The regulation of the phosphorylation of inositol 1,3,4-trisphosphate in cell-free preparations and its relevance to the formation of inositol 1,3,4,6-tetrakisphosphate in agonist-stimulated rat parotid acinar cells

Structural and catalytic analyses of the InsP6 kinase activities of higher plant ITPKs

Inositol phosphate signaling in plants is of substantial agricultural interest, with a considerable focus on the inositol tris/tetrakisphosphate kinase (ITPK) family of inositol phosphate kinases. Historically, the 4-6 isoforms of ITPKs that higher plants each express have been studied for their multiplexing a metabolic pathway to synthesize inositol hexakisphosphate (ie InsP6 or phytate), through the phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of multiple inositol phosphates, including Ins(1,3,4,5,6)P5 (inositol-1,3,4,5,6-pentakisphosphate). A more recent discovery is ITPK-catalyzed phosphorylation of InsP6 to inositol pyrophosphates, which regulate plant immunity and phosphate homeostasis. However, a molecular-based explanation for these alternate catalytic activities has been missing, because no plant ITPK structure has previously been solved. Herein, we provide biochemical and structural analyses of ITPKs from Zea mays and Glycine max. For this work we introduce a simple, enzyme-coupled microplate-based assay of InsP6  kinase activity that should promote more general access to this important field. Furthermore, a ZmITPK1/InsP6 crystal complex is described at a resolution of 2.6 Å, which identifies a number of catalytically important residues; their functionality is confirmed by mutagenesis. We further demonstrate that ZmITPK1 adds a β-phosphate to the 3-position of Ins(1,2,3,4,5)P5 , yielding a candidate signal for regulating phosphate homeostasis. An impactful discovery is our description of a 29-residue catalytic specificity element; by interchanging this element between GmITPK1 and GmITPK2, we demonstrate how its isoform-specific sequence specifically determines whether the host protein phosphorylates InsP6 , without substantially affecting Ins(1,3,4,5,6)P5  metabolism. Our structural rationalization of key catalytic differences between alternate ITPK isoforms will complement future research into their functional diversity.

Importance of Radioactive Labelling to Elucidate Inositol Polyphosphate Signalling

Inositol polyphosphates, in their water-soluble or lipid-bound forms, represent a large and multifaceted family of signalling molecules. Some inositol polyphosphates are well recognised as defining important signal transduction pathways, as in the case of the calcium release factor Ins(1,4,5)P₃, generated by receptor activation-induced hydrolysis of the lipid PtdIns(4,5)P₂ by phospholipase C. The birth of inositol polyphosphate research would not have occurred without the use of radioactive phosphate tracers that enabled the discovery of the “PI response”. Radioactive labels, mainly of phosphorus but also carbon and hydrogen (tritium), have been instrumental in the development of this research field and the establishment of the inositol polyphosphates as one of the most important networks of regulatory molecules present in eukaryotic cells. Advancements in microscopy and mass spectrometry and the development of colorimetric assays have facilitated inositol polyphosphate research, but have not eliminated the need for radioactive experimental approaches. In fact, such experiments have become easier with the cloning of the inositol polyphosphate kinases, enabling the systematic labelling of specific positions of the inositol ring with radioactive phosphate. This approach has been valuable for elucidating their metabolic pathways and identifying specific and novel functions for inositol polyphosphates. For example, the synthesis of radiolabelled inositol pyrophosphates has allowed the discovery of a new protein post-translational modification. Therefore, radioactive tracers have played and will continue to play an important role in dissecting the many complex aspects of inositol polyphosphate physiology. In this review we aim to highlight the historical importance of radioactivity in inositol polyphosphate research, as well as its modern usage.

HPLC separation of inositol polyphosphates

High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) is an essential analytical tool in the study of the large number of inositol phosphate isomers. This chapter focuses on the separation of inositol polyphosphates from [(3)H]myo-inositol labeled tissues and cells. We review the different HPLC columns that have been used to separate inositol phosphates and their advantages and disadvantages. We describe important elements of sample preparation for effective separations and give examples of how changing factors, such as pH, can considerably improve the resolving ability of the HPLC chromatogram.

