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Metabolic engineering of non-pathogenic Escherichia coli strains for the controlled production of low molecular weight heparosan and size-specific heparosan oligosaccharides. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2020; 1865:129765. [PMID: 33069832 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2020.129765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2020] [Revised: 10/08/2020] [Accepted: 10/13/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Heparin, a lifesaving blood thinner used in over 100 million surgical procedures worldwide annually, is currently isolated from over 700 million pigs and ~200 million cattle in slaughterhouses worldwide. Though animal-derived heparin has been in use over eight decades, it is a complex mixture that poses a risk for chemical adulteration, and its availability is highly vulnerable. Therefore, there is an urgent need in devising bioengineering approaches for the production of heparin polymers, especially low molecular weight heparin (LMWH), and thus, relying less on animal sources. One of the main challenges, however, is the rapid, cost-effective production of low molecular weight heparosan, a precursor of LMWH and size-defined heparosan oligosaccharides. Another challenge is N-sulfation of N-acetyl heparosan oligosaccharides efficiently, an essential modification required for subsequent enzymatic modifications, though chemical and enzymatic N-sulfation is effectively performed at the polymer level. METHODS To devise a strategy to produce low molecular weight heparosan and heparosan oligosaccharides, several non-pathogenic E. coli strains are engineered by transforming the essential heparosan biosynthetic genes with or without the eliminase gene (elmA) from pathogenic E. coli K5. RESULTS The metabolically engineered non-pathogenic strains are shown to produce ~5 kDa heparosan, a precursor for low molecular weight heparin, for the first time. Additionally, heparosan oligosaccharides of specific sizes ranging from tetrasaccharide to dodecasaccharide are directly generated, in a single step, from the recombinant bacterial strains that carry both heparosan biosynthetic genes and the eliminase gene. Various modifications, such as chemical N-sulfation of N-acetyl heparosan hexasaccharide following the selective protection of reducing end GlcNAc residue, enzymatic C5-epimerization of N-sulfo heparosan tetrasaccharide and complete 6-O sulfation of N-sulfo heparosan hexasaccharide, are shown to be feasible. CONCLUSIONS We engineered non-pathogenic E. coli strains to produce low molecular weight heparosan and a range of size-specific heparosan oligosaccharides in a controlled manner through modulating culture conditions. We have also shown various chemical and enzymatic modifications of heparosan oligosaccharides. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE Heparosan is a precursor of heparin and the methods to produce low molecular weight heparosan is widely awaited. The methods described herein are promising and will pave the way for potential large scale production of low molecular weight heparin anticoagulants and bioactive heparin oligosaccharides in the coming decade.
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Deligny A, Dierker T, Dagälv A, Lundequist A, Eriksson I, Nairn AV, Moremen KW, Merry CLR, Kjellén L. NDST2 (N-Deacetylase/N-Sulfotransferase-2) Enzyme Regulates Heparan Sulfate Chain Length. J Biol Chem 2016; 291:18600-18607. [PMID: 27387504 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m116.744433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Analysis of heparan sulfate synthesized by HEK 293 cells overexpressing murine NDST1 and/or NDST2 demonstrated that the amount of heparan sulfate was increased in NDST2- but not in NDST1-overexpressing cells. Altered transcript expression of genes encoding other biosynthetic enzymes or proteoglycan core proteins could not account for the observed changes. However, the role of NDST2 in regulating the amount of heparan sulfate synthesized was confirmed by analyzing heparan sulfate content in tissues isolated from Ndst2(-/-) mice, which contained reduced levels of the polysaccharide. Detailed disaccharide composition analysis showed no major structural difference between heparan sulfate from control and Ndst2(-/-) tissues, with the exception of heparan sulfate from spleen where the relative amount of trisulfated disaccharides was lowered in the absence of NDST2. In vivo transcript expression levels of the heparan sulfate-polymerizing enzymes Ext1 and Ext2 were also largely unaffected by NDST2 levels, pointing to a mode of regulation other than increased gene transcription. Size estimation of heparan sulfate polysaccharide chains indicated that increased chain lengths in NDST2-overexpressing cells alone could explain the increased heparan sulfate content. A model is discussed where NDST2-specific substrate modification stimulates elongation resulting in increased heparan sulfate chain length.
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Affiliation(s)
- Audrey Deligny
- From the Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, SE-75123 Uppsala, Sweden and
| | - Tabea Dierker
- From the Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, SE-75123 Uppsala, Sweden and
| | - Anders Dagälv
- From the Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, SE-75123 Uppsala, Sweden and
| | - Anders Lundequist
- From the Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, SE-75123 Uppsala, Sweden and
| | - Inger Eriksson
- From the Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, SE-75123 Uppsala, Sweden and
| | - Alison V Nairn
- the Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602
| | - Kelley W Moremen
- the Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia 30602
| | - Catherine L R Merry
- From the Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, SE-75123 Uppsala, Sweden and
| | - Lena Kjellén
- From the Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, SE-75123 Uppsala, Sweden and
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3
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HARE-Mediated Endocytosis of Hyaluronan and Heparin Is Targeted by Different Subsets of Three Endocytic Motifs. Int J Cell Biol 2015; 2015:524707. [PMID: 25883656 PMCID: PMC4390207 DOI: 10.1155/2015/524707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2014] [Accepted: 12/21/2014] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The hyaluronan (HA) receptor for endocytosis (HARE) is a multifunctional recycling clearance
receptor for 14 different ligands, including HA and heparin (Hep), which bind to discrete nonoverlapping
sites. Four different functional endocytic motifs (M) in the cytoplasmic domain
(CD) target coated pit mediated uptake: (YSYFRI2485 (M1), FQHF2495 (M2), NPLY2519 (M3), and
DPF2534 (M4)). We previously found (Pandey et al. J. Biol. Chem. 283, 21453, 2008) that M1,
M2, and M3 mediate endocytosis of HA. Here we assessed the ability of HARE variants with a
single-motif deletion or containing only a single motif to endocytose HA or Hep. Single-motif
deletion variants lacking M1, M3, or M4 (a different subset than involved in HA uptake) showed decreased Hep
endocytosis, although M3 was the most active; the remaining redundant motifs did not
compensate for loss of other motifs. Surprisingly, a HARE CD variant with only M3 internalized
both HA and Hep, whereas variants with either M2 or M4 alone did not endocytose either ligand.
Internalization of HA
and Hep by HARE CD mutants was dynamin-dependent and was inhibited by
hyperosmolarity, confirming clathrin-mediated endocytosis. The results indicate a complicated
relationship among multiple CD motifs that target coated pit uptake and a more fundamental role
for motif M3.
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Kasza Z, Fredlund Fuchs P, Tamm C, Eriksson AS, O'Callaghan P, Heindryckx F, Spillmann D, Larsson E, Le Jan S, Eriksson I, Gerwins P, Kjellén L, Kreuger J. MicroRNA-24 suppression of N-deacetylase/N-sulfotransferase-1 (NDST1) reduces endothelial cell responsiveness to vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA). J Biol Chem 2013; 288:25956-25963. [PMID: 23884416 PMCID: PMC3764800 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m113.484360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Heparan sulfate (HS) proteoglycans, present at the plasma membrane of vascular endothelial cells, bind to the angiogenic growth factor VEGFA to modulate its signaling through VEGFR2. The interactions between VEGFA and proteoglycan co-receptors require sulfated domains in the HS chains. To date, it is essentially unknown how the formation of sulfated protein-binding domains in HS can be regulated by microRNAs. In the present study, we show that microRNA-24 (miR-24) targets NDST1 to reduce HS sulfation and thereby the binding affinity of HS for VEGFA. Elevated levels of miR-24 also resulted in reduced levels of VEGFR2 and blunted VEGFA signaling. Similarly, suppression of NDST1 using siRNA led to a reduction in VEGFR2 expression. Consequently, not only VEGFA binding, but also VEGFR2 protein expression is dependent on NDST1 function. Furthermore, overexpression of miR-24, or siRNA-mediated reduction of NDST1, reduced endothelial cell chemotaxis in response to VEGFA. These findings establish NDST1 as a target of miR-24 and demonstrate how such NDST1 suppression in endothelial cells results in reduced responsiveness to VEGFA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zsolt Kasza
- From the Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, Husargatan 3, P. O. Box 582, SE-751 23 Uppsala
| | - Peder Fredlund Fuchs
- From the Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, Husargatan 3, P. O. Box 582, SE-751 23 Uppsala
| | - Christoffer Tamm
- From the Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, Husargatan 3, P. O. Box 582, SE-751 23 Uppsala
| | - Anna S Eriksson
- From the Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, Husargatan 3, P. O. Box 582, SE-751 23 Uppsala
| | - Paul O'Callaghan
- From the Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, Husargatan 3, P. O. Box 582, SE-751 23 Uppsala
| | - Femke Heindryckx
- From the Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, Husargatan 3, P. O. Box 582, SE-751 23 Uppsala
| | - Dorothe Spillmann
- From the Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, Husargatan 3, P. O. Box 582, SE-751 23 Uppsala
| | - Erik Larsson
- the Department of Medical Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Institute of Biomedicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, SE-405 30 Göteborg, and
| | - Sébastien Le Jan
- From the Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, Husargatan 3, P. O. Box 582, SE-751 23 Uppsala
| | - Inger Eriksson
- From the Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, Husargatan 3, P. O. Box 582, SE-751 23 Uppsala
| | - Pär Gerwins
- From the Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, Husargatan 3, P. O. Box 582, SE-751 23 Uppsala,; the Department of Radiology, Uppsala University Hospital, SE-751 85 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Lena Kjellén
- From the Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, Husargatan 3, P. O. Box 582, SE-751 23 Uppsala
| | - Johan Kreuger
- From the Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, Husargatan 3, P. O. Box 582, SE-751 23 Uppsala,.
