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Badminton MN, Anderson KE, Deybach JC, Harper P, Sandberg S, Elder GH. From chemistry to genomics: A concise history of the porphyrias. Liver Int 2024. [PMID: 38767598 DOI: 10.1111/liv.15960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2024] [Revised: 04/15/2024] [Accepted: 04/18/2024] [Indexed: 05/22/2024]
Abstract
We describe developments in understanding of the porphyrias associated with each step in the haem biosynthesis pathway and the role of individuals whose contributions led to major advances over the past 150 years. The first case of erythropoietic porphyria was reported in 1870, and the first with acute porphyria in 1889. Photosensitisation by porphyrin was confirmed by Meyer-Betz, who self-injected haematoporphyrin. Günther classified porphyrias into haematoporphyria acuta, acuta toxica, congenita and chronica. This was revised by Waldenström into porphyria congenita, acuta and cutanea tarda, with the latter describing those with late-onset skin lesions. Waldenström was the first to recognise porphobilinogen's association with acute porphyria, although its structure was not solved until 1953. Hans Fischer was awarded the Nobel prize in 1930 for solving the structure of porphyrins and the synthesis of haemin. After 1945, research by several groups elucidated the pathway of haem biosynthesis and its negative feedback regulation by haem. By 1961, following the work of Watson, Schmid, Rimington, Goldberg, Dean, Magnus and others, aided by the availability of modern techniques of porphyrin separation, six of the porphyrias were identified and classified as erythropoietic or hepatic. The seventh, 5-aminolaevulinate dehydratase deficiency porphyria, was described by Doss in 1979. The discovery of increased hepatic 5-aminolaevulinate synthase activity in acute porphyria led to development of haematin as a treatment for acute attacks. By 2000, all the haem biosynthesis genes were cloned, sequenced and assigned to chromosomes and disease-specific mutations identified in all inherited porphyrias. These advances have allowed definitive family studies and development of new treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Karl E Anderson
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, USA
| | - Jean-Charles Deybach
- French Porphyria Reference Center (CRMR Porphyries France), University Paris, Paris, France
| | - Pauline Harper
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Centre for inherited Metabolic Diseases, Porphyria Centre Sweden, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Sverre Sandberg
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Centre for inherited Metabolic Diseases, Porphyria Centre Sweden, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Pharmacology, Norwegian Porphyria Centre, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway
- Norwegian Organization for Quality Improvement of Laboratory Examinations (Noklus), Haraldsplass Deaconess Hospital, Bergen, Norway
- Institute of Public Health and Primary Health Care, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
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Field-Evolved ΔG210-ppo2 from Palmer Amaranth Confers Pre-emergence Tolerance to PPO-Inhibitors in Rice and Arabidopsis. Genes (Basel) 2022; 13:genes13061044. [PMID: 35741806 PMCID: PMC9222656 DOI: 10.3390/genes13061044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2022] [Revised: 05/03/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Resistance to protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase (PPO)-inhibitors in Amaranthus palmeri and Amaranthus tuberculatus is mainly contributed by mutations in the PPO enzyme, which renders herbicide molecules ineffective. The deletion of glycine210 (ΔG210) is the most predominant PPO mutation. ΔG210-ppo2 is overexpressed in rice (Oryza sativa c. ‘Nipponbare’) and Arabidopsis thaliana (Col-0). A foliar assay was conducted on transgenic T1 rice plants with 2× dose of fomesafen (780 g ha−1), showing less injury than the non-transgenic (WT) plants. A soil-based assay conducted with T2 rice seeds confirmed tolerance to fomesafen applied pre-emergence. In agar medium, root growth of WT rice seedlings was inhibited >90% at 5 µM fomesafen, while root growth of T2 seedlings was inhibited by 50% at 45 µM fomesafen. The presence and expression of the transgene were confirmed in the T2 rice survivors of soil-applied fomesafen. A soil-based assay was also conducted with transgenic A. thaliana expressing ΔG210-ppo2 which confirmed tolerance to the pre-emergence application of fomesafen and saflufenacil. The expression of A. palmeri ΔG210-ppo2 successfully conferred tolerance to soil-applied fomesafen in rice and Arabidopsis. This mutant also confers cross-tolerance to saflufenacil in Arabidopsis. This trait could be introduced into high-value crops that lack chemical options for weed management.
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Eggers R, Jammer A, Jha S, Kerschbaumer B, Lahham M, Strandback E, Toplak M, Wallner S, Winkler A, Macheroux P. The scope of flavin-dependent reactions and processes in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2021; 189:112822. [PMID: 34118767 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2021.112822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2021] [Revised: 05/23/2021] [Accepted: 05/24/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) are utilized as coenzymes in many biochemical reduction-oxidation reactions owing to the ability of the tricyclic isoalloxazine ring system to employ the oxidized, radical and reduced state. We have analyzed the genome of Arabidopsis thaliana to establish an inventory of genes encoding flavin-dependent enzymes (flavoenzymes) as a basis to explore the range of flavin-dependent biochemical reactions that occur in this model plant. Expectedly, flavoenzymes catalyze many pivotal reactions in primary catabolism, which are connected to the degradation of basic metabolites, such as fatty and amino acids as well as carbohydrates and purines. On the other hand, flavoenzymes play diverse roles in anabolic reactions most notably the biosynthesis of amino acids as well as the biosynthesis of pyrimidines and sterols. Importantly, the role of flavoenzymes goes much beyond these basic reactions and extends into pathways that are equally crucial for plant life, for example the production of natural products. In this context, we outline the participation of flavoenzymes in the biosynthesis and maintenance of cofactors, coenzymes and accessory plant pigments (e. g. carotenoids) as well as phytohormones. Moreover, several multigene families have emerged as important components of plant immunity, for example the family of berberine bridge enzyme-like enzymes, flavin-dependent monooxygenases and NADPH oxidases. Furthermore, the versatility of flavoenzymes is highlighted by their role in reactions leading to tRNA-modifications, chromatin regulation and cellular redox homeostasis. The favorable photochemical properties of the flavin chromophore are exploited by photoreceptors to govern crucial processes of plant adaptation and development. Finally, a sequence- and structure-based approach was undertaken to gain insight into the catalytic role of uncharacterized flavoenzymes indicating their involvement in unknown biochemical reactions and pathways in A. thaliana.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reinmar Eggers
- Institute of Biochemistry, Graz University of Technology, Petersgasse 12/2, 8010, Graz, Austria
| | - Alexandra Jammer
- Institute of Biochemistry, Graz University of Technology, Petersgasse 12/2, 8010, Graz, Austria
| | - Shalinee Jha
- Institute of Biochemistry, Graz University of Technology, Petersgasse 12/2, 8010, Graz, Austria
| | - Bianca Kerschbaumer
- Institute of Biochemistry, Graz University of Technology, Petersgasse 12/2, 8010, Graz, Austria
| | - Majd Lahham
- Institute of Biochemistry, Graz University of Technology, Petersgasse 12/2, 8010, Graz, Austria
| | - Emilia Strandback
- Institute of Biochemistry, Graz University of Technology, Petersgasse 12/2, 8010, Graz, Austria
| | - Marina Toplak
- Institute of Biochemistry, Graz University of Technology, Petersgasse 12/2, 8010, Graz, Austria
| | - Silvia Wallner
- Institute of Biochemistry, Graz University of Technology, Petersgasse 12/2, 8010, Graz, Austria
| | - Andreas Winkler
- Institute of Biochemistry, Graz University of Technology, Petersgasse 12/2, 8010, Graz, Austria
| | - Peter Macheroux
- Institute of Biochemistry, Graz University of Technology, Petersgasse 12/2, 8010, Graz, Austria.
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Rondelli CM, Perfetto M, Danoff A, Bergonia H, Gillis S, O'Neill L, Jackson L, Nicolas G, Puy H, West R, Phillips JD, Yien YY. The ubiquitous mitochondrial protein unfoldase CLPX regulates erythroid heme synthesis by control of iron utilization and heme synthesis enzyme activation and turnover. J Biol Chem 2021; 297:100972. [PMID: 34280433 PMCID: PMC8361296 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2021.100972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2020] [Revised: 07/13/2021] [Accepted: 07/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Heme plays a critical role in catalyzing life-essential redox reactions in all cells, and its synthesis must be tightly balanced with cellular requirements. Heme synthesis in eukaryotes is tightly regulated by the mitochondrial AAA+ unfoldase CLPX (caseinolytic mitochondrial matrix peptidase chaperone subunit X), which promotes heme synthesis by activation of δ-aminolevulinate synthase (ALAS/Hem1) in yeast and regulates turnover of ALAS1 in human cells. However, the specific mechanisms by which CLPX regulates heme synthesis are unclear. In this study, we interrogated the mechanisms by which CLPX regulates heme synthesis in erythroid cells. Quantitation of enzyme activity and protein degradation showed that ALAS2 stability and activity were both increased in the absence of CLPX, suggesting that CLPX primarily regulates ALAS2 by control of its turnover, rather than its activation. However, we also showed that CLPX is required for PPOX (protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase) activity and maintenance of FECH (ferrochelatase) levels, which are the terminal enzymes in heme synthesis, likely accounting for the heme deficiency and porphyrin accumulation observed in Clpx−/− cells. Lastly, CLPX is required for iron utilization for hemoglobin synthesis during erythroid differentiation. Collectively, our data show that the role of CLPX in yeast ALAS/Hem1 activation is not conserved in vertebrates as vertebrates rely on CLPX to regulate ALAS turnover as well as PPOX and FECH activity. Our studies reveal that CLPX mutations may cause anemia and porphyria via dysregulation of ALAS, FECH, and PPOX activities, as well as of iron metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine M Rondelli
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, USA
| | - Mark Perfetto
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, USA; Pittsburgh Heart, Lung and Blood Vascular Medicine Institute and Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Aidan Danoff
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, USA
| | - Hector Bergonia
- Division of Hematology, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA
| | - Samantha Gillis
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, USA
| | - Leah O'Neill
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, USA
| | - Laurie Jackson
- Division of Hematology, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA
| | - Gael Nicolas
- Centre de Recherche sur l'inflammation, Université Paris Diderot, Site Bichat, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Herve Puy
- Centre de Recherche sur l'inflammation, Université Paris Diderot, Site Bichat, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France; Centre Français des Porphyries, Hôpital Louis Mourier, APHP, Colombes, France
| | - Richard West
- Delaware Biotechnology Institute, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, USA
| | - John D Phillips
- Division of Hematology, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA
| | - Yvette Y Yien
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, USA; Pittsburgh Heart, Lung and Blood Vascular Medicine Institute and Department of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA.