Inositol polyphosphate multikinase regulates inositol 1,4,5,6-tetrakisphosphate

The human inositol phosphate multikinase (IPMK, 5-kinase) has a preferred 5-kinase activity over 3-kinase and 6-kinase activities and a substrate preference for inositol 1,3,4,6-tetrakisphosphate (Ins(1,3,4,6)P4) over inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (Ins(1,4,5)P3) and inositol 1,3,4,5-tetrakisphosphate (Ins(1,3,4,5)P4). We now report that the recombinant human protein can catalyze the conversion of inositol 1,4,5,6-tetrakisphosphate (Ins(1,4,5,6)P4) to Ins(1,3,4,5,6)P5 in vitro; the reaction product was identified by HPLC to be Ins(1,3,4,5,6)P5. The apparent Vmax was 42 nmol of Ins(1,3,4,5,6)P5 formed/min/mg protein, and the apparent Km was 222 nM using Ins(1,3,4,6)P4 as a substrate; the catalytic efficiency was similar to that for Ins(1,4,5)P3. Stable over-expression of the human protein in HEK-293 cells abrogates the in vivo elevation of Ins(1,4,5,6)P4 from the Salmonella dublin SopB protein. Hence, the human 5-kinase may also regulate the level of Ins(1,4,5,6)P4 and have an effect on chloride channel regulation.

The pathway for the production of inositol hexakisphosphate in human cells

The yeast and Drosophila pathways leading to the production of inositol hexakisphosphate (InsP(6)) have been elucidated recently. The in vivo pathway in humans has been assumed to be similar. Here we show that overexpression of Ins(1,3,4)P(3) 5/6-kinase in human cell lines results in an increase of inositol tetrakisphosphate (InsP(4)) isomers, inositol pentakisphosphate (InsP(5)) and InsP(6), whereas its depletion by RNA interference decreases the amounts of these inositol phosphates. Expression of Ins(1,3,4,6)P(4) 5-kinase does not increase the amount of InsP(5) and InsP(6), although its depletion does block InsP(5) and InsP(6) production, showing that it is necessary for production of InsP(5) and InsP(6). Expression of Ins(1,3,4,5,6)P(5) 2-kinase increases the amount of InsP(6) by depleting the InsP(5) in the cell, and depletion of 2-kinase decreases the amount of InsP(6) and causes an increase in InsP(5). These results are consistent with a pathway that produces InsP(6) through the sequential action of Ins(1,3,4)P(3) 5/6-kinase, Ins(1,3,4,6)P(4) 5-kinase, and Ins(1,3,4,5,6)P5 2-kinase to convert Ins(1,3,4)P(3) to InsP(6). Furthermore, the evidence implicates 5/6-kinase as the rate-limiting enzyme in this pathway.

The human homolog of the rat inositol phosphate multikinase is an inositol 1,3,4,6-tetrakisphosphate 5-kinase

We have demonstrated that the human homolog of the rat inositol phosphate multikinase is an inositol 1,3,4,6-tetrakisphosphate 5-kinase (InsP(4) 5-kinase). The cDNA of the human gene contained a putative open reading frame of 1251 bp encoding 416 amino acids with 83.6% identity compared with the rat protein. The substrate specificity of the recombinant human protein demonstrated preference for Ins(1,3,4,6)P(4) with a catalytic efficiency (V(max)/K(m)) 43-fold greater than that of Ins(1,3,4,5)P(4) and 2-fold greater than that of Ins(1,4,5)P(3). The apparent V(max) was 114 nmol of Ins(1,3,4,5,6)P(5) formed/min/mg of protein, and the apparent K(m) was 0.3 microm Ins(1,3,4,6)P(4). The functional homolog in yeast is Ipk2p, and ipk2-null yeast strains do not synthesize Ins(1,3,4,5,6)P(5) or InsP(6). Synthesis of these compounds was restored by transformation with wild-type yeast IPK2 but not with human InsP(4) 5-kinase. Thus the human gene does not complement for the loss of the yeast gene because yeast cells do not contain the substrate Ins(1,3,4,6)P(4), and the reaction of the human protein with Ins(1,3,4,5)P(4) is insufficient to effect rescue or synthesis of InsP(5) and InsP(6). Therefore the major activity of human InsP(4) 5-kinase is phosphorylation at the D-5 position, and the pathways for synthesis of Ins(1,3,4,5,6)P(5) in yeast versus humans are different.