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5
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Forsberg M, Holmborn K, Kundu S, Dagälv A, Kjellén L, Forsberg-Nilsson K. Undersulfation of heparan sulfate restricts differentiation potential of mouse embryonic stem cells. J Biol Chem 2012; 287:10853-62. [PMID: 22298785 PMCID: PMC3322844 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m111.337030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Heparan sulfate proteoglycans, present on cell surfaces and in the extracellular matrix, interact with growth factors and morphogens to influence growth and differentiation of cells. The sulfation pattern of the heparan sulfate chains formed during biosynthesis in the Golgi compartment will determine the interaction potential of the proteoglycan. The glucosaminyl N-deacetylase/N-sulfotransferase (NDST) enzymes have a key role during biosynthesis, greatly influencing total sulfation of the heparan sulfate chains. The differentiation potential of mouse embryonic stem cells lacking both NDST1 and NDST2 was studied using in vitro differentiation protocols, expression of differentiation markers, and assessment of the ability of the cells to respond to growth factors. The results show that NDST1 and NDST2 are dispensable for mesodermal differentiation into osteoblasts but necessary for induction of adipocytes and neural cells. Gene expression analysis suggested a differentiation block at the primitive ectoderm stage. Also, GATA4, a primitive endoderm marker, was expressed by these cells. The addition of FGF4 or FGF2 together with heparin rescued the differentiation potential to neural progenitors and further to mature neurons and glia. Our results suggest that the embryonic stem cells lacking both NDST1 and NDST2, expressing a very low sulfated heparan sulfate, can take the initial step toward differentiation into all three germ layers. Except for their potential for mesodermal differentiation into osteoblasts, the cells are then arrested in a primitive ectoderm and/or endoderm stage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maud Forsberg
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, Box 582, 751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
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Raman K, Nguyen TKN, Kuberan B. Is N-sulfation just a gateway modification during heparan sulfate biosynthesis? FEBS Lett 2011; 585:3420-3. [PMID: 21983289 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2011.09.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2011] [Revised: 09/14/2011] [Accepted: 09/26/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Several biologically important growth factor-heparan sulfate (HS) interactions are regulated by HS sulfation patterns. However, the biogenesis of these combinatorial sulfation patterns is largely unknown. N-Deacetylase/N-sulfotrasferase (NDST) converts N-acetyl-d-glucosamine residues to N-sulfo-d-glucosamine residues. This enzyme is suggested to be a gateway enzyme because N-sulfation dictates the final HS sulfation pattern. It is known that O-sulfation blocks C5-epimerase, which acts immediately after NDST action. However, it is still unknown whether O-sulfation inhibits NDST action in a similar manner. In this article we radically change conventional assumptions regarding HS biosynthesis by providing in vitro evidence that N-sulfation is not necessarily just a gateway modification during HS biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karthik Raman
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
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7
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Holley RJ, Deligny A, Wei W, Watson HA, Niñonuevo MR, Dagälv A, Leary JA, Bigger BW, Kjellén L, Merry CLR. Mucopolysaccharidosis type I, unique structure of accumulated heparan sulfate and increased N-sulfotransferase activity in mice lacking α-l-iduronidase. J Biol Chem 2011; 286:37515-24. [PMID: 21873421 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m111.287474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Mucopolysaccharide (MPS) diseases are characterized by accumulation of glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) due to deficiencies in lysosomal enzymes responsible for GAG breakdown. Using a murine model of MPSI Hurler (MPSIH), we have quantified the heparan sulfate (HS) accumulation resulting from α-l-iduronidase (Idua) deficiency. HS levels were significantly increased in liver and brain tissue from 12-week-old Idua(-/-) mice by 87- and 20-fold, respectively. In addition, HS chains were shown to contain significantly increased N-, 2-O-, and 6-O-sulfation. Disaccharide compositional analyses also uncovered an HS disaccharide uniquely enriched in MPSIH, representing the terminal iduronic acid residue capping the non-reducing end of the HS chain, where no further degradation can occur in the absence of Idua. Critically, we identified that excess HS, some of which is colocalized to the Golgi secretory pathway, acts as a positive regulator of HS-sulfation, increasing the N-sulfotransferase activity of HS-modifying N-deacetylase/N-sulfotransferase enzymes. This mechanism may have severe implications during disease progression but, now identified, could help direct improved therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca J Holley
- Stem Cell Glycobiology, School of Materials, The University of Manchester, M13 9PL Manchester, UK
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8
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Ringvall M, Kjellén L. Mice deficient in heparan sulfate N-deacetylase/N-sulfotransferase 1. PROGRESS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND TRANSLATIONAL SCIENCE 2010; 93:35-58. [PMID: 20807640 DOI: 10.1016/s1877-1173(10)93003-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Ndsts (N-deacetylase/N-sulfotransferases) are enzymes responsible for N-sulfation during heparan sulfate (HS) and heparin biosynthesis. In this review, basic features of the Ndst1 enzyme are covered and a brief description of HS biosynthesis and its regulation is presented. Effects of Ndst1 deficiency on embryonic development are described. These include immature lungs, craniofacial dysplasia and eye developmental defects, branching defect during lacrimal gland development, delayed mineralization of the skeleton, and reduced pericyte recruitment during vascular development. A brief account of the effects of Ndst1 deficiency in selective cell types in adult mice is also given.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Ringvall
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, The Biomedical Center, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
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9
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Therapeutic approaches using host defence peptides to tackle herpes virus infections. Viruses 2009; 1:939-64. [PMID: 21994576 PMCID: PMC3185547 DOI: 10.3390/v1030939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2009] [Revised: 10/11/2009] [Accepted: 11/16/2009] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
One of the most common viral infections in humans is caused by herpes simplex virus (HSV). It can easily be treated with nucleoside analogues (e.g., acyclovir), but resistant strains are on the rise. Naturally occurring antimicrobial peptides have been demonstrated to possess antiviral activity against HSV. New evidence has also indicated that these host defence peptides are able to selectively stimulate the innate immune system to fight of infections. This review will focus on the anti-HSV activity of such peptides (both natural and synthetic), describe their mode of action and their clinical potential.
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10
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Carlsson P, Presto J, Spillmann D, Lindahl U, Kjellén L. Heparin/heparan sulfate biosynthesis: processive formation of N-sulfated domains. J Biol Chem 2008; 283:20008-14. [PMID: 18487608 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m801652200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Heparan sulfate (HS) proteoglycans influence embryonic development as well as adult physiology through interactions with various proteins, including growth factors/morphogens and their receptors. The interactions depend on HS structure, which is largely determined during biosynthesis by Golgi enzymes. A key step is the initial generation of N-sulfated domains, primary sites for further polymer modification and ultimately for functional interactions with protein ligands. Such domains, generated through action of a bifunctional GlcNAc N-deacetylase/N-sulfotransferase (NDST) on a [GlcUA-GlcNAc](n) substrate, are of variable size due to regulatory mechanisms that remain poorly understood. We have studied the action of recombinant NDSTs on the [GlcUA-GlcNAc](n) precursor in the presence and absence of the sulfate donor, 3'-phosphoadenosine 5'-phosphosulfate (PAPS). In the absence of PAPS, NDST catalyzes limited and seemingly random N-deacetylation of GlcNAc residues. By contrast, access to PAPS shifts the NDST toward generation of extended N-sulfated domains that are formed through coupled N-deacetylation/N-sulfation in an apparent processive mode. Variations in N-substitution pattern could be obtained by varying PAPS concentration or by experimentally segregating the N-deacetylation and N-sulfation steps. We speculate that similar mechanisms may apply also to the regulation of HS biosynthesis in the living cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pernilla Carlsson
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology at Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
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11
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Heparan sulfate biosynthesis enzymes EXT1 and EXT2 affect NDST1 expression and heparan sulfate sulfation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2008; 105:4751-6. [PMID: 18337501 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0705807105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Heparan sulfate (HS) proteoglycans influence embryonic development and adult physiology through interactions with protein ligands. The interactions depend on HS structure, which is determined largely during biosynthesis by Golgi enzymes. How biosynthesis is regulated is more or less unknown. During polymerization of the HS chain, carried out by a complex of the exostosin proteins EXT1 and EXT2, the first modification enzyme, glucosaminyl N-deacetylase/N-sulfotransferase (NDST), introduces N-sulfate groups into the growing polymer. Unexpectedly, we found that the level of expression of EXT1 and EXT2 affected the amount of NDST1 present in the cell, which, in turn, greatly influenced HS structure. Whereas overexpression of EXT2 in HEK 293 cells enhanced NDST1 expression, increased NDST1 N-glycosylation, and resulted in elevated HS sulfation, overexpression of EXT1 had opposite effects. Accordingly, heart tissue from transgenic mice overexpressing EXT2 showed increased NDST activity. Immunoprecipitaion experiments suggested an interaction between EXT2 and NDST1. We speculate that NDST1 competes with EXT1 for binding to EXT2. Increased NDST activity in fibroblasts with a gene trap mutation in EXT1 supports this notion. These results support a model in which the enzymes of HS biosynthesis form a complex, or a GAGosome.