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Bi B, Wang Q, Coleman JJ, Porri A, Peppers JM, Patel JD, Betz M, Lerchl J, McElroy JS. A novel mutation A212T in chloroplast Protoporphyrinogen oxidase (PPO1) confers resistance to PPO inhibitor Oxadiazon in Eleusine indica. PEST MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2020; 76:1786-1794. [PMID: 31788953 DOI: 10.1002/ps.5703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2019] [Revised: 11/26/2019] [Accepted: 11/26/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Protoporphyrinogen oxidase (PPO) with two isoforms, chloroplast-targeted (PPO1) and mitochondrial-targeted (PPO2), catalyzes a step in the biosynthesis of chlorophyll and heme. PPO1 and PPO2 are herbicide target sites of PPO-inhibiting herbicides. Target-site mutations conferring resistance to PPO inhibitors have all thus far been in PPO2. Oxadiazon is a unique PPO inhibitor utilized for preemergence Eleusine indica control. In this research, we evaluated the response of two previously confirmed oxadiazon-resistant and susceptible E. indica biotypes to other PPO inhibitors and identified the resistance mechanism in two oxadiazon-resistant E. indica biotypes. RESULTS Two E. indica biotypes were resistant to oxadiazon, but not to other structurally unrelated PPO inhibitors, such as lactofen, flumioxazin and sulfentrazone. A novel mutation A212T was identified in the chloroplast-targeted PPO1, conferring resistance to oxadiazon in a heterologous expression system. Computational structural modeling provided a mechanistic explanation for reduced herbicide binding to the variant protein: the presence of a methyl group of threonine 212 changes the PPO1 active site and produces repulsive electrostatic interactions that repel oxadiazon from the binding pocket. CONCLUSION The novel A212T mutation in PPO1 conferring resistance specifically to PPO inhibitor oxadiazon was characterized. This is the first evidence of the direct role of PPO1 in the PPO mode of action, and the first evidence of evolved resistance in PPO1. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Bi
- Department of Crop, Soil and Environmental Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
| | - Qiang Wang
- Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
| | - Jeffrey J Coleman
- Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
| | | | - John M Peppers
- Department of Crop, Soil and Environmental Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
| | - Jinesh D Patel
- Department of Crop, Soil and Environmental Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
| | | | | | - J Scott McElroy
- Department of Crop, Soil and Environmental Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
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Chen S, Ren G, Pei D, Zhang F, Liu J, Zhang D, Yang R, Shi J, Xu T, Tan C. Synthesis and Herbicidal Activities of Novel Thiazole PPO Inhibitors. LETT DRUG DES DISCOV 2020. [DOI: 10.2174/1570180816666190329221521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Background:Protoporphyrinogen oxidase (PPO, EC 1.3.3.4) is a key enzyme in the biosynthesis of chlorophyll and heme, also the target of different types of herbicides. Thiazole compounds shown excellent biological activity, can be designed by using active groups docking for new PPO inhibitors.Objective:The objective of this study was to synthsize a series of aryl thiazole compounds as PPO inhibitors.Methods:In this study, a series of aryl thiazole compounds derivatives 11a-l were obtained from 2- chloro-5-nitrobenzoic acid as the starting material via esterification, Iron powder reduction, diazotization, Hantzsch reaction and final acylation. All synthesized compounds have been tested for their herbicidal activities as a PPO inhibitors.Results:The Petri dish test indicated that all compounds exhibited good herbicidal activities at 200 mg/L using culture dish. And the post-emergence tests showed that at 150g.ai/ha on weed stem leaf spray treatment, some of the title compounds exhibited 80% inhibition rate against the dicotyledonou weeds Amaranthus retroflexus and Eclipta prostrate.Conclusion:Good activity was noted for some compounds that compounds 11a, 11b, 11c, 11g, 11h had 80% inhibition on stems and leaves of Amaranthus retroflexus at 150g.ai/ha.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shu Chen
- College of Chemical Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, Zhejiang, China
| | - Guihua Ren
- College of Chemical Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, Zhejiang, China
| | - Dan Pei
- College of Chemical Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, Zhejiang, China
| | - Fan Zhang
- College of Chemical Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, Zhejiang, China
| | - Jie Liu
- College of Chemical Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, Zhejiang, China
| | - Donglin Zhang
- College of Chemical Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, Zhejiang, China
| | - Ren Yang
- College of Chemical Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, Zhejiang, China
| | - Jianjun Shi
- Zhejiang Base of National Southern Pesticide Research Centre, Zhejiang Research Institute of Chemical Industry, Hangzhou 310023, Zhejiang, China
| | - Tianming Xu
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Huangshan University, Huangshan 245041, Anhui, China
| | - Chengxia Tan
- College of Chemical Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, Zhejiang, China
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Zeb A, Park C, Son M, Baek A, Cho Y, Kim D, Rampogu S, Lee G, Kwak YS, Park SJ, Lee KW. Integration of virtual screening and computational simulation identifies photodynamic therapeutics against human Protoporphyrinogen Oxidase IX (hPPO). ARAB J CHEM 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.arabjc.2018.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022] Open
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8
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Nie H, Mansfield BC, Harre NT, Young JM, Steppig NR, Young BG. Investigating target-site resistance mechanism to the PPO-inhibiting herbicide fomesafen in waterhemp and interspecific hybridization of Amaranthus species using next generation sequencing. PEST MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2019; 75:3235-3244. [PMID: 30983048 DOI: 10.1002/ps.5445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2019] [Revised: 04/07/2019] [Accepted: 04/14/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Waterhemp (Amaranthus tuberculatus (Moq.) J. D. Sauer) is one of the most pernicious weeds in cropping systems of the USA due to its evolved resistance against several herbicide sites-of-action, including protoporphyrinogen oxidase inhibitors (PPO-R). Currently, the only source of PPO-R documented in waterhemp is ΔG210 of PPX2. Gene flow may not only lead to a transfer of herbicide-resistant alleles, but also produce a hybrid genotype more competitively fit than one or both parents. However, investigating gene flow of Amaranthus species has been of interest in the past two decades with limited evidence. RESULTS Here, a high-throughput MiSeq amplicon sequencing method was used to investigate alterations of the PPX2 gene in 146 PPO-R waterhemp populations across five Midwest states of the USA. Five R128 codons of PPX2, novel to waterhemp, were found including AGG (R), GGA (G), GGG (G), AAA (K) and ATA (I). R128G, R128I, and R128K were found in 11, 3, and 2 populations, respectively. R128G and R128I, but not R128K, conferred fomesafen resistance in a bacterial system. Sequence alignment of the R128 region of PPX2 identified a tumble pigweed (Amaranthus albus)-type and Palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri)-type PPX2 allele to be present and widespread in the surveyed waterhemp populations, thus providing strong evidence of gene flow between Amaranthus species. CONCLUSION Using a next-generation sequencing method, we identified two PPO target-site mutations R128G/I novel to waterhemp and provided evidence of gene flow of Amaranthus species in a large group of screened waterhemp populations from five Midwest states of the USA. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haozhen Nie
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Brent C Mansfield
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Nick T Harre
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Julie M Young
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Nicholas R Steppig
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Bryan G Young
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
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Gao W, Li X, Ren D, Sun S, Huo J, Wang Y, Chen L, Zhang J. Design and Synthesis of N-phenyl Phthalimides as Potent Protoporphyrinogen Oxidase Inhibitors. Molecules 2019; 24:molecules24234363. [PMID: 31795340 PMCID: PMC6930678 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24234363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2019] [Revised: 11/26/2019] [Accepted: 11/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Protoporphyrinogen oxidase (PPO) has been identified as one of the most promising targets for herbicide discovery. A series of novel phthalimide derivatives were designed by molecular docking studies targeting the crystal structure of mitochondrial PPO from tobacco (mtPPO, PDB: 1SEZ) by using Flumioxazin as a lead, after which the derivatives were synthesized and characterized, and their herbicidal activities were subsequently evaluated. The herbicidal bioassay results showed that compounds such as 3a (2-(4-bromo-2,6-difluorophenyl) isoindoline-1,3-dione), 3d (methyl 2-(4-chloro-1,3-dioxoisoindolin-2-yl)-5-fluorobenzoate), 3g (4-chloro-2-(5-methylisoxazol-3-yl) isoindoline-1,3-dione), 3j (4-chloro-2-(thiophen-2-ylmethyl) isoindoline-1,3-dione) and 3r (2-(4-bromo-2,6-difluorophenyl)-4-fluoroisoindoline-1,3-dione) had good herbicidal activities; among them, 3a showed excellent herbicidal efficacy against A. retroflexus and B. campestris via the small cup method and via pre-emergence and post-emergence spray treatments. The efficacy was comparable to that of the commercial herbicides Flumioxazin, Atrazine, and Chlortoluron. Further, the enzyme activity assay results suggest that the mode of action of compound 3a involves the inhibition of the PPO enzyme, and 3a showed better inhibitory activity against PPO than did Flumioxazin. These results indicate that our molecular design strategy contributes to the development of novel promising PPO inhibitors.