Inositol 1,3,4-trisphosphate 5/6-kinase is a protein kinase that phosphorylates the transcription factors c-Jun and ATF-2

Phosphorylation of inositol 1,3,4-trisphosphate by inositol 1,3,4-trisphosphate 5/6-kinase is the first committed step in the formation of higher phosphorylated forms of inositol. We have shown that the eight proteins called the COP9 signalosome complex copurify with calf brain 5/6-kinase. Because the complex has been shown to phosphorylate c-Jun in vitro, we tested both the complex and 5/6-kinase and found that both are able to phosphorylate c-Jun and ATF-2 on serine/threonine residues. These findings establish a link between two major signal transduction systems: the inositol phosphates and the stress response system.

Expanding coincident signaling by PTEN through its inositol 1,3,4,5,6-pentakisphosphate 3-phosphatase activity

PTEN, a tumor suppressor among the most commonly mutated proteins in human cancer, is recognized to be both a protein phosphatase and a phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-trisphosphate (PtdIns(3,4,5)P(3)) 3-phosphatase. Previous work [Maehama and Dixon, J. Biol. Chem. 273 (1998) 13375-13378] has led to a consensus that inositol phosphates are not physiologically relevant substrates for PTEN. In contrast, we demonstrate that PTEN is an active inositol 1,3,4,5,6-pentakisphosphate (Ins(1,3,4,5,6)P(5)) 3-phosphatase when expressed and purified from bacteria or HEK cells. Kinetic data indicate Ins(1,3,4,5,6)P(5) (K(m)=7.1 microM) and PtdIns(3,4,5)P(3) (K(m)=26 microM) compete for PTEN in vivo. Transient transfection of HEK cells with PTEN decreased Ins(1,3,4,5,6)P(5) levels. We discuss the physiological significance of these studies in relation to recent work showing that dephosphorylation of Ins(1,3,4,5,6)P(5) to inositol 1,4,5,6-tetrakisphosphate is a cell signaling event.

Differential effects of apical and basolateral uridine triphosphate on intestinal epithelial chloride secretion

Our goal was to examine the sidedness of effects of the purinergic agonist, uridine 5'-triphosphate (UTP), on Cl(-) secretion in intestinal epithelial cells. We hypothesized that UTP might exert both stimulatory and inhibitory effects. All studies were conducted with T84 intestinal epithelial cells. UTP induced Cl(-) secretion in a concentration-dependent fashion. Responses to serosally added UTP were smaller and more transient than those evoked by mucosal addition, but there was no evidence that mucosal responses involved cAMP-dependent mechanisms. Pretreatment with serosal UTP inhibited subsequent Ca(2+)-dependent Cl(-) secretion induced by carbachol or thapsigargin, or secretion induced by mucosal UTP, in a manner that was reversed by a tyrosine kinase inhibitor. The inhibitory effect of serosal UTP on Cl(-) secretion was not additive with that of carbachol, known to exert its inhibitory effects through the tyrosine kinase-dependent generation of inositol 3,4,5,6-tetrakisphosphate [Ins(3,4,5,6)P(4)]. Moreover, responses to both serosal and mucosal UTP were reduced by prior treatment of T84 cells with carbachol. Finally, serosal, but not mucosal, UTP evoked an increase in Ins(3,4,5,6)P(4). We conclude that different signaling mechanisms lie downstream of apical and basolateral UTP receptors in epithelial cells, at least in the intestine. These differences may be relevant to the use of UTP as a therapy in cystic fibrosis.