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12
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Ledin J, Ringvall M, Thuveson M, Eriksson I, Wilén M, Kusche-Gullberg M, Forsberg E, Kjellén L. Enzymatically active N-deacetylase/N-sulfotransferase-2 is present in liver but does not contribute to heparan sulfate N-sulfation. J Biol Chem 2006; 281:35727-34. [PMID: 16984905 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m604113200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Heparan sulfate (HS) proteoglycans influence embryonic development through interactions with growth factors and morphogens. The interactions depend on HS structure, which is largely determined during biosynthesis by Golgi enzymes. NDST (glucosaminyl N-deacetylase/N-sulfotransferase), responsible for HS N-sulfation, is a key enzyme directing further modifications including O-sulfation. To elucidate the roles of the different NDST isoforms in HS biosynthesis, we took advantage of mice with targeted mutations in NDST1 and NDST2 and used liver as our model organ. Of the four NDST isoforms, only NDST1 and NDST2 transcripts were shown to be expressed in control liver. The absence of NDST1 or NDST2 in the knock-out mice did not affect transcript levels of other NDST isoforms or other HS modification enzymes. Although the sulfation level of HS synthesized in NDST1-/- mice was drastically lowered, liver HS from wild-type mice, from NDST1+/-, NDST2-/-, and NDST1+/- / NDST2-/- mice all had the same structure despite greatly reduced NDST enzyme activity (30% of control levels in NDST1+/- / NDST2-/- embryonic day 18.5 embryos). Enzymatically active NDST2 was shown to be present in similar amounts in wild-type, NDST1-/-, and NDST1+/- embryonic day 18.5 liver. Despite the substantial contribution of NDST2 to total NDST enzyme activity in embryonic day 18.5 liver (approximately 40%), its presence did not appear to affect HS structure as long as NDST1 was also present. In NDST1-/- embryonic day 18.5 liver, in contrast, NDST2 was responsible for N-sulfation of the low sulfated HS. A tentative model to explain these results is presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johan Ledin
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Uppsala University, SE-751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
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13
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Abstract
Antimicrobial host defense peptides are produced by all complex organisms as well as some microbes and have diverse and complex antimicrobial activities. Collectively these peptides demonstrate a broad range of antiviral and antibacterial activities and modes of action, and it is important to distinguish between direct microbicidal and indirect activities against such pathogens. The structural requirements of peptides for antiviral and antibacterial activities are evaluated in light of the diverse set of primary and secondary structures described for host defense peptides. Peptides with antifungal and antiparasitic activities are discussed in less detail, although the broad-spectrum activities of such peptides indicate that they are important host defense molecules. Knowledge regarding the relationship between peptide structure and function as well as their mechanism of action is being applied in the design of antimicrobial peptide variants as potential novel therapeutic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Håvard Jenssen
- Centre for Microbial Diseases and Immunity Research, University of British Columbia, Lower Mall Research Station, 232-2259 Lower Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
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14
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Abstract
Virtually every cell type in metazoan organisms produces heparan sulfate. These complex polysaccharides provide docking sites for numerous protein ligands and receptors involved in diverse biological processes, including growth control, signal transduction, cell adhesion, hemostasis, and lipid metabolism. The binding sites consist of relatively small tracts of variably sulfated glucosamine and uronic acid residues in specific arrangements. Their formation occurs in a tissue-specific fashion, generated by the action of a large family of enzymes involved in nucleotide sugar metabolism, polymer formation (glycosyltransferases), and chain processing (sulfotransferases and an epimerase). New insights into the specificity and organization of the biosynthetic apparatus have emerged from genetic studies of cultured cells, nematodes, fruit flies, zebrafish, rodents, and humans. This review covers recent developments in the field and provides a resource for investigators interested in the incredible diversity and specificity of this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey D Esko
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Glycobiology Research and Training Center, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, California, 92093-0687, USA.
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15
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Abstract
Structural diversity of the sugar chains attached to proteins and lipids that arises from the variety of combinations of different monosaccharides, different types of linkages, branch formation and secondary modifications, such as sulfation, possesses a large amount of biological information. A number of proteoglycans, glycoproteins, and glycolipids contain sulfated carbohydrates. Their sulfate groups provide a negative charge and play a role in a specific molecular recognition process. The sulfation of oligosaccharides is catalyzed by the Golgi-associated sulfotransferases. Recent success in molecular cloning of these sulfotransferases has brought a breakthrough in the understanding of biological function of sulfated oligosaccharides in a variety of contexts. Investigations on the relationship of sulfated oligosaccharides to human diseases including hereditary deficiency, cancer, inflammation, and infection may provide hints for curing disastrous diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koichi Honke
- Department of Biochemistry, Osaka University Medical School, 2-2 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan.
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16
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Yamamoto Y, Takahashi I, Ogata N, Nakazawa K. Purification and characterization of N-acetylglucosaminyl sulfotransferase from chick corneas. Arch Biochem Biophys 2001; 392:87-92. [PMID: 11469798 DOI: 10.1006/abbi.2001.2422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
N-Acetylglucosaminyl(GlcNAc) sulfotransferase, which transfers sulfate from adenosine 3'-phosphate 5'-phosphosulfate to GlcNAc at the nonreducing end of oligosaccharides, was purified 887-fold with a 8.4% yield from 2-day-old chick corneas by chromatography on CM-Sepharose, WGA-agarose, GlcNAc-agarose, and 3',5'-ADP-agarose columns. The purified enzyme has an optimum pH of 6.0 (Mes buffer) and specifically transfers a sulfate to GlcNAc at the nonreducing end but not to internal GlcNAc. The enzyme was stimulated by protamine and Mn(2+). SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of the purified enzyme still showed two main bands (66 and 55 kDa) with some minor bands. It appears that this enzyme competes with beta-galactosyltransferase in binding to the nonreducing GlcNAc residue on KS synthesis; this suggests that the sulfation of the GlcNAc residue is coupled with the elongation of the KS chain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Yamamoto
- Section of Radiochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Meijo University, 150 Yagotoyama, Tempaku-ku, Nagoya 468-8503, Japan
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17
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Rong J, Habuchi H, Kimata K, Lindahl U, Kusche-Gullberg M. Substrate specificity of the heparan sulfate hexuronic acid 2-O-sulfotransferase. Biochemistry 2001; 40:5548-55. [PMID: 11331020 DOI: 10.1021/bi002926p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The interaction of heparan sulfate with different ligand proteins depends on the precise location of O-sulfate groups in the polysaccharide chain. We have previously shown that overexpression in human kidney 293 cells of a mouse mastocytoma 2-O-sulfotransferase (2-OST), previously thought to catalyze the transfer of sulfate from 3'-phosphoadenosine 5'-phosphosulfate to C2 of L-iduronyl residues, preferentially increases the level of 2-O-sulfation of D-glucuronyl units [Rong, J., Habuchi, H., Kimata, K., Lindahl, U., and Kusche-Gullberg, M. (2000) Biochem. J. 346, 463-468]. In the study presented here, we further investigated the substrate specificity of the mouse mastocytoma 2-OST. Different polysaccharide acceptor substrates were incubated with cell extracts from 2-OST-transfected 293 cells together with the sulfate donor 3'-phosphoadenosine 5'-phospho[(35)S]sulfate. Incubations with O-desulfated heparin, predominantly composed of [(4)alphaIdoA(1)-(4)alphaGlcNSO(3)(1)-](n)(), resulted in 2-O-sulfation of iduronic acid. When, on the other hand, an N-sulfated capsular polysaccharide from Escherichia coli K5, with the structure [(4)betaGlcA(1)-(4)alphaGlcNSO(3)(1)-](n)(), was used as an acceptor, sulfate was transferred almost exclusively to C2 of glucuronic acid. Substrates containing both iduronic and glucuronic acid residues in about equal proportions strongly favored sulfation of iduronic acid. In agreement with these results, the 2-OST was found to have a approximately 5-fold higher affinity for iduronic acid-containing substrate disaccharide units (K(m) approximately 3.7 microM) than for glucuronic acid-containing substrate disaccharide units (K(m) approximately 19.3 microM).
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Affiliation(s)
- J Rong
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Uppsala, Sweden
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18
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Aikawa J, Grobe K, Tsujimoto M, Esko JD. Multiple isozymes of heparan sulfate/heparin GlcNAc N-deacetylase/GlcN N-sulfotransferase. Structure and activity of the fourth member, NDST4. J Biol Chem 2001; 276:5876-82. [PMID: 11087757 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m009606200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 155] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
We report the cloning and partial characterization of the fourth member of the vertebrate heparan sulfate/heparin: GlcNAc N-deacetylase/GlcN N-sulfotransferase family, which we designate NDST4. Full-length cDNA clones containing the entire coding region of 872 amino acids were obtained from human and mouse cDNA libraries. The deduced amino acid sequence of NDST4 showed high sequence identity to NDST1, NDST2, and NDST3 in both species. NDST4 maps to human chromosome 4q25-26, very close to NDST3, located at 4q26-27. These observations, taken together with phylogenetic data, suggest that the four NDSTs evolved from a common ancestral gene, which diverged to give rise to two subtypes, NDST3/4 and NDST1/2. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction analysis of various mouse tissues revealed a restricted pattern of NDST4 mRNA expression when compared with NDST1 and NDST2, which are abundantly and ubiquitously expressed. Comparison of the enzymatic properties of the four murine NDSTs revealed striking differences in N-deacetylation and N-sulfation activities; NDST4 had weak deacetylase activity but high sulfotransferase, whereas NDST3 had the opposite properties. Molecular modeling of the sulfotransferase domains of the murine and human NDSTs showed varying surface charge distributions within the substrate binding cleft, suggesting that the differences in activity may reflect preferences for different substrates. An iterative model of heparan sulfate biosynthesis is suggested in which some NDST isozymes initiate the N-deacetylation and N-sulfation of the chains, whereas others bind to previously modified segments to fill in or extend the section of modified residues.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Aikawa
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Glycobiology Research and Training Center, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0687, USA
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19
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Garg HG, Thompson BT, Hales CA. Structural determinants of antiproliferative activity of heparin on pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2000; 279:L779-89. [PMID: 11053011 DOI: 10.1152/ajplung.2000.279.5.l779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
In addition to its anticoagulant properties, heparin (HP), a complex polysaccharide covalently linked to a protein core, inhibits proliferation of several cell types including pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMCs). Commercial lots of HP exhibit varying degrees of antiproliferative activity on PASMCs that may due to structural differences in the lots. Fractionation of a potent antiproliferative HP preparation into high and low molecular weight components does not alter the antiproliferative effect on PASMCs, suggesting that the size of HP is not the major determinant of this biological activity. The protein core of HP obtained by cleaving the carbohydrate-protein linkage has no growth inhibition on PASMCs, demonstrating that the antiproliferative activity resides in the glycosaminoglycan component. Basic sugar residues of glucosamine can be replaced with another basic sugar, i.e., galactosamine, without affecting growth inhibition of PASMCs. N-sulfonate groups on these sugar residues of HP are not essential for growth inhibition. However, O-sulfonate groups on both sugar residues are essential for the antiproliferative activity on PASMCs. In whole HP, in contrast to an earlier finding based on a synthetic pentasaccharide of HP, 3-O-sulfonation is not critical for the antiproliferative activity against PASMCs. The amounts and distribution of sulfonate groups on both sugar residues of the glycosaminoglycan chain are the major determinant of antiproliferative activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- H G Garg
- Pulmonary/Critical Care Unit, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, USA
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20
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Tokuyasu K, Mitsutomi M, Yamaguchi I, Hayashi K, Mori Y. Recognition of chitooligosaccharides and their N-acetyl groups by putative subsites of chitin deacetylase from a deuteromycete, Colletotrichum lindemuthianum. Biochemistry 2000; 39:8837-43. [PMID: 10913295 DOI: 10.1021/bi0005355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The reaction pattern of an extracellular chitin deacetylase from a Deuteromycete, Colletotrichum lindemuthianum ATCC 56676, was investigated by use of chitooligosaccharides [(GlcNAc)(n)(), n = 3-6] and partially N-deacetylated chitooligosaccharides as substrates. When 0.5% of (GlcNAc)(n)() was deacetylated, the corresponding monodeacetylated products were initially detected without any processivity, suggesting the involvement of a multiple-chain mechanism for the deacetylation reaction. The structural analysis of these first-step products indicated that the chitin deacetylase strongly recognizes a sequence of four N-acetyl-D-glucosamine (GlcNAc) residues of the substrate (the subsites for the four GlcNAc residues are defined as -2, -1, 0, and +1, respectively, from the nonreducing end to the reducing end), and the N-acetyl group in the GlcNAc residue positioned at subsite 0 is exclusively deacetylated. When substrates of a low concentration (100 microM) were deacetylated, the initial deacetylation rate for (GlcNAc)(4) was comparable to that of (GlcNAc)(5), while deacetylation of (GlcNAc)(3) could not be detected. Reaction rate analyses of partially N-deacetylated chitooligosaccharides suggested that subsite -2 strongly recognizes the N-acetyl group of the GlcNAc residue of the substrate, while the deacetylation rate was not affected when either subsite -1 or +1 was occupied with a D-glucosamine residue instead of GlcNAc residue. Thus, the reaction pattern of the chitin deacetylase is completely distinct from that of a Zygomycete, Mucor rouxii, which produces a chitin deacetylase for accumulation of chitosan in its cell wall.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Tokuyasu
- Food Resource Division, National Food Research Institute, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8642, Japan.