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Li J, Zhang F, Li Y, Yang W, Lin R. Chloroplast-Localized Protoporphyrinogen IX Oxidase1 Is Involved in the Mitotic Cell Cycle in Arabidopsis. PLANT & CELL PHYSIOLOGY 2019; 60:2436-2448. [PMID: 31350548 DOI: 10.1093/pcp/pcz135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2019] [Accepted: 07/04/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase1 (PPO1) catalyzes the oxidation of protoporphyrinogen IX to form protoporphyrin IX in the plastid tetrapyrrole biosynthesis pathway and is also essential for plastid RNA editing in Arabidopsis thaliana. The Arabidopsis ppo1-1 mutation was previously shown to be seedling lethal; however, in this study, we showed that the heterozygous ppo1-1/+ mutant exhibited reproductive growth defects characterized by reduced silique length and seed set, as well as aborted pollen development. In this mutant, the second mitotic division was blocked during male gametogenesis, whereas female gametogenesis was impaired at the one-nucleate stage. Before perishing at the seedling stage, the homozygous ppo1-1 mutant displayed reduced hypocotyl and root length, increased levels of reactive oxygen species accumulation and elevated cell death, especially under light conditions. Wild-type seedlings treated with acifluorfen, a PPO1 inhibitor, showed similar phenotypes to the ppo1-1 mutants, and both plants possessed a high proportion of 2C nuclei and a low proportion of 8C nuclei compared with the untreated wild type. Genome-wide RNA-seq analysis showed that a number of genes, including cell cycle-related genes, were differentially regulated by PPO1. Consistently, PPO1 was highly expressed in the pollen, anther, pistil and root apical meristem cells actively undergoing cell division. Our study reveals a role for PPO1 involved in the mitotic cell cycle during gametogenesis and seedling development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jialong Li
- Key Laboratory of Photobiology, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Fan Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Photobiology, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yuhong Li
- Key Laboratory of Photobiology, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Weicai Yang
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Developmental Biology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Rongcheng Lin
- Key Laboratory of Photobiology, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
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11
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Synthesis of 1,3,4-thiadiazol-2(3H)-one derivatives via an unexpected intramolecular addition-elimination reaction of 1,3,4-thiadiazoles. Tetrahedron 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2017.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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12
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Zuo Y, Wu Q, Su SW, Niu CW, Xi Z, Yang GF. Synthesis, Herbicidal Activity, and QSAR of Novel N-Benzothiazolyl- pyrimidine-2,4-diones as Protoporphyrinogen Oxidase Inhibitors. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2016; 64:552-62. [PMID: 26728549 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.5b05378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Protoporphyrinogen oxidase (PPO, E.C. 1.3.3.4) is known as a key action target for several structurally diverse herbicides. As a continuation of our research work on the development of new PPO-inhibiting herbicides, a series of novel 3-(2'-halo-5'-substituted-benzothiazol-1'-yl)-1-methyl-6-(trifluoromethyl)pyrimidine-2,4-diones 9 were designed and synthesized. The bioassay results indicated that a number of the newly synthesized compounds exhibited higher inhibition activity against tobacco PPO (mtPPO) than the controls, saflufenacil and sulfentrazone. Compound 9F-5 was identified as the most potent inhibitor with a Ki value of 0.0072 μM against mtPPO, showing about 4.2-fold and 1.4-fold higher potency than sulfentrazone (Ki = 0.03 μM) and saflufenacil (Ki = 0.01 μM), respectively. An additional green house assay demonstrated that compound 9F-6 (Ki = 0.012 μM) displayed the most promising postemergence herbicidal activity with a broad spectrum even at a concentration as low as 37.5 g of active ingredient (ai)/ha. Maize exhibits relative tolerance against compound 9F-6 at the dosage of 150 g ai/ha, but it is susceptible to saflufenacil even at 75 g ai/ha. Thus, compound 9F-6 exhibits the potential to be a new herbicide for weed control in maize fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Zuo
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide & Chemical Biology of Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University , Wuhan 430079, P. R. China
| | - Qiongyou Wu
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide & Chemical Biology of Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University , Wuhan 430079, P. R. China
| | - Sun-Wen Su
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide & Chemical Biology of Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University , Wuhan 430079, P. R. China
| | - Cong-Wei Niu
- State Key Laboratory of Elemento-Organic Chemistry, Nankai University , Tianjin 300071, P. R. China
| | - Zhen Xi
- State Key Laboratory of Elemento-Organic Chemistry, Nankai University , Tianjin 300071, P. R. China
| | - Guang-Fu Yang
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide & Chemical Biology of Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University , Wuhan 430079, P. R. China
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Wu QY, Jiang LL, Zuo Y, Wang ZF, Xi Z, Yang GF. Synthesis, in vitro protoporphyrinogen oxidase inhibition, and herbicidal activity of N-(benzothiazol-5-yl)hexahydro-1H-isoindole-1,3-diones and N-(benzothiazol-5-yl)hexahydro-1H-isoindol-1-ones. Chem Biol Drug Des 2014; 84:431-42. [PMID: 24803371 DOI: 10.1111/cbdd.12331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2014] [Revised: 03/15/2014] [Accepted: 03/20/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Protoporphyrinogen oxidase (EC 1.3.3.4) is one of the most significant targets for a large family of herbicides. As part of our continuous efforts to search for novel protoporphyrinogen oxidase-inhibiting herbicides, N-(benzothiazol-5-yl)tetrahydroisoindole-1,3-dione was selected as a lead compound for structural optimization, leading to the syntheses of a series of novel N-(benzothiazol-5-yl)hexahydro-1H-isoindole-1,3-diones (1a-o) and N-(benzothiazol-5-yl)hexahydro-1H-isoindol-1-ones (2a-i). These newly prepared compounds were characterized by elemental analyses, (1) H NMR, and ESI-MS, and the structures of 1h and 2h were further confirmed by X-ray diffraction analyses. The bioassays indicated that some compounds displayed comparable or higher protoporphyrinogen oxidase inhibition activities in comparison with the commercial control. Very promising, compound 2a, ethyl 2-((6-fluoro-5-(4,5,6,7-tetrahydro-1-oxo-1H-isoindol-2(3H)-yl)benzo[d]thiazol-2-yl)-sulfanyl)acetate, was recognized as the most potent candidate with K(i) value of 0.0091 μm. Further greenhouse screening results demonstrated that some compounds exhibited good herbicidal activity against Chenopodium album at the dosage of 150 g/ha.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiong-You Wu
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide & Chemical Biology, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, 430079, China
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Wu QY, Jiang LL, Yang SG, Zuo Y, Wang ZF, Xi Z, Yang GF. Hexahydrophthalimide–benzothiazole hybrids as a new class of protoporphyrinogen oxidase inhibitors: synthesis, structure–activity relationship, and DFT calculations. NEW J CHEM 2014. [DOI: 10.1039/c4nj00636d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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15
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Tetrapyrrole biosynthetic enzyme protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase 1 is required for plastid RNA editing. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2014; 111:2023-8. [PMID: 24497494 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1316183111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
RNA editing is a posttranscriptional process that covalently alters the sequence of RNA molecules and plays important biological roles in both animals and land plants. In flowering plants, RNA editing converts specific cytidine residues to uridine in both plastid and mitochondrial transcripts. Previous studies identified pentatricopeptide repeat (PPR) motif-containing proteins as site-specific recognition factors for cytidine targets in RNA sequences. However, the regulatory mechanism underlying RNA editing was largely unknown. Here, we report that protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase 1 (PPO1), an enzyme that catalyzes protoporphyrinogen IX into protoporphyrin IX in the tetrapyrrole biosynthetic pathway, plays an unexpected role in editing multiple sites of plastid RNA transcripts, most of which encode subunits of the NADH dehydrogenase-like complex (NDH), in the reference plant Arabidopsis thaliana. We identified multiple organellar RNA editing factors (MORFs), including MORF2, MORF8, and MORF9, that interact with PPO1. We found that two conserved motifs within the 22-aa region at the N terminus of PPO1 are essential for its interaction with MORFs, its RNA editing function, and subsequently, its effect on NDH activity. However, transgenic plants lacking key domains for the tetrapyrrole biosynthetic activity of PPO1 exhibit normal RNA editing. Furthermore, MORF2 and MORF9 interact with three PPRs or related proteins required for editing of ndhB and ndhD sites. These results reveal that the tetrapyrrole biosynthetic enzyme PPO1 is required for plastid RNA editing, acting as a regulator that promotes the stability of MORF proteins through physical interaction.