The inositol hexakisphosphate kinase family. Catalytic flexibility and function in yeast vacuole biogenesis

Saiardi et al. (Saiardi, A., Erdjument-Bromage, H., Snowman, A., Tempst, P., and Snyder, S. H. (1999) Curr. Biol. 9, 1323-1326) previously described the cloning of a kinase from yeast and two kinases from mammals (types 1 and 2), which phosphorylate inositol hexakisphosphate (InsP(6)) to diphosphoinositol pentakisphosphate, a "high energy" candidate regulator of cellular trafficking. We have now studied the significance of InsP(6) kinase activity in Saccharomyces cerevisiae by disrupting the kinase gene. These ip6kDelta cells grew more slowly, their levels of diphosphoinositol polyphosphates were 60-80% lower than wild-type cells, and the cells contained abnormally small and fragmented vacuoles. Novel activities of the mammalian and yeast InsP(6) kinases were identified; inositol pentakisphosphate (InsP(5)) was phosphorylated to diphosphoinositol tetrakisphosphate (PP-InsP(4)), which was further metabolized to a novel compound, tentatively identified as bis-diphosphoinositol trisphosphate. The latter is a new substrate for human diphosphoinositol polyphosphate phosphohydrolase. Kinetic parameters for the mammalian type 1 kinase indicate that InsP(5) (K(m) = 1.2 micrometer) and InsP(6) (K(m) = 6.7 micrometer) compete for phosphorylation in vivo. This is the first time a PP-InsP(4) synthase has been identified. The mammalian type 2 kinase and the yeast kinase are more specialized for the phosphorylation of InsP(6). Synthesis of the diphosphorylated inositol phosphates is thus revealed to be more complex and interdependent than previously envisaged.

Inositol tetrakisphosphate as a frequency regulator in calcium oscillations in HeLa cells

Cellular signaling mediated by inositol (1,4,5)trisphosphate (Ins(1, 4,5)P(3)) results in oscillatory intracellular calcium (Ca(2+)) release. Because the amplitude of the Ca(2+) spikes is relatively invariant, the extent of the agonist-mediated effects must reside in their ability to regulate the oscillating frequency. Using electroporation techniques, we show that Ins(1,4,5)P(3), Ins(1,3,4, 5)P(4), and Ins(1,3,4,6)P(4) cause a rapid intracellular Ca(2+) release in resting HeLa cells and a transient increase in the frequency of ongoing Ca(2+) oscillations stimulated by histamine. Two poorly metabolizable analogs of Ins(1,4,5)P(3), Ins(2,4,5)P(3), and 2,3-dideoxy-Ins(1,4,5)P(3), gave a single Ca(2+) spike and failed to alter the frequency of ongoing oscillations. Complete inhibition of Ins(1,4,5)P(3) 3-kinase (IP3K) by either adriamycin or its specific antibody blocked Ca(2+) oscillations. Partial inhibition of IP3K causes a significant reduction in frequency. Taken together, our results indicate that Ins(1,3,4,5)P(4) is the frequency regulator in vivo, and IP3K, which phosphorylates Ins(1,4, 5)P(3) to Ins(1,3,4,5)P(4), plays a major regulatory role in intracellular Ca(2+) oscillations.

Inositol polyphosphate multikinase (ArgRIII) determines nuclear mRNA export in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The ARGRIII gene of Saccharomyces cerevisiae encodes a transcriptional regulator that also has inositol polyphosphate multikinase (ipmk) activity [Saiardi et al. (1999) Curr. Biol. 9, 1323-1326]. To investigate how inositol phosphates regulate gene expression, we disrupted the ARGRIII gene. This mutation impaired nuclear mRNA export, slowed cell growth, increased cellular [InsP(3)] 170-fold and decreased [InsP(6)] 100-fold, indicating reduced phosphorylation of InsP(3) to InsP(6). Levels of diphosphoinositol polyphosphates were decreased much less dramatically than was InsP(6). Low levels of InsP(6), and considerable quantities of Ins(1,3,4,5)P(4), were synthesized by an ipmk-independent route. Transcriptional control by ipmk reflects that it is a pivotal regulator of nuclear mRNA export via inositol phosphate metabolism.