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21
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Pikas DS, Eriksson I, Kjellén L. Overexpression of different isoforms of glucosaminyl N-deacetylase/N-sulfotransferase results in distinct heparan sulfate N-sulfation patterns. Biochemistry 2000; 39:4552-8. [PMID: 10758005 DOI: 10.1021/bi992524l] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Functional interactions of heparan sulfate (HS) with selected proteins depend on distinct saccharide sequences which are generated during biosynthesis of the polysaccharide. Glucosaminyl N-deacetylase/N-sulfotransferases (NDSTs) catalyze both the N-deacetylation and N-sulfation reactions that initiate the modification of the (GlcNAc-GlcA)(n) polysaccharide backbone. The N-acetyl/N-sulfate exchange is restricted to certain regions of the polysaccharide chains, and only these can be further modified by glucuronyl C5-epimerization and O-sulfation at various positions. To investigate whether NDST isoforms influenced differently the structure of HS, murine NDST-1 was overexpressed in human kidney 293 cells, and the structure of the HS produced was compared to HS from NDST-2 overexpressing cells [Cheung, W. F., Eriksson, I., Kusche-Gullberg M., Lindahl, U., and Kjellén, L. (1996) Biochemistry 35, 5250-5256]. The level of N-sulfation increased from 40% in control cells to 60% and 80%, respectively, in NDST-1 and NDST-2 transfected cells. Interestingly, the increase in N-sulfation was accompanied by an increased chain length, while no effect on IdoA content or O-sulfation was seen. The most extended N-sulfated domains were found in HS synthesized by NDST-2 transfected cells. Since both the N-deacetylase and the N-sulfotransferase activities were lower in these cells than in the NDST-1 overexpressing cells, we conclude that, in addition to the level of enzyme expression, the NDST isoform also is important in determining the N-sulfation pattern in HS.
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Affiliation(s)
- D S Pikas
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Uppsala, Uppsala, Sweden
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22
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Habuchi O. Diversity and functions of glycosaminoglycan sulfotransferases. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 2000; 1474:115-27. [PMID: 10742590 DOI: 10.1016/s0304-4165(00)00016-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Sulfate residues attached to the specific position of the component sugar residues of glycosaminoglycans play important roles in the formation of functional domain structures. The introduction of a sulfate group is catalyzed by various sulfotransferases with strict substrate specificities. A rapid development achieved in the cloning of various glycosaminoglycan sulfotransferases has allowed us to study the biological functions of glycosaminoglycan sulfotransferases and their products, sulfated glycosaminoglycans.
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Affiliation(s)
- O Habuchi
- Department of Life Science, Aichi University of Education, Kariya, Aichi, Japan.
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23
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Habuchi H, Tanaka M, Habuchi O, Yoshida K, Suzuki H, Ban K, Kimata K. The occurrence of three isoforms of heparan sulfate 6-O-sulfotransferase having different specificities for hexuronic acid adjacent to the targeted N-sulfoglucosamine. J Biol Chem 2000; 275:2859-68. [PMID: 10644753 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.275.4.2859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 184] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
We previously cloned heparan sulfate 6-O-sulfotransferase (HS6ST) (Habuchi, H., Kobayashi, M., and Kimata, K. (1998) J. Biol. Chem. 273, 9208-9213). In this study, we report the cloning and characterization of three mouse isoforms of HS6ST, a mouse homologue to the original human HS6ST (HS6ST-1) and two novel HS6STs (HS6ST-2 and HS6ST-3). The cDNAs have been obtained from mouse brain cDNA library by cross-hybridization with human HS6ST cDNA. The three cDNAs contained single open reading frames that predicted type II transmembrane proteins composed of 401, 506, and 470 amino acid residues, respectively. Amino acid sequence of HS6ST-1 was 51 and 57% identical to those of HS6ST-2 and HS6ST-3, respectively. HS6ST-2 and HS6ST-3 had the 50% identity. Overexpression of each isoform in COS-7 cells resulted in about 10-fold increase of HS6ST activity. The three isoforms purified with anti-FLAG antibody affinity column transferred sulfate to heparan sulfate and heparin but not to other glycosaminoglycans. Each isoform showed different specificity toward the isomeric hexuronic acid adjacent to the targeted N-sulfoglucosamine; HS6ST-1 appeared to prefer the iduronosyl N-sulfoglucosamine while HS6ST-2 had a different preference, depending upon the substrate concentrations, and HS6ST-3 acted on either substrate. Northern analysis showed that the expression of each message in various tissues was characteristic to the respective isoform. HS6ST-1 was expressed strongly in liver, and HS6ST-2 was expressed mainly in brain and spleen. In contrast, HS6ST-3 was expressed rather ubiquitously. These results suggest that the expression of these isoforms may be regulated in tissue-specific manners and that each isoform may be involved in the synthesis of heparan sulfates with tissue-specific structures and functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Habuchi
- Institute for Molecular Science of Medicine, Aichi Medical University, Nagakute, Aichi 480-1195, Japan
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24
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Liu J, Shriver Z, Blaiklock P, Yoshida K, Sasisekharan R, Rosenberg RD. Heparan sulfate D-glucosaminyl 3-O-sulfotransferase-3A sulfates N-unsubstituted glucosamine residues. J Biol Chem 1999; 274:38155-62. [PMID: 10608887 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.274.53.38155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
3-O-Sulfation of glucosamine by heparan sulfate D-glucosaminyl 3-O-sulfotransferase (3-OST-1) is the key modification in anticoagulant heparan sulfate synthesis. However, the heparan sulfates modified by 3-OST-2 and 3-OST-3A, isoforms of 3-OST-1, do not have anticoagulant activity, although these isoforms transfer sulfate to the 3-OH position of glucosamine residues. In this study, we characterize the substrate specificity of purified 3-OST-3A at the tetrasaccharide level. The 3-OST-3A enzyme was purified from Sf9 cells infected with recombinant baculovirus containing 3-OST-3A cDNA. Two 3-OST-3A-modified tetrasaccharides were purified from the 3-O-(35)S-sulfated heparan sulfate that was digested by heparin lyases. These tetrasaccharides were analyzed using nitrous acid and enzymatic degradation combined with matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-mass spectrometry. Two novel tetrasaccharides were discovered with proposed structures of DeltaUA2S-GlcNS-IdoUA2S-[(35)S]GlcNH(2)3S and DeltaUA2S-GlcNS-IdoUA2S-[3-(35)S]GlcNH(2)3S6S . The results demonstrate that 3-OST-3A sulfates N-unsubstituted glucosamine residues, and the 3-OST-3A modification sites are probably located in defined oligosaccharide sequences. Our study suggests that oligosaccharides with N-unsubstituted glucosamine are precursors for sulfation by 3-OST-3A. The intriguing linkage between N-unsubstituted glucosamine and the 3-O-sulfation by 3-OST-3A may provide a clue to the potential biological functions of 3-OST-3A-modified heparan sulfate.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Liu
- Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
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25
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Forsberg E, Pejler G, Ringvall M, Lunderius C, Tomasini-Johansson B, Kusche-Gullberg M, Eriksson I, Ledin J, Hellman L, Kjellén L. Abnormal mast cells in mice deficient in a heparin-synthesizing enzyme. Nature 1999; 400:773-6. [PMID: 10466727 DOI: 10.1038/23488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 367] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Heparin is a sulphated polysaccharide, synthesized exclusively by connective-tissue-type mast cells and stored in the secretory granules in complex with histamine and various mast-cell proteases. Although heparin has long been used as an antithrombotic drug, endogenous heparin is not present in the blood, so it cannot have a physiological role in regulating blood coagulation. The biosynthesis of heparin involves a series of enzymatic reactions, including sulphation at various positions. The initial modification step, catalysed by the enzyme glucosaminyl N-deacetylase/N-sulphotransferase-2, NDST-2, is essential for the subsequent reactions. Here we report that mice carrying a targeted disruption of the gene encoding NDST-2 are unable to synthesize sulphated heparin. These NDST-2-deficient mice are viable and fertile but have fewer connective-tissue-type mast cells; these cells have an altered morphology and contain severely reduced amounts of histamine and mast-cell proteases. Our results indicate that one site of physiological action for heparin could be inside connective-tissue-type mast cells, where its absence results in severe defects in the secretory granules.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Forsberg