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Hao GF, Tan Y, Yang SG, Wang ZF, Zhan CG, Xi Z, Yang GF. Computational and experimental insights into the mechanism of substrate recognition and feedback inhibition of protoporphyrinogen oxidase. PLoS One 2013; 8:e69198. [PMID: 23935953 PMCID: PMC3720618 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0069198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2013] [Accepted: 06/05/2013] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase (PPO; EC 1.3.3.4) is an essential enzyme catalyzing the last common step in the pathway leading to heme and chlorophyll biosynthesis. Great interest in PPO inhibitors arises from both its significance to agriculture and medicine. However, the discovery of PPO inhibitors with ultrahigh potency and selectivity is hampered due to lack of structural and mechanistic understanding about the substrate recognition, which remains a longstanding question central in porphyrin biology. To understand the mechanism, a novel binding model of protogen (protoporphyrinogen IX, the substrate) was developed through extensive computational simulations. Subsequently, amino acid residues that are critical for protogen binding identified by computational simulations were substituted by mutagenesis. Kinetic analyses of these mutants indicated that these residues were critical for protogen binding. In addition, the calculated free energies of protogen binding with these mutants correlated well with the experimental data, indicating the reasonability of the binding model. On the basis of this novel model, the fundamental mechanism of substrate recognition was investigated by performing potential of mean force (PMF) calculations, which provided an atomic level description of conformational changes and pathway intermediates. The free energy profile revealed a feedback inhibition mechanism of proto (protoporphyrin IX, the product), which was also in agreement with experimental evidence. The novel mechanistic insights obtained from this study present a new starting point for future rational design of more efficient PPO inhibitors based on the product-bound PPO structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ge-Fei Hao
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide & Chemical Biology of Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, P. R. China
| | - Ying Tan
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide & Chemical Biology of Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, P. R. China
- State Key Laboratory of Elemento-Organic Chemistry, Nankai University, Tianjin, P. R. China
| | - Sheng-Gang Yang
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide & Chemical Biology of Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, P. R. China
| | - Zhi-Fang Wang
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide & Chemical Biology of Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, P. R. China
- State Key Laboratory of Elemento-Organic Chemistry, Nankai University, Tianjin, P. R. China
| | - Chang-Guo Zhan
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, United States of America
| | - Zhen Xi
- State Key Laboratory of Elemento-Organic Chemistry, Nankai University, Tianjin, P. R. China
| | - Guang-Fu Yang
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide & Chemical Biology of Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, P. R. China
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Zuo Y, Yang SG, Luo YP, Tan Y, Hao GF, Wu QY, Xi Z, Yang GF. Design and synthesis of 1-(benzothiazol-5-yl)-1H-1,2,4-triazol-5-ones as protoporphyrinogen oxidase inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem 2013; 21:3245-55. [PMID: 23623257 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2013.03.056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2013] [Revised: 03/07/2013] [Accepted: 03/09/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Protoporphyrinogen oxidase (PPO, E.C. 1.3.3.4) is the action target for several structurally diverse herbicides. A series of novel 4-(difluoromethyl)-1-(6-halo-2-substituted-benzothiazol-5-yl)-3-methyl-1H-1,2,4-triazol-5(4H)-ones 2a-z were designed and synthesized via the ring-closure of two ortho-substituents. The in vitro bioassay results indicated that the 26 newly synthesized compounds exhibited good PPO inhibition effects with K(i) values ranging from 0.06 to 17.79 μM. Compound 2e, ethyl 2-{[5-(4-(difluoromethyl)-3-methyl-5-oxo-4,5-dihydro-1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-6-fluorobenzo-thiazol-2-yl]thio}acetate, was the most potent inhibitor with K(i) value of 0.06 μM against mtPPO, comparable to (K(i)=0.03 μM) sulfentrazone. Further green house assays showed that compound 2f (K(i)=0.24 μM, mtPPO), ethyl 2-{[5-(4-(difluoromethyl)-3-methyl-5-oxo-4,5-dihydro-1H-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl)-6-fluorobenzothiazol-2-yl]thio}propanoate, showed the most promising post-emergence herbicidal activity with broad spectrum even at concentrations as low as 37.5 gai/ha. Soybean exhibited tolerance to compound 2f at the dosages of 150 gai/ha, whereas they are susceptible to sulfentrazone even at 75 gai/ha. Thus, compound 2f might be a potential candidate as a new herbicide for soybean fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Zuo
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide & Chemical Biology of Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, PR China
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Wang B, Wen X, Qin X, Wang Z, Tan Y, Shen Y, Xi Z. Quantitative structural insight into human variegate porphyria disease. J Biol Chem 2013; 288:11731-40. [PMID: 23467411 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m113.459768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Defects in the human protoporphyrinogen oxidase (hPPO) gene, resulting in ~50% decreased activity of hPPO, is responsible for the dominantly inherited disorder variegate porphyria (VP). To understand the molecular mechanism of VP, we employed the site-directed mutagenesis, biochemical assays, structural biology, and molecular dynamics simulation studies to investigate VP-causing hPPO mutants. We report here the crystal structures of R59Q and R59G mutants in complex with acifluorfen at a resolution of 2.6 and 2.8 Å. The r.m.s.d. of the Cα atoms of the active site structure of R59G and R59Q with respect to the wild-type was 0.20 and 0.15 Å, respectively. However, these highly similar static crystal structures of mutants with the wild-type could not quantitatively explain the observed large differences in their enzymatic activity. To understand how the hPPO mutations affect their catalytic activities, we combined molecular dynamics simulation and statistical analysis to quantitatively understand the molecular mechanism of VP-causing mutants. We have found that the probability of the privileged conformations of hPPO can be correlated very well with the k(cat)/K(m) of PPO (correlation coefficient, R(2) > 0.9), and the catalytic activity of 44 clinically reported VP-causing mutants can be accurately predicted. These results indicated that the VP-causing mutation affect the catalytic activity of hPPO by affecting the ability of hPPO to sample the privileged conformations. The current work, together with our previous crystal structure study on the wild-type hPPO, provided the quantitative structural insight into human variegate porphyria disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baifan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Elemento-Organic Chemistry, Department of Chemical Biology, College of Chemistry, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, China
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Zuo Y, Yang SG, Jiang LL, Hao GF, Wang ZF, Wu QY, Xi Z, Yang GF. Quantitative structure–activity relationships of 1,3,4-thiadiazol-2(3H)-ones and 1,3,4-oxadiazol-2(3H)-ones as human protoporphyrinogen oxidase inhibitors. Bioorg Med Chem 2012; 20:296-304. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2011.10.079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2011] [Revised: 10/29/2011] [Accepted: 10/29/2011] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
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Hao GF, Tan Y, Yu NX, Yang GF. Structure–activity relationships of diphenyl-ether as protoporphyrinogen oxidase inhibitors: insights from computational simulations. J Comput Aided Mol Des 2011; 25:213-22. [DOI: 10.1007/s10822-011-9412-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2010] [Accepted: 01/10/2011] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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21
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Qin X, Sun L, Wen X, Yang X, Tan Y, Jin H, Cao Q, Zhou W, Xi Z, Shen Y. Structural insight into unique properties of protoporphyrinogen oxidase from Bacillus subtilis. J Struct Biol 2010; 170:76-82. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jsb.2009.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2009] [Revised: 11/16/2009] [Accepted: 11/19/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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22
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Wakamatsu JI, Hayashi N, Nishimura T, Hattori A. Nitric oxide inhibits the formation of zinc protoporphyrin IX and protoporphyrin IX. Meat Sci 2010; 84:125-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2009.08.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2009] [Revised: 08/13/2009] [Accepted: 08/14/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Bioactive conformation analysis of cyclic imides as protoporphyrinogen oxidase inhibitor by combining DFT calculations, QSAR and molecular dynamic simulations. Bioorg Med Chem 2009; 17:4935-42. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2009.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2009] [Revised: 05/31/2009] [Accepted: 06/02/2009] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Hao GF, Zhu XL, Ji FQ, Zhang L, Yang GF, Zhan CG. Understanding the mechanism of drug resistance due to a codon deletion in protoporphyrinogen oxidase through computational modeling. J Phys Chem B 2009; 113:4865-75. [PMID: 19284797 DOI: 10.1021/jp807442n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Protoporphyrinogen oxidase (PPO; EC 1.3.3.4) is the last common enzyme for the enzymatic transformation of protoporphyrinogen-IX to protoporphyrin-IX, which is the key common intermediate leading to heme and chlorophyll. Hence, PPO has been identified as one of the most importance action targets for the treatment of some important diseases including cancer and variegated porphyria (VP). In the agricultural field, PPO inhibitors have been used as herbicides for many years. Recently, a unique drug resistance was found to be associated with a nonactive site residue (Gly210) deletion rather than substitution in A. tuberculatus PPO. In the present study, extensive computational simulations, including homology modeling, molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, and molecular mechanics-Poisson-Boltzmann surface area (MM-PBSA) calculations, have been carried out to uncover the detailed molecular mechanism of drug resistance associated with Gly210 deletion. Although Gly210 in the wild-type A. tuberculatus PPO has no direct interaction with the inhibitors, all the computational models and energetic results indicated that Gly210 deletion has great effects on the hydrogen-bonding network and the conformational change of the binding pocket. An interchain hydrogen bond between Gly210 with Ser424, playing an important role in stabilizing the local conformation of the wild-type enzyme, disappeared after Gly210 deletion. As a result, the mutant-type PPO has a lower affinity than the wild-type enzyme, which accounts for the molecular mechanism of drug resistance. The structural and mechanistic insights obtained from the present study provide a new starting point for future rational design of novel PPO inhibitors to overcome drug resistance associated with Gly210 deletion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ge-Fei Hao
- Key Laboratory of Pesticide & Chemical Biology of Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, PR China