The versatility of inositol phosphates as cellular signals

Cells from across the phylogenetic spectrum contain a variety of inositol phosphates. Many different functions have been ascribed to this group of compounds. However, it is remarkable how frequently several of these different inositol phosphates have been linked to various aspects of signal transduction. Therefore, this review assesses the evidence that inositol phosphates have evolved into a versatile family of second messengers.

Properties of the inositol 3,4,5,6-tetrakisphosphate 1-kinase purified from rat liver. Regulation of enzyme activity by inositol 1,3,4-trisphosphate

Inositol 3,4,5,6-tetrakisphosphate is a novel intracellular signal that regulates calcium-dependent chloride conductance (Xie, W., Kaetzel, M. A., Bruzik, K. S., Dedman, J. R., Shears, S. B., and Nelson, D. J. (1996) J. Biol. Chem. 271, 14092-14097). The molecular mechanisms that regulate the cellular levels of this signal are not characterized. To pursue this problem we have now studied the 1-kinase that deactivates inositol 3,4,5,6-tetrakisphosphate. The enzyme was purified from rat liver 1600-fold with a 1% yield. The native molecular mass was determined to be 46 kDa by gel filtration. The Km values for inositol 3,4,5,6-tetrakisphosphate and ATP were 0. 3 and 10.6 microM, respectively. The kinase was unaffected by either protein kinase A or protein kinase C. Increases in Ca2+ concentration from 0.1 to 1-2 microM inhibited activity by 10-20%. Most importantly, inositol 1,3,4-trisphosphate was shown to be a potent (Ki = 0.2 microM), specific, and competitive inhibitor of the 1-kinase. Our new kinetic data show that typical receptor-dependent adjustments in cellular levels of inositol 1,3,4-trisphosphate provide a mechanism by which the concentration of inositol 3,4,5,6-tetrakisphosphate is dependent on changes in phospholipase C activity. These conclusions also provide a new perspective to our understanding of the physiological importance of the pathway of inositol phosphate turnover initiated by the inositol 1,4, 5-trisphosphate 3-kinase.

Isolation of inositol 1,3,4-trisphosphate 5/6-kinase, cDNA cloning and expression of the recombinant enzyme

Inositol 1,3,4-trisphosphate 5/6-kinase was purified 12,900-fold from calf brain using chromatography on heparin-agarose and affinity elution with inositol hexakisphosphate. The final preparation contained proteins of 48 and 36-38 kDa. All of these proteins had the same amino-terminal sequence and were enzymatically active. The smaller species represent proteolysis products with carboxyl-terminal truncation. The Km of the enzyme for inositol 1,3,4-trisphosphate was 80 nM with a Vmax of 60 nmol of product/min/mg of protein. The amino acid sequence of the tryptic peptide HSKLLARPAGGLVGERTCNAXP matched the protein sequence encoded by a human expressed sequence tag clone (GB T09063) at 16 of 22 residues. The expressed sequence tag clone was used to screen a human fetal brain cDNA library to obtain a cDNA clone of 1991 base pairs (bp) that predicts a protein of 46 kDa. The clone encodes the amino-terminal amino acid sequence obtained from the purified calf brain preparation, suggesting that it represents its human homologue. The cDNA was expressed as a fusion protein in Escherichia coli and was found to have inositol 1,3,4-trisphosphate 5/6-kinase activity. Remarkably, both the purified calf brain and recombinant proteins produced both inositol 1,3,4,6-tetrakisphosphate and inositol 1,3,4,5-tetrakisphosphate as products in a ratio of 2.3-5:1. This finding proves that a single kinase phosphorylates inositol in both the D5 and D6 positions. Northern blot analysis identified a transcript of 3.6 kilobases in all tissues with the highest levels in brain. The composite cDNA isolated contains 3054 bp with a poly(A) tail, suggesting that 500-600 bp of 5' sequence remains to be identified.