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, University of Uppsala, Sweden
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26
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Aikawa J, Esko JD. Molecular cloning and expression of a third member of the heparan sulfate/heparin GlcNAc N-deacetylase/ N-sulfotransferase family. J Biol Chem 1999; 274:2690-5. [PMID: 9915799 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.274.5.2690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
N-Deacetylation and N-sulfation of N-acetylglucosamine residues in heparan sulfate and heparin initiate a series of chemical modifications that ultimately lead to oligosaccharide sequences with specific ligand binding properties. These reactions are catalyzed by GlcNAc N-deacetylase/N-sulfotransferase (NDST), a monomeric enzyme with two catalytic activities. Two genes encoding NDST isozymes have been described, one from rat liver (NDST1) and another from murine mastocytoma (NDST2). Both isozymes are expressed in tissues in varying amounts, but their relative contribution to heparan sulfate formation in any one tissue is unknown. We now report the identification of a third member of the NDST family, designated NDST3. A full-length cDNA clone (3.2 kilobase pairs) encoding a 873-amino acid protein was obtained from a human fetal/infant brain cDNA library. Human NDST3 (hNDST3) has a nucleotide sequence homologous but not identical to hNDST1 and NDST2. The deduced amino acid sequence shows 70% and 65% amino acid identity to that of hNDST1 and NDST2, respectively. A soluble chimera of hNDST3 and protein A exhibited both N-deacetylase and N-sulfotransferase activity, confirming its enzymatic identity. Northern blot analysis of human fetal brain poly(A)+ RNA showed a single transcript of 6.4 kilobase pairs. Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction analysis revealed more restricted tissue expression of hNDST3 than hNDST1 and NDST2, and high levels in brain, liver, and kidney. Analysis of Chinese hamster ovary cells revealed expression of NDST1 and NDST2, but not NDST3. In a Chinese hamster ovary cell mutant exhibiting reduced N-sulfotransferase activity and reduced sulfation of heparan sulfate (Bame, K. J., and Esko, J. D. (1989) J. Biol. Chem. 264, 8059-8065), expression of NDST1 was greatly reduced, but NDST2 was expressed normally, suggesting that both enzymes are involved in heparan sulfate assembly. The discovery of multiple NDST isozymes suggests that the assembly of heparan sulfate is much complicated than previously appreciated.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Aikawa
- Division of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Glycobiology Program, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0687, USA
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27
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Wei Z, Swiedler SJ. Functional analysis of conserved cysteines in heparan sulfate N-deacetylase-N-sulfotransferases. J Biol Chem 1999; 274:1966-70. [PMID: 9890952 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.274.4.1966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
N-Deacetylase-N-sulfotransferases (NDANST) catalyze the two initial modifications of the polysaccharide precursor in the biosynthesis of heparin and heparan sulfate. These modifications are the gating steps in establishing growth factor protein-binding domains of these glycosaminoglycans. We have undertaken a structure-activity analysis of the 841-amino acid Golgi-luminal portion of the rat liver NDANST to localize the two enzymatic functions. Each activity can be assayed in vitro independently of the other when provided with the appropriate substrate, and N-ethylmaleimide treatment selectively inactivates the deacetylase activity. In this study, dithiothreitol treatment of the rat liver NDANST was shown to inactivate the sulfotransferase function, while stimulating deacetylase activity 2-3-fold over the native protein. Site-directed mutagenesis of the eight cysteine (Cys) residues in the rat liver NDANST that are conserved in the mouse mastocytoma protein produced three important findings regarding the localization of each enzymatic function: 1) derivatization of Cys486 with N-ethylmaleimide resulted in total inactivation of the deacetylase activity based on steric hindrance of the active site (this residue was shown not to be involved in enzymatic catalysis), 2) substitution of either Cys159 or Cys486 with alanine resulted in enhanced activity of the deacetylase to the level obtained by dithiothreitol treatment, and 3) alanine substitution of Cys818 or Cys828 completely inactivated the sulfotransferase activity, while substitution of Cys586 or Cys601 resulted in a 90% loss in activity. These findings suggest that the two enzymatic domains within the NDANST localize to different portions of the protein, with two disulfide pairs toward the COOH-terminal half of the protein necessary for the sulfotransferase activity, and Cys residues within the NH2-terminal half influencing or located near the active site of the deacetylase functionality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z Wei
- Glycomed, Inc., Alameda, California 94501, USA
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28
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Toma L, Berninsone P, Hirschberg CB. The putative heparin-specific N-acetylglucosaminyl N-Deacetylase/N-sulfotransferase also occurs in non-heparin-producing cells. J Biol Chem 1998; 273:22458-65. [PMID: 9712870 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.273.35.22458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
N-Deacetylation and N-sulfation of N-acetylglucosamine of heparin and heparan sulfate are hypothesized to be mediated by different tissue-specific N-acetylglucosaminyl N-deacetylases/N-sulfotransferases, which in turn lead to the higher L-iduronic acid and sulfate content of heparin versus heparan sulfate. Furthermore, the putative heparin-specific N-acetylglucosaminyl N-deacetylase/N-sulfotransferase has been reported to require auxiliary proteins for its N-acetylglucosaminyl N-deacetylase activity in vivo based on its requirement of polycations in vitro. We have now found that cells derived from embryonic bovine trachea, a tissue that does not synthesize heparin, has a N-acetylglucosaminyl N-deacetylase/N-sulfotransferase, which has 95% amino acid sequence identity to the above enzyme postulated to be involved in the biosynthesis of heparin. Both enzymes also have very similar affinity for their substrates. The trachea enzyme does not require additional effectors for its N-acetylglucosaminyl N-deacetylase activity in vitro even though its biochemical characteristics are virtually the same as the enzyme previously isolated from cells of a heparin-producing mastocytoma tumor. The trachea enzyme, which is encoded by an abundant 4.6-kilobase mRNA, like mastocytoma cells, has 70% amino acid sequence identity with the corresponding enzyme from rat liver postulated to participate in the biosynthesis of heparan sulfate. Heparan sulfate synthesized by trachea cells has a higher content of sulfated iduronic acid than from other tissues. Together, the above results strongly suggest that the above enzymes from mastocytoma, liver, and trachea, per se, are not solely responsible for the selective tissue-specific synthesis of heparin or heparan sulfate; more likely cellular factors, additional enzymes, and availability of substrates in the Golgi lumen also play important roles in the differential synthesis of the above proteoglycans.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Toma
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Boston University Goldman School of Dental Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts 02118, USA
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29
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Kusche-Gullberg M, Eriksson I, Pikas DS, Kjellén L. Identification and expression in mouse of two heparan sulfate glucosaminyl N-deacetylase/N-sulfotransferase genes. J Biol Chem 1998; 273:11902-7. [PMID: 9565617 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.273.19.11902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The biosynthesis of heparan sulfate/heparin is a complex process that requires the coordinate action of a number of different enzymes. In close connection with polymerization of the polysaccharide chain, the modification reactions are initiated by N-deacetylation followed by N-sulfation of N-acetylglucosamine units. These two reactions are carried out by a single protein. Proteins with such dual activities were first purified and cloned from rat liver and mouse mastocytoma. The mouse mastocytoma enzyme is encoded by an approximately 4-kilobase (kb) mRNA, whereas the rat liver transcript contains approximately 8 kb. In the present study, the primary structure of the enzyme encoded by the mouse 8-kb transcript is described. It is demonstrated that both the 4-and 8-kb transcripts have a wide tissue distribution and that they are encoded by separate genes. Characterization of the gene encoding the 4-kb transcript demonstrates that it spans a region of about 8 kb and that it contains at least 14 exons. The similarity of this gene and the previously characterized human gene for the 8-kb transcript is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Kusche-Gullberg
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Uppsala, S 751 23 Uppsala, Sweden.