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Tan Y, Sun L, Xi Z, Yang GF, Jiang DQ, Yan XP, Yang X, Li HY. A capillary electrophoresis assay for recombinant Bacillus subtilis protoporphyrinogen oxidase. Anal Biochem 2008; 383:200-4. [PMID: 18834852 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2008.09.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2008] [Revised: 09/05/2008] [Accepted: 09/08/2008] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Protoporphyrinogen oxidase (PPO) is a flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)-containing enzyme in the tetrapyrrole biosynthetic pathway that leads to the formation of both heme and chlorophylls, which has been identified as one of the most important action targets of commercial herbicides. The literature reports gave different PPO-catalytic kinetic parameters for the substrate protoporphyrinogen IX (K(m) of 0.1 to 10.4 miocroM) with different sources of PPO using fluorescent or HPLC methods. Herein we assayed the enzymatic activity of recombinant Bacillus subtilis PPO by using capillary electrophoresis (CE), a method with high separation efficiency, easy automation, and low sample consumption. The Michaelis constant and maximum reaction velocity were determined as 7.0+/-0.6 miocroM and 0.38+/-0.02 miocromol min(-1)miocrog(-1), respectively. The interaction between PPO and acifluorfen, a commercial PPO-inhibiting herbicide, was measured as the inhibition constant 186.9+/-9.3 miocroM EM, Cyrillic. The relationship between cofactor FAD and PPO activity can also be quantitatively studied by this CE method. The CE method used here should also be a convenient, reliable method for PPO study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Tan
- State Key Laboratory of Element-Organic Chemistry and Department of Chemical Biology, Nankai University,Tianjin 300071, China
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26
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Heinemann IU, Jahn M, Jahn D. The biochemistry of heme biosynthesis. Arch Biochem Biophys 2008; 474:238-51. [PMID: 18314007 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2008.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 225] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2008] [Revised: 02/14/2008] [Accepted: 02/14/2008] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Heme is an integral part of proteins involved in multiple electron transport chains for energy recovery found in almost all forms of life. Moreover, heme is a cofactor of enzymes including catalases, peroxidases, cytochromes of the P(450) class and part of sensor molecules. Here the step-by-step biosynthesis of heme including involved enzymes, their mechanisms and detrimental health consequences caused by their failure are described. Unusual and challenging biochemistry including tRNA-dependent reactions, radical SAM enzymes and substrate derived cofactors are reported.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilka U Heinemann
- Institute of Microbiology, Technical University of Braunschweig, Spielmannstr. 7, D-38106 Braunschweig, Germany
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Gederaas OA, Holroyd A, Brown SB, Vernon D, Moan J, Berg K. 5-Aminolaevulinic Acid Methyl Ester Transport on Amino Acid Carriers in a Human Colon Adenocarcinoma Cell Line¶. Photochem Photobiol 2007. [DOI: 10.1562/0031-8655(2001)0730164aameto2.0.co2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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28
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Heinemann I, Diekmann N, Masoumi A, Koch M, Messerschmidt A, Jahn M, Jahn D. Functional definition of the tobacco protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase substrate-binding site. Biochem J 2007; 402:575-80. [PMID: 17134376 PMCID: PMC1863572 DOI: 10.1042/bj20061321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2006] [Revised: 11/22/2006] [Accepted: 11/30/2006] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
PPO (protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase) catalyses the flavin-dependent six-electron oxidation of protogen (protoporphyrinogen IX) to form proto (protoporphyrin IX), a crucial step in haem and chlorophyll biosynthesis. The apparent K(m) value for wild-type tobacco PPO2 (mitochondrial PPO) was 1.17 muM, with a V(max) of 4.27 muM.min(-1).mg(-1) and a catalytic activity k(cat) of 6.0 s(-1). Amino acid residues that appear important for substrate binding in a crystal structure-based model of the substrate docked in the active site were interrogated by site-directed mutagenesis. PPO2 variant F392H did not reveal detectable enzyme activity indicating an important role of Phe(392) in substrate ring A stacking. Mutations of Leu(356), Leu(372) and Arg(98) increased k(cat) values up to 100-fold, indicating that the native residues are not essential for establishing an orientation of the substrate conductive to catalysis. Increased K(m) values of these PPO2 variants from 2- to 100-fold suggest that these residues are involved in, but not essential to, substrate binding via rings B and C. Moreover, one prominent structural constellation of human PPO causing the disease variegate porphyria (N67W/S374D) was successfully transferred into the tobacco PPO2 background. Therefore tobacco PPO2 represents a useful model system for the understanding of the structure-function relationship underlying detrimental human enzyme defects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilka U. Heinemann
- *Institute of Microbiology, Technical University Braunschweig, Spielmannstr. 7, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Nina Diekmann
- *Institute of Microbiology, Technical University Braunschweig, Spielmannstr. 7, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Ava Masoumi
- *Institute of Microbiology, Technical University Braunschweig, Spielmannstr. 7, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Michael Koch
- †Division of Structural Biology, The Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, Roosevelt Drive, Headington, Oxford OX3 7BN, U.K
| | - Albrecht Messerschmidt
- ‡Department of Proteomics and Signal Transduction, Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry, Am Klopferspitz 18, 82152 Martinsried, Germany
| | - Martina Jahn
- *Institute of Microbiology, Technical University Braunschweig, Spielmannstr. 7, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Dieter Jahn
- *Institute of Microbiology, Technical University Braunschweig, Spielmannstr. 7, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany
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Corradi HR, Corrigall AV, Boix E, Mohan CG, Sturrock ED, Meissner PN, Acharya KR. Crystal structure of protoporphyrinogen oxidase from Myxococcus xanthus and its complex with the inhibitor acifluorfen. J Biol Chem 2006; 281:38625-33. [PMID: 17046834 PMCID: PMC1892613 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m606640200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase, a monotopic membrane protein, which catalyzes the oxidation of protoporphyrinogen IX to protoporphyrin IX in the heme/chlorophyll biosynthetic pathway, is distributed widely throughout nature. Here we present the structure of protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase from Myxococcus xanthus, an enzyme with similar catalytic properties to human protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase that also binds the common plant herbicide, acifluorfen. In the native structure, the planar porphyrinogen substrate is mimicked by a Tween 20 molecule, tracing three sides of the macrocycle. In contrast, acifluorfen does not mimic the planarity of the substrate but is accommodated by the shape of the binding pocket and held in place by electrostatic and aromatic interactions. A hydrophobic patch surrounded by positively charged residues suggests the position of the membrane anchor, differing from the one proposed for the tobacco mitochondrial protoporphyrinogen oxidase. Interestingly, there is a discrepancy between the dimerization state of the protein in solution and in the crystal. Conserved structural features are discussed in relation to a number of South African variegate porphyria-causing mutations in the human enzyme.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hazel R. Corradi
- From the Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, United Kingdom
| | - Anne V. Corrigall
- From the Lennox Eales Porphyria Laboratories, Medical Research Council/University of Cape Town Liver Research Center, University of Cape Town Department of Medicine, Observatory 7925, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Ester Boix
- From the Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, United Kingdom
| | - C. Gopi Mohan
- From the Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, United Kingdom
| | - Edward D. Sturrock
- From the Division of Medical Biochemistry and Institute for Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town Medical School, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Peter N. Meissner
- From the Lennox Eales Porphyria Laboratories, Medical Research Council/University of Cape Town Liver Research Center, University of Cape Town Department of Medicine, Observatory 7925, Cape Town, South Africa
- From the Division of Medical Biochemistry and Institute for Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town Medical School, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - K. Ravi Acharya
- From the Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, United Kingdom
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Granick S, Beale SI. Hemes, chlorophylls, and related compounds: biosynthesis and metabolic regulation. ADVANCES IN ENZYMOLOGY AND RELATED AREAS OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2006; 46:33-203. [PMID: 345768 DOI: 10.1002/9780470122914.ch2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Shepherd M, Dailey HA. A continuous fluorimetric assay for protoporphyrinogen oxidase by monitoring porphyrin accumulation. Anal Biochem 2005; 344:115-21. [PMID: 16039600 PMCID: PMC1538956 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2005.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2005] [Revised: 05/24/2005] [Accepted: 06/04/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
A continuous spectrofluorimetric assay for protoporphyrinogen oxidase (PPO, EC 1.3.3.4) activity has been developed using a 96-well plate reader. Protoporphyrinogen IX, the tetrapyrrole substrate, is a colorless nonfluorescent compound. The evolution of the fluorescent tetrapyrrole product, protoporphyrin IX, was detected using a fluorescence plate reader. The apparent Km (Kapp) values for protoporphyrinogen IX were measured as 3.8+/-0.3, 3.6+/-0.5, and 1.0+/-0.1 microM for the enzymes from human, Myxococcus xanthus, and Aquifex aeolicus, respectively. The Ki for acifluorfen, a diphenylether herbicide, was measured as 0.53 microM for the human enzyme. Also, the specific activity of mouse liver mitochondrial PPO was measured as 0.043 nmol h-1/mg mitochondria, demonstrating that this technique is useful for monitoring low-enzyme activities. This method can be used to accurately measure activities as low as 0.5 nM min-1, representing a 50-fold increase in sensitivity over the currently used discontinuous assay. Furthermore, this continuous assay may be used to monitor up to 96 samples simultaneously. These obvious advantages over the discontinuous assay will be of importance for both the kinetic characterization of recombinant PPOs and the detection of low concentrations of this enzyme in biological samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Shepherd
- Biomedical and Health Sciences Institute, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
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32
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Maneli MH, Corrigall AV, Klump HH, Davids LM, Kirsch RE, Meissner PN. Kinetic and physical characterisation of recombinant wild-type and mutant human protoporphyrinogen oxidases. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 2003; 1650:10-21. [PMID: 12922165 DOI: 10.1016/s1570-9639(03)00186-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The effects of various protoporphyrinogen oxidase (PPOX) mutations responsible for variegate porphyria (VP), the roles of the arginine-59 residue and the glycines in the conserved flavin binding site, in catalysis and/or cofactor binding, were examined. Wild-type recombinant human PPOX and a selection of mutants were generated, expressed, purified and partially characterised. All mutants had reduced PPOX activity to varying degrees. However, the activity data did not correlate with the ability/inability to bind flavin. The positive charge at arginine-59 appears to be directly involved in catalysis and not in flavin-cofactor binding alone. The K(m)s for the arginine-59 mutants suggested a substrate-binding problem. T(1/2) indicated that arginine-59 is required for the integrity of the active site. The dominant alpha-helical content was decreased in the mutants. The degree of alpha-helix did not correlate linearly with T(1/2) nor T(m) values, supporting the suggestion that arginine-59 is important for catalysis at the active site. Examination of the conserved dinucleotide-binding sequence showed that substitution of glycine in codon 14 was less disruptive than substitutions in codons 9 and 11. Ultraviolet melting curves generally showed a two-state transition suggesting formation of a multi-domain structure. All mutants studied were more resistant to thermal denaturation compared to wild type, except for R168C.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mbulelo H Maneli