Protein kinase C activity does not mediate the inhibitory effect of carbachol on chloride secretion by T84 cells

Carbachol induces calcium-dependent chloride secretion and activates protein kinase C in T84 cells. However, prolonged stimulation with carbachol or direct activation of protein kinase C inhibits subsequent calcium-dependent chloride secretion. Furthermore, the ability of carbachol to elevate inositol tetrakisphosphate levels may be linked to inhibition of chloride secretion. Here we demonstrate that protein kinase C activation increases levels of inositol tetrakisphosphates (1,3,4,6- and 3,4,5,6-isomers) in T84 colonic epithelia. Furthermore, this corresponds to an inhibition of chloride secretion. However, protein kinase C is unlikely to mediate the analogous effects of carbachol. Neither the ability of carbachol to inhibit calcium-dependent chloride secretion nor its effects on inositol 3,4,5,6-tetrakisphosphate levels were reversed by staurosporine. Carbachol also has quantitatively and qualitatively different effects on inositol tetrakisphosphate isomers than protein kinase C activators. Thus protein kinase C activity can increase levels of various inositol tetrakisphosphate isomers within T84 cells but does not mediate carbachol-induced increases in these putative messengers. These data further support the hypothesis that inositol 3,4,5,6-tetrakisphosphate is a negative second messenger, uncoupling epithelial chloride secretion from changes in intracellular calcium.

Inhibition of porcine brain inositol 1,3,4-trisphosphate kinase by inositol polyphosphates, other polyol phosphates, polyanions and polycations

We have partially purified an enzyme activity that phosphorylates inositol 1,3,4-trisphosphate from porcine brain, rat liver and bovine testis by FPLC chromatography on Q-Sepharose anion-exchange resin and Heparin-agarose. The products of this reaction were inositol 1,3,4,6-tetrakisphosphate and inositol 1,3,4,5-tetrakisphosphate. The same enzyme appears to be responsible for both 6-kinase and 5-kinase activities against inositol 1,3,4-trisphosphate (the 6-kinase: 5-kinase activity ratio is approximately 4 to 1), has a pH optimum of approximately 6.8 and requires Mg2+ for activity. The Km values of the enzyme for inositol 1,3,4-trisphosphate and ATP were approximately 0.5 microM and approximately 100 microM, respectively. Inositol 3,4,5,6-tetrakisphosphate, inositol 1,3,4,6-tetrakisphosphate and inositol 1,3,4,5-tetrakisphosphate are all competitive inhibitors with K(i) values of 0.4 microM, 3 microM and 5 microM, respectively, well within their likely intracellular concentration ranges: they inhibited 6-kinase and 5-kinase activities equally. 2,3-Bisphosphoglycerate and spermine were also competitive inhibitors, with K(i) values of 0.8 mM an 12 mM, respectively. Dextran sulphate was a non-competitive inhibitor with a Ki of approximately 15 microM, and poly-L-lysine (IC50 approximately 200 microM), polyvinylsulphate (IC50 approximately 250 microM) and heparin (IC50 approximately 2 mg/ml) also inhibited. Inhibition by these compounds suggests that inositol 3,4,5,6-tetrakisphosphate (and to a lesser extent inositol 1,3,4,5-tetrakisphosphate and other naturally occurring intracellular ions) may restrict the synthesis of inositol 1,3,4,6-tetrakisphosphate and hence regulate the rate of inositol penta- and hexakisphosphate synthesis from receptor-generated inositol phosphates.