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30
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Habuchi H, Kobayashi M, Kimata K. Molecular characterization and expression of heparan-sulfate 6-sulfotransferase. Complete cDNA cloning in human and partial cloning in Chinese hamster ovary cells. J Biol Chem 1998; 273:9208-13. [PMID: 9535912 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.273.15.9208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Heparan-sulfate 6-sulfotransferase (HS6ST) catalyzes the transfer of sulfate from 3'-phosphoadenosine 5'-phosphosulfate to position 6 of the N-sulfoglucosamine residue of heparan sulfate. The enzyme was purified to apparent homogeneity from the serum-free culture medium of Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells (Habuchi, H., Habuchi, O., and Kimata, K. (1995) J. Biol Chem. 270, 4172-4179). From the amino acid sequence data of the purified enzyme, degenerate oligonucleotides were designed and used as primers for the reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction using poly(A)+ RNA from CHO cells as a template. The amplified cDNA fragment was then used as a probe to screen a cDNA library of CHO cells. The cDNA clone thus obtained encoded a partial peptide sequence composed of 236 amino acid residues that included the sequences of six peptides obtained after endoproteinase digestion of the purified enzyme. This cDNA clone was applied to the screening of a human fetal brain cDNA library by cross-hybridization. The isolated cDNA clones contained a whole open reading frame that predicts a type II transmembrane protein composed of 401 amino acid residues. No significant amino acid sequence identity to any other proteins, including heparan-sulfate 2-sulfotransferases, was observed. When the cDNA for the entire coding sequence of the protein was inserted into a eukaryotic expression vector and transfected into COS-7 cells, the HS6ST activity increased 7-fold over the control. The FLAG fusion protein purified by anti-FLAG affinity chromatography showed the HS6ST activity alone. Northern blot analysis revealed the occurrence of a single transcript of 3.9 kilobases in both human fetal brain and CHO cells. The results, together with the ones from our recent cDNA analysis of heparan-sulfate 2-sulfotransferase (Kobayashi, M., Habuchi, H., Yoneda, M., Habuchi, O., and Kimata, K. (1997) J. Biol. Chem. 272, 13980-13985), suggest that at least two different gene products are responsible for 6- and 2-O-sulfations of heparan sulfate.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Habuchi
- Institute for Molecular Science of Medicine, Aichi Medical University, Nagakute, Aichi 480-11, Japan
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31
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Shworak NW, Liu J, Fritze LM, Schwartz JJ, Zhang L, Logeart D, Rosenberg RD. Molecular cloning and expression of mouse and human cDNAs encoding heparan sulfate D-glucosaminyl 3-O-sulfotransferase. J Biol Chem 1997; 272:28008-19. [PMID: 9346953 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.272.44.28008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The cellular rate of anticoagulant heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPGact) generation is determined by the level of a kinetically limiting microsomal activity, HSact conversion activity, which is predominantly composed of the long sought heparan sulfate D-glucosaminyl 3-O-sulfotransferase (3-OST) (Shworak, N. W., Fritze, L. M. S., Liu, J., Butler, L. D., and Rosenberg, R. D. (1996) J. Biol. Chem. 271, 27063-27071; Liu, J., Shworak, N. W., Fritze, L. M. S., Edelberg, J. M., and Rosenberg, R. D. (1996) J. Biol. Chem. 271, 27072-27082). Mouse 3-OST cDNAs were isolated by proteolyzing the purified enzyme with Lys-C, sequencing the resultant peptides as well as the existing amino terminus, employing degenerate polymerase chain reaction primers corresponding to the sequences of the peptides as well as the amino terminus to amplify a fragment from LTA cDNA, and utilizing the resultant probe to obtain full-length enzyme cDNAs from a lambda Zap Express LTA cDNA library. Human 3-OST cDNAs were isolated by searching the expressed sequence tag data bank with the mouse sequence, identifying a partial-length human cDNA and utilizing the clone as a probe to isolate a full-length enzyme cDNA from a lambda TriplEx human brain cDNA library. The expression of wild-type mouse 3-OST as well as protein A-tagged mouse enzyme by transient transfection of COS-7 cells and the expression of both wild-type mouse and human 3-OST by in vitro transcription/translation demonstrate that the two cDNAs directly encode both HSact conversion and 3-OST activities. The mouse 3-OST cDNAs exhibit three different size classes because of a 5'-untranslated region of variable length, which results from the insertion of 0-1629 base pairs (bp) between residues 216 and 217; however, all cDNAs contain the same open reading frame of 933 bp. The length of the 3'-untranslated region ranges from 301 to 430 bp. The nucleic acid sequence of mouse and human 3-OST cDNAs are approximately 85% similar, encoding novel 311- and 307-amino acid proteins of 35,876 and 35,750 daltons, respectively, that are 93% similar. The encoded enzymes are predicted to be intraluminal Golgi residents, presumably interacting via their C-terminal regions with an integral membrane protein. Both 3-OST species exhibit five potential N-glycosylation sites, which account for the apparent discrepancy between the molecular masses of the encoded enzyme (approximately 34 kDa) and the previously purified enzyme (approximately 46 kDa). The two 3-OST species also exhibit approximately 50% similarity with all previously identified forms of the heparan biosynthetic enzyme N-deacetylase/N-sulfotransferase, which suggests that heparan biosynthetic enzymes share a common sulfotransferase domain.
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Affiliation(s)
- N W Shworak
- Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
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32
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Li J, Hagner-McWhirter A, Kjellén L, Palgi J, Jalkanen M, Lindahl U. Biosynthesis of heparin/heparan sulfate. cDNA cloning and expression of D-glucuronyl C5-epimerase from bovine lung. J Biol Chem 1997; 272:28158-63. [PMID: 9346972 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.272.44.28158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Glucuronyl C5-epimerases catalyze the conversion of D-glucuronic acid (GlcUA) to L-iduronic acid (IdceA) units during the biosynthesis of glycosaminoglycans. An epimerase implicated in the generation of heparin/heparan sulfate was previously purified to homogeneity from bovine liver (Campbell, P., Hannesson, H. H., Sandbäck, D., Rodén, L., Lindahl, U., and Li, J.-p. (1994) J. Biol. Chem. 269, 26953-26958). The present report describes the molecular cloning and functional expression of the lung enzyme. The cloned enzyme contains 444 amino acid residues and has a molecular mass of 49,905 Da. N-terminal sequence analysis of the isolated liver enzyme showed this species to be a truncated form lacking a 73-residue N-terminal domain of the deduced amino acid sequence. The coding cDNA insert was cloned into a baculovirus expression vector and expressed in Sf9 insect cells. Cells infected with recombinant epimerase showed a 20-30-fold increase in enzyme activity, measured as release of 3H2O from a polysaccharide substrate containing C5-3H-labeled hexuronic acid units. Furthermore, incubation of the expressed protein with the appropriate (GlcUA-GlcNSO3)n substrate resulted in conversion of approximately 20% of the GlcUA units into IdceA residues. Northern analysis implicated two epimerase transcripts in both bovine lung and liver tissues, a dominant approximately 9-kilobase (kb) mRNA and a minor approximately 5-kb species. Mouse mastocytoma cells showed only the approximately 5-kb transcript. A comparison of the cloned epimerase with the enzymes catalyzing an analogous reaction in alginate biosynthesis revealed no apparent amino acid sequence similarity.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Li
- Department of Medical and Physiological Chemistry, University of Uppsala, S-751 23 Uppsala, Sweden.
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33
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Fukuda K, Kawata S, Inui Y, Higashiyama S, Matsuda Y, Igura T, Tamura S, Taniguchi N, Matsuzawa Y. High concentration of glucose increases mitogenic responsiveness to heparin-binding epidermal growth factor-like growth factor in rat vascular smooth muscle cells. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1997; 17:1962-8. [PMID: 9351360 DOI: 10.1161/01.atv.17.10.1962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
The effect of a high extracellular glucose concentration on the mitogenic response of rat vascular smooth muscle cells (SMCs) to heparin-binding epidermal growth factor-like growth factor (HB-EGF) was investigated. The mitogenic effect of HB-EGF was significantly greater in SMCs cultured in high glucose (25 mmol/L) than in cells cultured in low glucose (5.5 mmol/L) or at high osmolarity (5.5 mmol/L glucose plus 19.5 mmol/L mannitol). The mitogenic effect of epidermal growth factor (EGF), which shares the EGF receptor with HB-EGF, was not affected by glucose concentration. The mitogenic effect of HB-EGF was greater when incubated with heparan sulfate (HS) isolated from SMCs cultured in high glucose than with HS from cells cultured in low glucose. HS synthesized by cells in high glucose was of smaller molecular size and less sulfated than HS synthesized by cells in low glucose. The abundance of mRNA encoding HS-N-deacetylase/N-sulfotransferase (HS-NdAc/NST), a regulatory enzyme in the biosynthesis of HS, was decreased by high glucose in a protein kinase C-independent manner. These observations suggest that the enhanced mitogenic response to HB-EGF in SMCs cultured in high glucose may be attributable to changes in cell-associated HS. Downregulation of HS-NdAc/NST gene expression by high glucose may be related to the altered HS biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Fukuda
- Second Department of Internal Medicine, Osaka University Medical School, Japan
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34
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Sugumaran G, Katsman M, Sunthankar P, Drake RR. Biosynthesis of chondroitin sulfate. Purification of glucuronosyl transferase II and use of photoaffinity labeling for characterization of the enzyme as an 80-kDa protein. J Biol Chem 1997; 272:14399-403. [PMID: 9162078 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.272.22.14399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
A photoaffinity analogue, [beta-32P]5-azido-UDP-GlcA, was used to photolabel the enzymes that utilize UDP-GlcA in cartilage microsomes and rat liver microsomes. SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis analysis of photolabeled cartilage microsomes, which are specialized in chondroitin sulfate synthesis, showed a major radiolabeled band at 80 kDa and other minor radiolabeled bands near 40 and 60 kDa. Rat liver microsomes, which are enriched for enzymes of detoxification by glucuronidation, had a different pattern with multiple major labeled bands near 50-60 and 35 kDa. To determine that the photolabeled 80-kDa protein is the GlcA transferase II, we have purified the enzyme from cartilage microsomes. This membrane-bound enzyme, involved in the transfer of GlcA residues to non-reducing terminal GalNAc residues of the chondroitin polymer, has now been solubilized, stabilized, and then purified greater than 1350-fold by sequential chromatography on Q-Sepharose, heparin-Sepharose, and WGA-agarose. The purified enzyme exhibited a conspicuous silver-stained protein band on SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis that coincided with the major radiolabeled band of 80 kDa. SDS-polyacrylamide gel analysis of photoaffinity-labeled active fractions from the Q-Sepharose, heparin-Sepharose, and WGA-agarose also indicated only the single radiolabeled band at 80 kDa. Intensity of photolabeling in each of the fractions examined coincided with enzyme activity. The photolabeling of this 80-kDa protein was saturable with the photoprobe and could be inhibited by the addition of UDP-GlcA prior to the addition of the photoprobe. Thus, the photolabeling with [beta-32P]5-azido-UDP-GlcA has identified the GlcA transferase II as an 80-kDa protein. The purified enzyme was capable of transferring good amounts of GlcA residues to chondroitin-derived pentasaccharide with negligible transfer to pentasaccharides derived from hyaluronan or heparan.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Sugumaran