- Lennox Eales Porphyria Laboratories, MRC/UCT Liver Research Centre, Department of Medicine, University of Cape Town Medical School, K-floor, Old GSH Main Building, Observatory 7925, South Africa
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Gederaas OA, Holroyd A, Brown SB, Vernon D, Moan J, Berg K. 5-Aminolaevulinic acid methyl ester transport on amino acid carriers in a human colon adenocarcinoma cell line. Photochem Photobiol 2001; 73:164-9. [PMID: 11272730 DOI: 10.1562/0031-8655(2001)073<0164:aameto>2.0.co;2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The transport mechanisms of 5-aminolevulinic acid methyl ester (5-ALA-ME) have been studied in a human adenocarcinoma cell line (WiDr) by means of 14[C]-labeled 5-ALA-ME. The transport was found to be partly Na+ dependent, while the extracellular Cl- concentration did not affect the uptake. The transport of 5-ALA-ME into WiDr cells was dependent on the incubation temperature and was found to be completely blocked by the inhibitors of energy metabolism, 2-deoxyglucose and sodium azide. WiDr cells were treated with 10 mM of 14 different amino acids and the substrate specificity of the 5-ALA-ME transporter(s) was analyzed by treating the cells with 23 microM or 1 mM 14[C]-labeled 5-ALA-ME. The transport of 5-ALA-ME was found to be inhibited to the highest extent, i.e. about 60%, by the nonpolar amino acids L-alanine, L-methionine, L-tryptophan and glycine. The uptake of 5-ALA-ME followed an exponential decay with increasing concentration of glycine, reaching a maximum inhibition of uptake of 5-ALA-ME of 55%. Sarcosine, a specific inhibitor of system Gly, did not significantly inhibit 5-ALA-ME transport. In contrast to transport of 5-ALA, 5-ALA-ME does not seem to be taken up by system BETA transporters. In conclusion, the cellular uptake of 5-ALA-ME into WiDr cells seems to be due to active transport mechanisms, involving transporters of nonpolar amino acids.
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Affiliation(s)
- O A Gederaas
- Institute of Laboratory Medicine, Department of Clinical Chemistry, Medical Faculty, Norwegain University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
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Berg K. Chapter 8 Basic principles of 5-aminolevulinic acid-based photodynamic therapy. COMPREHENSIVE SERIES IN PHOTOSCIENCES 2001. [DOI: 10.1016/s1568-461x(01)80112-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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35
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Arnould S, Takahashi M, Camadro JM. Acylation stabilizes a protease-resistant conformation of protoporphyrinogen oxidase, the molecular target of diphenyl ether-type herbicides. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1999; 96:14825-30. [PMID: 10611297 PMCID: PMC24732 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.96.26.14825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Protein acylation is an important way in which a number of proteins with a variety of functions are modified. The physiological role of the acylation of cellular proteins is still poorly understood. Covalent binding of fatty acids to nonintegral membrane proteins is thought to produce transient or permanent enhancement of the association of the polypeptide chains with biological membranes. In this paper, we investigate the functional role for the palmitoylation of an atypical membrane-bound protein, yeast protoporphyrinogen oxidase, which is the molecular target of diphenyl ether-type herbicides. Palmitoylation stabilizes an active heat- and protease-resistant conformation of the protein. Palmitoylation of protoporphyrinogen oxidase has been demonstrated to occur in vivo both in yeast cells and in a heterologous bacterial expression system, where it may be inhibited by cerulenin leading to the accumulation of degradation products of the protein. The thiol ester linking palmitoleic acid to the polypeptide chain was shown to be sensitive to hydrolysis by hydroxylamine and also by the widely used serine-protease inhibitor phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Arnould
- Laboratoire d'Ingénierie des Protéines et Contrôle Métabolique, Département de Microbiologie, Institut Jacques-Monod, Unité Mixte de Recherche 7592, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université Paris 7, Denis-Diderot, France
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Le Guen L, Santos R, Camadro JM. Functional analysis of the hemK gene product involvement in protoporphyrinogen oxidase activity in yeast. FEMS Microbiol Lett 1999; 173:175-82. [PMID: 10220893 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-6968.1999.tb13499.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The Escherichia coli hemK gene has been described as being involved in protoporphyrinogen oxidase activity; however, there is no biochemical evidence for this. In the context of characterizing the mechanisms of protoporphyrinogen oxidation in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, we investigated the yeast homolog of HemK, which is encoded by the ORF YNL063w, to find out whether it has any protoporphyrinogen oxidase activity and/or whether it modulates protoporphyrinogen oxidase activity. Phenotype analysis and enzyme activity measurements indicated that the yeast HemK homolog is not involved in protoporphyrinogen oxidase activity. Complementation assays in which the yeast HemK homolog is overproduced do not restore wild-type phenotypes in a yeast strain with deficient protoporphyrinogen oxidase activity. Protein sequence analysis of HemK-related proteins revealed consensus motif for S-adenosyl-methionine-dependent methyltransferase.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Le Guen
- Département de Microbiologie, Institut Jacques-Monod, UMR 7592-CNRS-Universités Paris, France
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Gederaas OA, Rasch MH, Berg K, Lagerberg JW, Dubbelman TM. Photodynamically induced effects in colon carcinoma cells (WiDr) by endogenous photosensitizers generated by incubation with 5-aminolaevulinic acid. JOURNAL OF PHOTOCHEMISTRY AND PHOTOBIOLOGY. B, BIOLOGY 1999; 49:162-70. [PMID: 10392465 DOI: 10.1016/s1011-1344(99)00051-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Human adenocarcinoma cells of the line WiDr have been treated with 2 mM 5-aminolaevulinic acid (5-ALA) in the presence of 10% foetal calf serum. The treatment induces a linear accumulation of protoporphyrin IX (PpIX) for at least 7.5 h. After 7.5 h of incubation about 45% of the PpIX accumulated is cell-bound, while the rest is found in the medium (25%) or lost from the cells during washing with phosphate-buffered saline (30%). Exposure to white light at an intensity of 30 W/m2 for 18 min results in 95% reduction of clonogenicity in cells treated with 2 mM 5-ALA for 3.5 h. The enzymatic activities of enzymes located in cytosol (glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase and lactate dehydrogenase) and lysosomes (acid phosphatase and beta-glucuronidase) are not influenced by a 5-ALA and light treatment inactivating about 35% of the cells. The MTT assay, which reflects mitochondrial dehydrogenase activity, but not succinate dehydrogenase, is partly inhibited by the same treatment. Treatment with 5-ALA in the absence of light increases O2 consumption by a factor of two, while the O2 consumption is inhibited when 5-ALA treatment is combined with exposure to light. In addition, 5-ALA and light exposure enhance accumulation of rhodamine 123 by 40% and reduce the intracellular ATP level by 25%. Confocal laser scanning microscopical analysis indicates granular perinuclear localization of the PpIX formed by 5-ALA treatment. In conclusion, photodynamic treatment using 5-ALA as a prodrug induces damage to mitochondrial function without inhibiting lysosomal and cytosolic marker enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- O A Gederaas
- Department of Clinical Chemistry, University Hospital, Trondheim, Norway
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38
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Molina A, Volrath S, Guyer D, Maleck K, Ryals J, Ward E. Inhibition of protoporphyrinogen oxidase expression in Arabidopsis causes a lesion-mimic phenotype that induces systemic acquired resistance. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 1999; 17:667-678. [PMID: 10230064 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-313x.1999.00420.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
We have used an antisense expression technology in Arabidopsis based on the yeast GAL4/UAS transactivation system (Guyer et al., Genetics, 1998; 149:633-639) to reduce levels of protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase (PPO), the last common enzyme of the biosynthesis of the haem group and chlorophyll. Plants expressing the antisense PPO gene presented growth alterations and their leaves showed necrotic lesions that appeared similar to lesions characteristic of the pathogen-induced hypersensitive reaction, and seen in the so-called lesion-mimic mutants. Plants expressing the antisense gene also had high endogenous salicylic acid levels, constitutive expression of the PR-1 gene, and were resistant to Peronospora parasitica, consistent with the activation of systemic acquired resistance (SAR). Treatment of wild-type plants with sublethal concentrations of herbicides that inhibit PPO also induced defence responses that conferred enhanced tolerance to P. parasitica. This effect was not observed in NahG and nim1 plants, which are compromised in their ability to activate SAR. These results demonstrate that genetic or chemical disruption of a metabolic pathway can lead to the induction of a set of defence responses including activation of SAR.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Molina
- Biotechnology and Genomics Center, Novartis Crop Protection Inc., Research Triangle Park, NC 27709-2257, USA
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39
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Georgakoudi I, Keng PC, Foster TH. Hypoxia significantly reduces aminolaevulinic acid-induced protoporphyrin IX synthesis in EMT6 cells. Br J Cancer 1999; 79:1372-7. [PMID: 10188878 PMCID: PMC2362734 DOI: 10.1038/sj.bjc.6690220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
We have studied the effects of hypoxia on aminolaevulinic acid (ALA)-induced protoporphyrin IX (PpIX) synthesis in EMT6 monolayer cultures characterized by different cell densities and proliferation rates. Specifically, after ALA incubation under hypoxic or normoxic conditions, we detected spectrofluorometrically the PpIX content of the following populations: (a) low-density exponentially growing cells; (b) high-density fed-plateau cells; and (c) high-density unfed-plateau cells. These populations were selected either for the purpose of comparison with other in vitro studies (low-density exponentially growing cells) or as representatives of tumour regions adjacent to (high-density fed-plateau cells) and further away from (high-density unfed-plateau cells) capillaries. The amount of PpIX per cell produced by each one of these populations was higher after normoxic ALA incubation. The magnitude of the effect of hypoxia on PpIX synthesis was dependent on cell density and proliferation rate. A 42-fold decrease in PpIX fluorescence was observed for the high-density unfed-plateau cells. PpIX production by the low-density exponential cells was affected the least by ALA incubation under hypoxic conditions (1.4-fold decrease), whereas the effect on the high-density fed-plateau population was intermediate (20-fold decrease).
