protein is required for dexamethasone-induced mRNA stabilization, cells were stably transfected with a tetracycline-repressible promoter that drives the expression of a green fluorescent protein analogue (ECFP) with or without the 3'-UTR of CYP7A1. Cells expressing ECFP with the 3'-UTR of CYP7A1 displayed a 3-fold dexamethasone induction of ECFP mRNA, whereas cells expressing ECFP without the 3'-UTR did not. Moreover, specific block of the transcription of ECFP containing the 3'-UTR by adding the tetracycline analogue doxycycline clearly displayed dexamethasone-induced stabilization of mRNA decay. These data provide compelling evidence that a putative labile protein and the 3'-UTR of CYP7A1 act together to decrease the rate of CYP7A1 mRNA degradation.

The murine and human cholesterol 7alpha-hydroxylase gene promoters are differentially responsive to regulation by fatty acids mediated via peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha

We determined if fatty acids can regulate the murine Cyp7a1 and human CYP7A1 gene promoters via peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARalpha)/9-cis-retinoic acid receptor alpha (RXRalpha). In transfected cells, the murine Cyp7a1 gene promoter displayed markedly lower basal activity, but greater sensitivity to fatty acid- or WY 14,643-activated PPARalpha/RXRalpha when compared with the human CYP7A1 gene promoter. PPARalpha/RXRalpha can bind to a site (Site II) located within the region at nucleotides -158 to -132 of both promoters. Mutagenesis of the human CYP7A1 Site II element abolished the response to activated PPARalpha/RXRalpha. The murine Cyp7a1 gene promoter contains an additional PPARalpha/RXRalpha-binding site (Site I) located within nucleotides -72 to -57. Replacement of a single residue in human CYP7A1 Site I with that found in the murine Cyp7a1 Site I sequence enabled PPARalpha/RXRalpha binding, and this mutation resulted in reduced basal activity, but substantially improved the response to activated PPARalpha/RXRalpha in transfected cells. We conclude that fatty acids can regulate the cyp7a gene promoter via PPARalpha/RXRalpha. The differential response of the murine Cyp7a1 and human CYP7A1 gene promoters to PPARalpha activators is attributable to the additional PPARalpha/RXRalpha-binding site in the murine Cyp7a1 gene promoter.

Circadian expression of the steroid 15 alpha-hydroxylase (Cyp2a4) and coumarin 7-hydroxylase (Cyp2a5) genes in mouse liver is regulated by the PAR leucine zipper transcription factor DBP

To study the molecular mechanisms of circadian gene expression, we have sought to identify genes whose expression in mouse liver is regulated by the transcription factor DBP (albumin D-site-binding protein). This PAR basic leucine zipper protein accumulates according to a robust circadian rhythm in nuclei of hepatocytes and other cell types. Here, we report that the Cyp2a4 gene, encoding the cytochrome P450 steroid 15alpha-hydroxylase, is a novel circadian expression gene. This enzyme catalyzes one of the hydroxylation reactions leading to further metabolism of the sex hormones testosterone and estradiol in the liver. Accumulation of CYP2A4 mRNA in mouse liver displays circadian kinetics indistinguishable from those of the highly related CYP2A5 gene. Proteins encoded by both the Cyp2a4 and Cyp2a5 genes also display daily variation in accumulation, though this is more dramatic for CYP2A4 than for CYP2A5. Biochemical evidence, including in vitro DNase I footprinting on the Cyp2a4 and Cyp2a5 promoters and cotransfection experiments with the human hepatoma cell line HepG2, suggests that the Cyp2a4 and Cyp2a5 genes are indeed regulated by DBP. These conclusions are corroborated by genetic studies, in which the circadian amplitude of CYP2A4 and CYP2A5 mRNAs and protein expression in the liver was significantly impaired in a mutant mouse strain homozygous for a dbp null allele. These experiments strongly suggest that DBP is a major factor controlling circadian expression of the Cyp2a4 and Cyp2a5 genes in the mouse liver.

P450 gene induction by structurally diverse xenochemicals: central role of nuclear receptors CAR, PXR, and PPAR

The biochemistry of foreign compound metabolism and the roles played by individual cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes in drug metabolism and in the toxification and detoxification of xenochemicals prevalent in the environment are important areas of molecular pharmacology and toxicology that have been widely studied over the past decade. Important advances in our understanding of the mechanisms through which foreign chemicals impact on these P450-dependent metabolic processes have been made during the past 2 years with several key discoveries relating to the mechanisms through which xenochemicals induce the expression of hepatic P450 enzymes. Roles for three "orphan" nuclear receptor superfamily members, designated CAR, PXR, and PPAR, in respectively mediating the induction of hepatic P450s belonging to families CYP2, CYP3, and CYP4 in response to the prototypical inducers phenobarbital (CAR), pregnenolone 16alpha-carbonitrile and rifampicin (PXR), and clofibric acid (PPAR) have now been established. Two other nuclear receptors, designated LXR and FXR, which are respectively activated by oxysterols and bile acids, also play a role in liver P450 expression, in this case regulation of P450 cholesterol 7alpha-hydroxylase, a key enzyme of bile acid biosynthesis. All five P450-regulatory nuclear receptors belong to the same nuclear receptor gene family (family NR1), share a common heterodimerization partner, retinoid X-receptor (RXR), and are subject to cross-talk interactions with other nuclear receptors and with a broad range of other intracellular signaling pathways, including those activated by certain cytokines and growth factors. Endogenous ligands of each of those nuclear receptors have been identified and physiological receptor functions are emerging, leading to the proposal that these receptors may primarily serve to modulate hepatic P450 activity in response to endogenous dietary or hormonal stimuli. Accordingly, P450 induction by xenobiotics may in some cases lead to a perturbation of endogenous regulatory circuits with associated pathophysiological consequences.