- Edith Nourse Rogers Memorial Veterans Hospital, Bedford, Massachusetts 01730, USA
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35
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Kobayashi M, Habuchi H, Yoneda M, Habuchi O, Kimata K. Molecular cloning and expression of Chinese hamster ovary cell heparan-sulfate 2-sulfotransferase. J Biol Chem 1997; 272:13980-5. [PMID: 9153262 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.272.21.13980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Heparan-sulfate 2-sulfotransferase (HS2ST), which catalyzes the transfer of sulfate from 3'-phosphoadenosine 5'-phosphosulfate to L-iduronic acid at position 2 in heparan sulfate, was purified from cultured Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells to apparent homogeneity (Kobayashi, M., Habuchi, H., Habuchi, O., Saito, M., and Kimata, K. (1996) J. Biol. Chem. 271, 7645-7653). The internal amino acid sequences were obtained from the peptides after digestion of the purified protein with a combination of endoproteinases. Mixed oligonucleotides based on the peptide sequences were used as primers to obtain a probe fragment by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction using CHO cell poly(A)+ RNA as template. The clone obtained from a CHO cDNA library by screening with the probe is 2.2 kilobases in size and contains an open reading frame of 1068 bases encoding a new protein composed of 356 amino acid residues. The protein predicts a type II transmembrane topology similar to other Golgi membrane proteins. Messages of 5.0 and 3.0 kilobases were observed in Northern analysis. Evidence that the cDNA clone corresponds to the purified HS2ST protein is as follows. (a) The predicted amino acid sequence contains all five peptides obtained after endoproteinase digestion of the purified protein; (b) the characteristics of the predicted protein fit those of the purified protein in terms of molecular mass, membrane localization, and N-glycosylation; and (c) when the cDNA containing the entire coding sequence of the enzyme in a eukaryotic expression vector was transfected into COS-7 cells, the HS2ST activity increased 2.6-fold over controls, and the FLAG-HS2ST fusion protein purified by affinity chromatography showed the HS2ST activity alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Kobayashi
- Institute for Molecular Science of Medicine, Aichi Medical University, Nagakute, Aichi 480-11, Japan
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36
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Liu J, Shworak NW, Fritze LM, Edelberg JM, Rosenberg RD. Purification of heparan sulfate D-glucosaminyl 3-O-sulfotransferase. J Biol Chem 1996; 271:27072-82. [PMID: 8900198 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.271.43.27072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The cellular generation of proteoglycans with anticoagulant heparan sulfate (HSPGact) is determined by microsomal "HSact conversion activity" that functions in concert with the sulfate donor 3'-phosphoadenosine 5'-phosphosulfate (PAPS) to convert nonanticoagulant heparan sulfate (HSinact) to anticoagulant heparan sulfate (HSact) (Shworak, N. W., Fritze, L. M. S., Liu, J., Butler, L. D., and Rosenberg, R. D. (1996) J. Biol. Chem. 271, 27063-27071). Suspension cultures of L-33(+) cells in serum-free medium produce HSPGact and secrete HSact conversion activity. The secreted protein exhibiting HSact conversion activity was isolated by subjecting large volumes of conditioned suspension culture medium to heparin-AF Toyopearl affinity chromatography, Mono Q-FPLC, TSK SW3000-HPLC, and 3',5'-ADP-agarose affinity chromatography. The final product was purified approximately 700,000-fold relative to cellular material with a 5% overall recovery of HSact conversion activity. The isolated protein migrated on SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis as a broad band of Mr = 46,000 and co-migrated on nondenaturing acidic pH gel electrophoresis with HSact conversion activity. The purified component was identified as heparan sulfate D-glucosaminyl 3-O-sulfotransferase because it transferred sulfate from [35S]PAPS to the 3-O-position of D-glucosamine and D-glucosamine 6-O-sulfate of HSact precursor and HSinact precursor to produce nearly equivalent amounts of labeled HSact and HSinact. The exhaustive modification of wild-type LTA cell [35S]HS with either microsomal HSact conversion activity or purified enzyme increased HSact content from 9 to approximately 36%, which indicates that microsomal HSact conversion activity predominantly reflects the level of a 3-O-sulfotransferase that converts HSact precursor into HSact. The kinetic parameters of purified 3-O-sulfotransferase were determined for modification of HSact precursor and HSinact precursor. The apparent KM* and Vmax* with respect to PAPS concentration for sulfation of HSact precursor and HSinact precursor were 2.4 microM and 23 fmol of sulfate/min/ng of enzyme and 2.1 microM and 38 fmol of sulfate/min/ng of enzyme, respectively. There was substrate inhibition of the sulfation reaction at elevated HS concentration. The apparent KM* and Vmax* with respect to GAG concentration for sulfation of HSact precursor and HSinact precursor were 16 nM and 120 fmol of sulfate/min/ng of enzyme and 17 nM and 240 fmol of sulfate/min/ng of enzyme, respectively. The observation that purified 3-O-sulfotransferase catalyzes sulfation of HSact precursor and HSinact precursor in conjunction with a documented discordant regulation of 3-O-sulfate content in HSinact and HSact suggests that two discrete forms of the enzyme may exist.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Liu
- Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
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37
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Cheung WF, Eriksson I, Kusche-Gullberg M, Lindhal U, Kjellén L. Expression of the mouse mastocytoma glucosaminyl N-deacetylase/ N-sulfotransferase in human kidney 293 cells results in increased N-sulfation of heparan sulfate. Biochemistry 1996; 35:5250-6. [PMID: 8611511 DOI: 10.1021/bi952325b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
The biosynthesis of heparin and heparan sulfate involves a series of polymer-modification reactions that is initiated by N-deacetylation and subsequent N-sulfation of N-acetylglucosamine residues. These reactions are catalysed by a combined N-deacetylase/N-sulfotransferase. Proteins expressing both activities have previously been purified from mouse mastocytoma, which generates heparin, and from rat liver, which produces heparan sulfate. In the present study, the mouse mastocytoma enzyme has been expressed in the human kidney cell line, 293, to investigate whether it could promote modification of the endogenous heparan sulfate precursor polysaccharide into a heparan-like molecule. The N-deacetylase activity of the stably transfected cell clones as approximately 8-fold higher, on a cell-protein basis, than that of control cells, while the N-sulfotransferase activity was increased approximately 2.5 fold. The amounts of glycosaminoglycans synthesized were the same in control and transfected cells, measured as incorporation of [3H]-glucosamine, whereas 35S-labeled glycosaminoglycans were approximately 50% increased in transfected cells, with an increased relative content of heparin sulfate. Structural analysis demonstrated the the glucosamine units of the "heparan sulfate" from transfected cells were almost exclusively N-sulfated, as expected for heparin, whereas more than half of the glucosamine units of the control polysaccharide remained N-acetylated. Notably, the increased N-sulfation was not accompanied by increased O-sulfation, not by C-5 epimerization of D-glucuronic to L-iduronic acid units. The implications of these findings are discussed with regard to the regulation of the biosynthetic process.
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Affiliation(s)
- W F Cheung
- Department of Veterinary Medical Chemistry, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
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38
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Kobayashi M, Habuchi H, Habuchi O, Saito M, Kimata K. Purification and characterization of heparan sulfate 2-sulfotransferase from cultured Chinese hamster ovary cells. J Biol Chem 1996; 271:7645-53. [PMID: 8631801 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.271.13.7645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Heparan sulfate 2-sulfotransferase, which catalyzes the transfer of sulfate from adenosine 3'-phosphate 5'-phosphosulfate to position 2 of L-iduronic acid residue in heparan sulfate, was purified 51,700-fold to apparent homogeneity with a 6% yield from cultured Chinese hamster ovary cells. The isolation procedure included a combination of affinity chromatography on heparin-Sepharose CL-6B and 3',5'-ADP-agarose, which was repeated twice for each, and finally gel chromatography on Superose 12 . Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of the purified enzyme showed two protein bands with molecular masses of 47 and 44 kDa. Both proteins appeared to be glycoproteins, because their molecular masses decreased after N-glycanase digestion. When completely desulfated and N-resulfated heparin and mouse Engelbreth-Holm-Swarm tumor heparan sulfate were used as acceptors, the purified enzyme transferred sulfate to position 2 of L-iduronic acid residue but did not transfer sulfate to the amino group of glucosamine residue or to position 6 of N-sulfoglucosamine residue. Heparan sulfates from pig aorta and bovine liver, however, were poor acceptors. The enzyme showed no activities toward chondroitin, chondroitin sulfate, dermatan sulfate, and keratan sulfate. The optimal pH for the enzyme activity was around 5.5. The enzyme activity was minimally affected by dithiothreitol and was stimulated strongly by protamine. The Km value for adenosine 3'-phosphate 5'-phosphosulfate was 0.20 microM.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Kobayashi
- Institute for Molecular Science of Medicine, Aichi Medical University, Nagakute, Japan
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39
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Caldwell EE, Nadkarni VD, Fromm JR, Linhardt RJ, Weiler JM. Importance of specific amino acids in protein binding sites for heparin and heparan sulfate. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 1996; 28:203-16. [PMID: 8729007 DOI: 10.1016/1357-2725(95)00123-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Heparin and heparan sulfate bind a variety of proteins and peptides to regulate many biological activities. Past studies have examined a limited number of established heparin binding sites and have focused on basic amino acids when modeling binding site structural motifs. This study examines the prevalence of individual amino acids in peptides binding to heparin or heparan sulfate. A 7-mer random peptide library was synthesized using the 20 common amino acids. This 7-mer library was affinity separated using both heparin and heparan sulfate-Sepharose. Bound peptide populations were eluted with a salt step gradient (pH 7) and analysed for amino acid composition. Peptides released from heparin-Sepharose by 0.3 M NaCl were enriched in arginine, lysine, glycine and serine; and depleted in methionine and phenylalanine. In contrast, peptides released from heparan sulfate-Sepharose were enriched in arginine, glycine, serine, and proline (at 0.15 M NaCl). These peptides were depleted in histidine, isoleucine, methionine (not detectable) and phenylalanine. In the heparin binding sites of proteins, which have been published, the enriched amino acids were arginine, lysine and tyrosine. Depleted amino acids include aspartic acid, glutamic acid, glutamine, alanine, glycine, phenylalanine, serine, threonine and valine. This study demonstrates that heparin and heparan sulfate bind different populations of peptide sequences. The differences in amino acid composition indicate that the positive charge density and spacing requirements differ for peptides binding these two glycosaminoglycans.