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Affiliation(s)
- I Georgakoudi
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, NY 14642, USA
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40
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Corrigall AV, Siziba KB, Maneli MH, Shephard EG, Ziman M, Dailey TA, Dailey HA, Kirsch RE, Meissner PN. Purification of and kinetic studies on a cloned protoporphyrinogen oxidase from the aerobic bacterium Bacillus subtilis. Arch Biochem Biophys 1998; 358:251-6. [PMID: 9784236 DOI: 10.1006/abbi.1998.0834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The previously cloned and expressed protoporphyrinogen oxidase from Bacillus subtilis has been purified to homogeneity by Ni2+ affinity chromatography using a His6 tag and characterized. The enzyme has a molecular weight of approximately 56,000 daltons, a pI of 7.5, a pH optimum (protoporphyrinogen) of 8.7, and a noncovalently bound flavine adenine dinucleotide cofactor. The Michaelis constants (Km) for protoporphyrinogen-IX, coproporphyrinogen-III, and mesoporphyrinogen-IX are 1.0, 5.29, and 4.92 microM, respectively. Polyclonal antibody to B. subtilis protoporphyrinogen oxidase demonstrated weak cross-reactivity with both human and Myxococcus xanthus protoporphyrinogen oxidase. B. subtilis protoporphyrinogen oxidase is not inhibited by the diphenyl ether herbicide acifluorfen at 100 microM and is weakly inhibited by methylacifluorfen at the same concentration. Bilirubin, biliverdin, and hemin are all competitive inhibitors of this enzyme.
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Affiliation(s)
- A V Corrigall
- MRC/UCT Liver Research Centre, University of Cape Town Medical School, Observatory, 7925, South Africa
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Arnould S, Takahashi M, Camadro JM. Stability of recombinant yeast protoporphyrinogen oxidase: effects of diphenyl ether-type herbicides and diphenyleneiodonium. Biochemistry 1998; 37:12818-28. [PMID: 9737859 DOI: 10.1021/bi980713i] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Protoporphyrinogen oxidase catalyzes the oxygen-dependent aromatization of protoporphyrinogen IX to protoporphyrin IX and is the molecular target of diphenyl ether-type herbicides. Structural features of yeast protoporphyrinogen oxidase were assessed by circular dichroism studies on the enzyme purified from E. coli cells engineered to overproduce the protein. Coexpression of the bacterial gene ArgU that encodes tRNAAGA,AGG and a low induction temperature for protein synthesis were critical for producing protoporphyrinogen oxidase as a native, active, membrane-bound flavoprotein. The secondary structure of the protoporphyrinogen oxidase was 40.0 +/- 1. 5% alpha helix, 23.5 +/- 2.5% beta sheet, 18.0 +/- 2.0% beta turn, and 18.5 +/- 2.5% random-coil. Purified protoporphyrinogen oxidase appeared to be a monomeric protein that was relatively heat-labile (Tm of 44 +/- 0.5 degreesC). Acifluorfen, a potent inhibitor that competes with the tetrapyrrole substrate, and to a lower extent FAD, the cofactor of the enzyme, protected the protein from thermal denaturation, raising the Tm to 50.5 +/- 0.5 degreesC (acifluorfen) and 46.5 +/- 0.5 degreesC (FAD). However, diphenyleneiodonium, a slow tight-binding inhibitor that competes with dioxygen, did not protect the enzyme from heat denaturation. Acifluorfen binding to the protein increased the activation energy for the denaturation from 15 to 80 kJ.mol-1. The unfolding of the protein was a two-step process, with an initial fast reversible unfolding of the native protein followed by slow aggregation of the unfolded monomers. Functional analysis indicated that heat denaturation caused a loss of enzyme activity and of the specific binding of radiolabeled inhibitor. Both processes occurred in a biphasic manner, with a transition temperature of 45 degreesC.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Arnould
- Laboratoire de Biochimie des Porphyrines, Département de Microbiologie, Institut Jacques-Monod, Paris, France
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42
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Arnould S, Camadro JM. The domain structure of protoporphyrinogen oxidase, the molecular target of diphenyl ether-type herbicides. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1998; 95:10553-8. [PMID: 9724741 PMCID: PMC27932 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.95.18.10553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Protoporphyrinogen oxidase (EC 1-3-3-4), the 60-kDa membrane-bound flavoenzyme that catalyzes the final reaction of the common branch of the heme and chlorophyll biosynthesis pathways in plants, is the molecular target of diphenyl ether-type herbicides. It is highly resistant to proteases (trypsin, endoproteinase Glu-C, or carboxypeptidases A, B, and Y), because the protein is folded into an extremely compact form. Trypsin maps of the native purified and membrane-bound yeast protoporphyrinogen oxidase show that this basic enzyme (pI > 8.5) was cleaved at a single site under nondenaturing conditions, generating two peptides with relative molecular masses of 30,000 and 35,000. The endoproteinase Glu-C also cleaved the protein into two peptides with similar masses, and there was no additional cleavage site under mild denaturing conditions. N-terminal peptide sequence analysis of the proteolytic (trypsin and endoproteinase Glu-C) peptides showed that both cleavage sites were located in putative connecting loop between the N-terminal domain (25 kDa) with the betaalphabeta ADP-binding fold and the C-terminal domain (35 kDa), which possibly is involved in the binding of the isoalloxazine moiety of the FAD cofactor. The peptides remained strongly associated and fully active with the Km for protoporphyrinogen and the Ki for various inhibitors, diphenyl-ethers, or diphenyleneiodonium derivatives, identical to those measured for the native enzyme. However, the enzyme activity of the peptides was much more susceptible to thermal denaturation than that of the native protein. Only the C-terminal domain of protoporphyrinogen oxidase was labeled specifically in active site-directed photoaffinity-labeling experiments. Trypsin may have caused intramolecular transfer of the labeled group to reactive components of the N-terminal domain, resulting in nonspecific labeling. We suggest that the active site of protoporphyrinogen oxidase is in the C-terminal domain of the protein, at the interface between the C- and N-terminal domains.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Arnould
- Laboratoire de Biochimie des Porphyrines, Département de Microbiologie, Institut Jacques Monod, Unité Mixte de Recherche 7592 Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique- Université Paris 7-Université Paris 6, 2 Place Jussieu, F-7525, France
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Arnould S, Berthon JL, Hubert C, Dias M, Cibert C, Mornet R, Camadro JM. Kinetics of protoporphyrinogen oxidase inhibition by diphenyleneiodonium derivatives. Biochemistry 1997; 36:10178-84. [PMID: 9254615 DOI: 10.1021/bi970549j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Protoporphyrinogen oxidase, the last enzyme of the common branch of the heme and chlorophyll pathways in plants, is the molecular target of diphenyl ether-type herbicides. These compounds inhibit the enzyme competitively with respect to the tetrapyrrole substrate, protoporphyrinogen IX. We used the flavinic nature of protoporphyrinogen oxidase to investigate the reactivity of the enzyme toward the 2,2'-diphenyleneiodonium cation, a known inhibitor of several flavoproteins. Diphenyleneiodonium inhibited the membrane-bound yeast protoporphyrinogen oxidase competitively with molecular oxygen. The typical slow-binding kinetics suggested that the enzyme with a reduced flavin rapidly combined with the inhibitor to form an initial complex which then slowly isomerized to a modified enzyme-inhibitor complex (Ki = 6.75 x 10(-8) M, Ki* = 4.1 x 10(-9) M). This inhibition was strongly pH-dependent and was maximal at pH 8. Substituted diphenyleneiodoniums were synthesized and shown to be even better inhibitors than 2,2'-diphenyleneiodonium: Ki = 4.4 x 10(-8) M and Ki* = 1.3 x 10(-9) M for 4-methyl-2,2'-diphenyleneiodonium, Ki = 2.2 x 10(-8) M and Ki * = 1.1 x 10(-9) M for 6-methyl-2,2'-diphenyleneiodonium, and Ki = 6.4 x 10(-9) M and Ki* = 1.2 x 10(-1)2 M for 4-nitro-2,2'-diphenyleneiodonium. The 4-nitro-2,2'-diphenyleneiodonium was a quasi irreversible inhibitor (k5/k6 > 5000). Diphenyleneiodoniums are a new class of protoporphyrinogen oxidase inhibitors that act via a mechanism very different from that of diphenyl ether-type herbicides and appear to be promising tools for studies on the structure-function relationships of this agronomically important enzyme.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Arnould
- Département de Microbiologie, Institut Jacques-Monod, UMR CNRS 9922-Université Paris 7 Denis-Diderot, 2 Place Jussieu, F-75251 Paris Cedex 05, France