Cell and molecular biology of the assembly and secretion of apolipoprotein B-containing lipoproteins by the liver

Triglycerides are one of the most efficient storage forms of free energy. Because of their insolubility in biological fluids, their transport between cells and tissues requires that they be assembled into lipoprotein particles. Genetic disruption of the lipoprotein assembly/secretion pathway leads to several human disorders associated with malnutrition and developmental abnormalities. In contrast, patients displaying inappropriately high rates of lipoprotein production display increased risk for the development of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Insights provided by diverse experimental approaches describe an elegant biological adaptation of basic chemical interactions required to overcome the thermodynamic dilemma of producing a stable emulsion vehicle for the transport and tissue targeting of triglycerides. The mammalian lipoprotein assembly/secretion pathway shows an absolute requirement for: (1) the unique amphipathic protein: apolipoprotein B, in a form that is sufficiently large to assemble a lipoprotein particle containing a neutral lipid core; and, (2) a lipid transfer protein (microsomal triglyceride transfer protein-MTP). In the endoplasmic reticulum apolipoprotein B has two distinct metabolic fates: (1) entrance into the lipoprotein assembly pathway within the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum; or, (2) degradation in the cytoplasm by the ubiquitin-dependent proteasome. The destiny of apolipoprotein B is determined by the relative availability of individual lipids and level of expression of MTP. The dynamically varied expression of cholesterol-7alpha-hydroxylase indirectly influences the rate of lipid biosynthesis and the assembly and secretion lipoprotein particles by the liver.

Regulation of bile acid biosynthesis

This article provides a review of the pathways through which cholesterol is degraded to bile acids. Regulation of key enzymes in the bile acid biosynthestic pathways is discussed. The important role of these pathways in the maintenance of cholesterol homeostasis and the possible therapeutic implications for the treatment of hypercholesterolemia are emphasized.

DBP binds to the proximal promoter and regulates liver-specific expression of the human angiotensinogen gene

Angiotensinogen is the glycoprotein precursor of one of the most potent vasoactive hormones, angiotensin-II. It has been shown recently that an ATF like element (ALE) located between bases -102 and -87 of the human angiotensinogen gene plays an important role in liver specific expression of this gene and binds to CREB/ATF family of transcription factors and a novel factor (ALF). We show here that this sequence binds to the liver enriched transcription factor DBP and cotransfection of expression vector CMV-DBP increases the expression of reporter constructs containing this sequence. In addition, we show that transcription factor C/EBP-delta binds to this sequence and an expression vector containing C/EBP-delta coding region increases the expression of reporter constructs containing this sequence. Since DBP is involved in circadian rhythm, our studies suggest that this sequence may be involved in circadian expression of the human angiotensinogen gene.

Cholesterol 7alpha-hydroxylase (CYP7A): patterns of messenger RNA expression during rat liver development

Cholesterol 7-hydroxylase is a rate-limiting enzyme in bile acid synthesis, a major pathway for cholesterol catabolism. It plays a crucial role in postnatal development and survival. In an adult liver, its activity and messenger RNA (mRNA) are heterogeneously distributed with concentration in the pericentral area. We defined how the pattern of cholesterol 7-hydroxylase mRNA evolves during rat liver development, correlated this with its total liver mRNA levels, and determined when its heterogeneous pattern of expression is established. Cholesterol 7-hydroxylase mRNA was undetectable in 18-day-old fetal livers by Northern blot. It was increased markedly in newborns with a homogeneous liver lobular distribution as determined by in situ hybridization. At postnatal day four, mRNA levels were markedly decreased with concomitant appearance of a lobular gradient: mRNA was detected only in a few hepatocytes located around efferent venules. At 22 days, the time of highest mRNA expression, a marked extension of the gradient towards the periportal area was observed, indicating that the increase in total liver cholesterol 7-hydroxylase mRNA level was a result of recruitment of hepatocytes upstream from the central vein area. By 28 days, the adult pattern was observed. Thus, expression of cholesterol 7-hydroxylase mRNA is tightly regulated during rat liver development, both temporally and spatially supporting its critical role in normal postnatal development.