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Affiliation(s)
- E E Caldwell
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City 52242, USA
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40
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Raskin GS, Tamborlane WV. Molecular and physiological aspects of nephropathy in type I (insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus. J Diabetes Complications 1996; 10:31-7. [PMID: 8639972 DOI: 10.1016/1056-8727(94)00057-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- G S Raskin
- Yale University School of Medicine, Department of Molecular Biophysics, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
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41
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van den Born J, Gunnarsson K, Bakker MA, Kjellén L, Kusche-Gullberg M, Maccarana M, Berden JH, Lindahl U. Presence of N-unsubstituted glucosamine units in native heparan sulfate revealed by a monoclonal antibody. J Biol Chem 1995; 270:31303-9. [PMID: 8537400 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.270.52.31303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Immunohistochemical application of antibodies against heparan sulfate proteoglycan core protein and heparitinase-digested heparan sulfate stubs showed the presence of heparan sulfate proteoglycan in all basement membranes of the rat kidney. However, a monoclonal antibody (JM-403) against native heparan sulfate (van den Born, J., van den Heuvel, L. P. W. J., Bakker, M. A. H., Veerkamp, J. H., Assmann, K. J. M., and Berden, J. H. M. (1992) Kidney Int. 41, 115-123) largely failed to stain tubular basement membranes, suggesting the presence of heparan sulfate chains lacking the specific JM-403 epitope. Heparan sulfate preparations from various sources differed markedly with regard to JM-403 binding, as demonstrated by liquid phase inhibition in enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, the interaction decreasing with increasing sulfate contents of the polysaccharide. Mapping of the JM-403 epitope indicated that it was dominated by one or more N-unsubstituted glucosamine unit(s), since treatments that destroyed or altered the structure of such units in heparan sulfate preparations (cleavage at N-unsubstituted glucosamine units with HNO2 at pH 3.9 and N-acetylation with acetic anhydride, respectively), abolished antibody binding. Conversely, immunoreactivity could be induced in a (D-glucuronyl-1,4-N-acetyl-D-glucosaminyl-1,4) polysaccharide by the generation of N-unsubstituted glucosamine N-unsubstituted glucosamine in a JM-403-binding heparan sulfate (preparation HS-II from human aorta) was demonstrated by an approximately 3-fold reduction in molecular size following HNO2 (pH 3.9) treatment. Further characterization of the epitope recognized by JM-403, based on enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay inhibition tests with chemically/enzymatically modified polysaccharides, indicated that one or more N-sulfated glucosamine units are invariable present, whereas L-iduronic acid and O-sulfate residues appear to inhibit JM-403 reactivity. It is concluded that the epitope contains one or more N-unsubstituted glucosamine and D-glucuronic acid units and is located in a region of the heparan sulfate chain composed of mixed N-sulfated and N-acetylated disaccharide units.
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Affiliation(s)
- J van den Born
- Division of Nephrology, University Hospital St. Radboud, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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42
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Silbert JE, Sugumaran G. Intracellular membranes in the synthesis, transport, and metabolism of proteoglycans. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 1995; 1241:371-84. [PMID: 8547301 DOI: 10.1016/0304-4157(95)00011-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- J E Silbert
- Edith Nourse Rogers Memorial Veterans Hospital, Bedford, MA, USA
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43
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Sugumaran G, Katsman M, Drake RR. Purification, photoaffinity labeling, and characterization of a single enzyme for 6-sulfation of both chondroitin sulfate and keratan sulfate. J Biol Chem 1995; 270:22483-7. [PMID: 7673238 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.270.38.22483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
A soluble sulfotransferase that could 6-sulfate both chondroitin sulfate and corneal keratan sulfate was purified 27,500-fold using a sequence of affinity chromatographic steps with heparin-Sepharose, wheat germ agglutinin-agarose, and 3',5'-ADP-agarose. The essentially pure enzyme had a specific activity 40 times greater than the most purified chondroitin 6-sulfotransferase previously reported and exhibited a single sharp Coomassie Blue-stained and a heavy silver-stained protein band of 75 kDa on SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Chromatography of the purified enzyme on Sephacryl demonstrated a size of 150 kDa, which indicated that the native enzyme exists as a dimer. In addition to 6-sulfation of nonsulfated GalNAc, the purified serum enzyme had the ability to sulfate GalNAc 4-sulfate residues to give GalNAc 4,6-disulfate residues. The purified enzyme exhibited a Km of 40 microM for adenosine 3'-phosphate 5'-phosphosulfate when either chondroitin sulfate or corneal keratan sulfate were used as the acceptors. Use of both chondroitin sulfate and keratan sulfate in the same experiment demonstrated mutual competition, establishing that the sulfation of these substrates is by the same enzyme. Photoaffinity labeling of the purified enzyme with 2-azidoadenosine 3',5'-di[5'-32P]phosphate occurred only with the 75-kDa protein, confirming that this is the chondroitin 6-sulfotransferase/keratan sulfotransferase.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Sugumaran
- Edith Nourse Rogers Memorial Veterans Hospital, Bedford, Massachusetts 01730, USA
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Fukuta M, Uchimura K, Nakashima K, Kato M, Kimata K, Shinomura T, Habuchi O. Molecular cloning and expression of chick chondrocyte chondroitin 6-sulfotransferase. J Biol Chem 1995; 270:18575-80. [PMID: 7629189 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.270.31.18575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Chondroitin 6-sulfotransferase (C6ST) catalyzes the transfer of sulfate from 3'-phosphoadenosine 5'-phosphosulfate to position 6 of the N-acetylgalactosamine residue of chondroitin. The enzyme has been purified previously to apparent homogeneity from the serum-free culture medium of chick chondrocytes. The purified enzyme also catalyzed the sulfation of keratan sulfate. We have now cloned the cDNA of the enzyme. This cDNA contains a single open reading frame that predicts a protein composed of 458 amino acid residues. The protein predicts a Type II transmembrane topology similar to other glycosyltransferases and heparin/heparan sulfate N-sulfotransferase/N-deacetylases. Evidence that the predicted protein corresponds to the previously purified C6ST was the following: (a) the predicted sequence of the protein contains all of the known amino acid sequence, (b) when the cDNA was introduced in a eukaryotic expression vector and transfected in COS-7 cells, both the C6ST activity and the keratan sulfate sulfotransferase activity were overexpressed, (c) a polyclonal antibody raised against a fusion peptide, which was expressed from a cDNA containing the sequence coding for 150 amino acid residues of the predicted protein, cross-reacted to the purified C6ST, and (d) the predicted protein contained six potential sites for N-glycosylation, which corresponds to the observation that the purified C6ST is an N-linked glycoprotein. The amino-terminal amino acid sequence of the purified protein was found in the transmembrane domain, suggesting that the purified protein might be released from the chondrocytes after proteolytic cleavage in the transmembrane domain.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Fukuta
- Department of Life Science, Aichi University of Education, Kariya, Japan
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Kofoed-Enevoldsen A. Heparan sulphate in the pathogenesis of diabetic nephropathy. DIABETES/METABOLISM REVIEWS 1995; 11:137-60. [PMID: 7555565 DOI: 10.1002/dmr.5610110205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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Habuchi H, Habuchi O, Kimata K. Purification and characterization of heparan sulfate 6-sulfotransferase from the culture medium of Chinese hamster ovary cells. J Biol Chem 1995; 270:4172-9. [PMID: 7876170 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.270.8.4172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Heparan sulfate 6-sulfotransferase, which catalyzes the transfer of sulfate from 3'-phosphoadenylyl sulfate to position 6 of N-sulfoglucosamine in heparan sulfate, was purified 10,700-fold to apparent homogeneity with a 40% yield from the serum-free culture medium of Chinese hamster ovary cells. The isolation procedure included affinity chromatography of the first heparin-Sepharose CL-6B column (stepwise elution), 3',5'-ADP-agarose, and the second heparin-Sepharose CL-6B column (gradient elution). Sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of the purified enzyme showed two protein bands with molecular masses of 52 and 45 kDa. Both proteins appeared to be glycoproteins, because their molecular masses decreased after N-glycanase digestion. When completely desulfated and N-resulfated heparin was used as acceptor, the purified enzyme transferred sulfate to position 6 of N-sulfoglucosamine residue but did not transfer sulfate to the amino group of glucosamine residue or to position 2 of the iduronic acid residue. Heparan sulfate was also sulfated by the purified enzyme at position 6 of N-sulfoglucosamine residue. Chondroitin and chondroitin sulfate did not serve as acceptors. The optimal pH for enzyme activity was around 6.3. The enzyme activity was inhibited by dithiothreitol and was stimulated strongly by protamine. The Km value for adenosine 3'-phosphate 5'-phosphosulfate was 0.44 microM.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Habuchi
- Institute for Molecular Science of Medicine, Aichi Medical University, Japan
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Shworak N, Shirakawa M, Colliec-Jouault S, Liu J, Mulligan R, Birinyi L, Rosenberg R. Pathway-specific regulation of the synthesis of anticoagulantly active heparan sulfate. J Biol Chem 1994. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(17)31481-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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50
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Eriksson I, Sandbäck D, Ek B, Lindahl U, Kjellén L. cDNA cloning and sequencing of mouse mastocytoma glucosaminyl N-deacetylase/N-sulfotransferase, an enzyme involved in the biosynthesis of heparin. J Biol Chem 1994. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(17)34079-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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