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Lermontova I, Kruse E, Mock HP, Grimm B. Cloning and characterization of a plastidal and a mitochondrial isoform of tobacco protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1997; 94:8895-900. [PMID: 9238074 PMCID: PMC23187 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.94.16.8895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/1997] [Accepted: 05/23/1997] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase is the last enzyme in the common pathway of heme and chlorophyll synthesis and provides precursor for the mitochondrial and plastidic heme synthesis and the predominant chlorophyll synthesis in plastids. We cloned two different, full-length tobacco cDNA sequences by complementation of the protoporphyrin-IX-accumulating Escherichia coli hemG mutant from heme auxotrophy. The two sequences show similarity to the recently published Arabidopsis PPOX, Bacillus subtilis hemY, and to mammalian sequences encoding protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase. One cDNA sequence encodes a 548-amino acid residues protein with a putative transit sequence of 50 amino acid residues, and the second cDNA encodes a protein of 504 amino acid residues. Both deduced protein sequences share 27.2% identical amino acid residues. The first in vitro translated protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase could be translocated to plastids, and the approximately 53-kDa mature protein was detected in stroma and membrane fraction. The second enzyme was targeted to mitochondria without any detectable reduction in size. Localization of both enzymes in subcellular fractions was immunologically confirmed. Steady-state RNA analysis indicates an almost synchronous expression of both genes during tobacco plant development, greening of young seedlings, and diurnal and circadian growth. The mature plastidal and the mitochondrial isoenzyme were overexpressed in E. coli. Bacterial extracts containing the recombinant mitochondrial enzyme exhibit high protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase activity relative to control strains, whereas the plastidal enzyme could only be expressed as an inactive peptide. The data presented confirm a compartmentalized pathway of tetrapyrrole synthesis with protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase in plastids and mitochondria.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Lermontova
- Institut für Pflanzengenetik und Kulturpflanzenforschung Gatersleben, IPK Corrensstrasse 3, 06466 Gatersleben, Germany
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45
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Tissue-Specific Regulation of Iron Metabolism and Heme Synthesis: Distinct Control Mechanisms in Erythroid Cells. Blood 1997. [DOI: 10.1182/blood.v89.1.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 393] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
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46
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Dailey TA, Dailey HA. Expression, purification, and characteristics of mammalian protoporphyrinogen oxidase. Methods Enzymol 1997; 281:340-9. [PMID: 9250999 DOI: 10.1016/s0076-6879(97)81041-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- T A Dailey
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens 30602-7229, USA
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47
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Tissue-Specific Regulation of Iron Metabolism and Heme Synthesis: Distinct Control Mechanisms in Erythroid Cells. Blood 1997. [DOI: 10.1182/blood.v89.1.1.1_1_25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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48
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Dailey HA, Dailey TA. Protoporphyrinogen oxidase of Myxococcus xanthus. Expression, purification, and characterization of the cloned enzyme. J Biol Chem 1996; 271:8714-8. [PMID: 8621504 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.271.15.8714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Protoporphyrinogen oxidase (EC 1.3.3.4) catalyzes the six electron oxidation of protoporphyrinogen IX to protoporphyrin IX. The enzyme from the bacterium Myxococcus xanthus has been cloned, expressed, purified, and characterized. The protein has been expressed in Escherichia coli using a Tac promoter-driven expression plasmid and purified to apparent homogeneity in a rapid procedure that yields approximately 10 mg of purified protein per liter of culture. Based upon the deduced amino acid sequence the molecular weight of a single subunit is 49,387. Gel permeation chromatography in the presence of 0.2% n-octyl-beta-D-glucopyranoside yields a molecular weight of approximately 100,000 while SDS gel electrophoresis shows a single band at 50,000. The native enzyme is, thus, a homodimer. The purified protein contains a non-covalently bound FAD but no detectable redox active metal. The M. xanthus enzyme utilizes protoporphyrinogen IX, but not coproporphyrinogen III, as substrate and produces 3 mol of H2O2/mol of protoporphyrin. The apparent Km and kcat for protoporphyrinogen in assays under atmospheric concentrations of oxygen are 1.6 microM and 5.2 min-1, respectively. The diphenyl ether herbicide acifluorfen at 1 microM strongly inhibits the enzyme's activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- H A Dailey
- Department of Microbiology, University of Georgia, Athens, 30602-2605, USA
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Camadro JM, Labbe P. Cloning and characterization of the yeast HEM14 gene coding for protoporphyrinogen oxidase, the molecular target of diphenyl ether-type herbicides. J Biol Chem 1996; 271:9120-8. [PMID: 8621563 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.271.15.9120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Protoporphyrinogen oxidase, which catalyzes the oxygen-dependent aromatization of protoporphyrinogen IX to protoporphyrin IX, is the molecular target of diphenyl ether type herbicides. The structural gene for the yeast protoporphyrinogen oxidase, HEM14, was isolated by functional complementation of a hem14-1 protoporphyrinogen oxidase-deficient yeast mutant, using a novel one-step colored screening procedure to identify heme-synthesizing cells. The hem14-1 mutation was genetically linked to URA3, a marker on chromosome V, and HEM14 was physically mapped on the right arm of this chromosome, between PRP22 and FAA2. Disruption of the HEM14 gene leads to protoporphyrinogen oxidase deficiency in vivo (heme deficiency and accumulation of heme precursors), and in vitro (lack of immunodetectable protein or enzyme activity). The HEM14 gene encodes a 539-amino acid protein (59,665 Da; pI 9.3) containing an ADP- beta alpha beta-binding fold similar to those of several other flavoproteins. Yeast protoporphyrinogen oxidase was somewhat similar to the HemY gene product of Bacillus subtilis and to the human and mouse protoporphyrinogen oxidases. Studies on protoporphyrinogen oxidase overexpressed in yeast and purified as wild-type enzyme showed that (i) the NH2-terminal mitochondrial targeting sequence of protoporphyrinogen oxidase is not cleaved during importation; (ii) the enzyme, as purified, had a typical flavin semiquinone absorption spectrum; and (iii) the enzyme was strongly inhibited by diphenyl ether-type herbicides and readily photolabeled by a diazoketone derivative of tritiated acifluorfen. The mutant allele hem14-1 contains two mutations, L422P and K424E, responsible for the inactive enzyme. Both mutations introduced independently in the wild-type HEM14 gene completely inactivated the protein when analyzed in an Escherichia coli expression system.
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Affiliation(s)
- J M Camadro
- Laboratoire de Biochimie des Porphyrines, Département de Microbiologie, Institut Jacques Monod, 2 Place Jussieu, F-75251 Paris Cedex 05, France
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Dailey TA, Dailey HA. Human protoporphyrinogen oxidase: expression, purification, and characterization of the cloned enzyme. Protein Sci 1996; 5:98-105. [PMID: 8771201 PMCID: PMC2143237 DOI: 10.1002/pro.5560050112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Protoporphyrinogen oxidase (E.C.1.3.3.4) catalyzes the oxygen-dependent oxidation of protoporphyrinogen IX to protoporphyrin IX. The enzyme from human placenta has been cloned, sequenced, expressed in Escherichia coli, purified to homogeneity, and characterized. Northern blot analysis of eight different human tissues show evidence for only a single transcript in all tissue types and the size of this transcript is approximately 1.8 kb. The human cDNA has been inserted into an expression vector for E. coli and the protein produced at high levels in these cells. The protein is found in both membrane and cytoplasmic fractions. The enzyme was purified to homogeneity in the presence of detergents using a metal chelate affinity column. The purified protein is a homodimer composed of subunits of molecular weight of 51,000. The enzyme contains one noncovalently bound FAD per dimer, has a monomer extinction coefficient of 48,000 at 270 nm and contains no detectable redox active metals. The apparent K(m) and Kcat for protoporphyrinogen IX are 1.7 microM and 10.5 min-1, respectively. The enzyme does not use coproporphyrinogen III as a substrate and is inhibited by micromolar concentrations of the herbicide acifluorfen. Protein database searches reveal significant homology between protoporphyrinogen oxidase and monoamine oxidase.
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Affiliation(s)
- T A Dailey
- Department of Microbiology, University of Georgia, Athens 30602-2605, USA.
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