Myo-inositol 1,3,4,5-tetrakisphosphate can independently mobilise intracellular calcium, via the inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor: studies with myo-inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-3-phosphorothioate and myo-inositol hexakisphosphate

Myo-inositol 1,3,4,5-tetrakisphosphate [Ins(1,3,4,5)P4] acts as a full agonist for Ca2+ release in saponin-permeabilised SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells. Studies were conducted in the presence of myo-inositol hexakisphosphate (InsP6, 10 microM), to inhibit the Ins(1,3,4,5)P(4)-3-phosphatase catalysed back conversion of Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 to Ins(1,4,5)P3. HPLC analysis confirmed that Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 releases the entire content of Ins(1,4,5)P3-sensitive intracellular Ca2+ stores, independent of 3-phosphatase activity. Further we utilised racemic myo-inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-3-phosphorothioate [DL-Ins(1,3,4,5)P(4)-3S], a novel intrinsically Ins(1,3,4,5)P(4)-3-phosphatase resistant Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 analogue. DL-Ins(1,3,4,5)P(4)-3S specifically displaced [3H]Ins(1,4,5)P3 from bovine adrenal cortex Ins(1,4,5)P3 binding sites (IC50 = 889 nM, compared to Ins(1,4,5)P3, IC50 = 4.4 nM and Ins(1,3,4,5)P4, IC50 = 152 nM). DL-Ins(1,3,4,5)P(4)-3S was a full agonist for Ca2+ release (EC50 = 4.7 microM), being 90- and 2-fold less potent than Ins(1,4,5)P3 and Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 (with InsP6), respectively. DL-Ins(1,3,4,5)P(4)-3S will be an important tool for identification of potentially exclusive Ins(1,3,4,5)P4 second messenger functions, since its resistance to 3-phosphatase action precludes the inconvenient artefact of steady state Ins(1,4,5)P3 generation.

Inositol phosphates and cell signaling: new views of InsP5 and InsP6

Ins(1,3,4,5,6)P5 and InsP6 comprise the bulk of the inositol phosphate content of mammalian cells, but their intracellular functions are unknown. Until recently it seemed that these compounds were metabolically lethargic; this has diverted attention away from their possible role in short-term regulation of physiological processes. Interest in the idea that these polyphosphates play more dynamic roles is now increasing, following recent demonstrations that they are precursors of several inositol phosphates that turnover rapidly.

Effects of high extracellular calcium concentrations on phosphoinositide turnover and inositol phosphate metabolism in dispersed bovine parathyroid cells

We previously showed that high extracellular calcium (Ca2+) concentrations raise the levels of inositol phosphates in bovine parathyroid cells, presumably via the G protein-coupled, "receptor-like" mechanism through which Ca2+ is thought to regulate these cells. To date, however, there are limited data showing Ca(2+)-evoked hydrolysis of phosphoinositides with attendant increases in the levels of the biologically active 1,4,5 isomer of inositol trisphosphate (IP3) that would be predicted to arise from such a receptor-mediated process. In the present studies we used HPLC and TLC, respectively, to quantify the high Ca(2+)-induced changes in various inositol phosphates, including the isomers of IP3, and phosphoinositides in bovine parathyroid cells prelabeled with [3H]inositol. In the absence of lithium, high Ca2+ dose dependently elevated the levels of inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate [I(1,4,5)P3], with a maximal, 4- to 5-fold increase within 5 s; the levels of inositol 1,3,4-trisphosphate [I(1,3,4)P3] first rose significantly at 5-10 s and remained 5- to 10-fold elevated for at least 30 minutes. These changes were accompanied by reciprocal 29-36% decreases in PIP2 (within 5-10 s, the earliest time points examined), PIP (within 60 s), and PI (within 60 s). These results document that, as in other cells responding to more classic "Ca(2+)-mobilizing" hormones, the high Ca(2+)-evoked increases in inositol phosphates in bovine parathyroid cells arise from the hydrolysis of phosphoinositides, leading to the rapid accumulation of the active isomer of IP3. The latter presumably underlies the concomitant spike in the cytosolic calcium concentration (Ca(i)) in parathyroid cells.

Regulation of the metabolism of 1,2-diacylglycerols and inositol phosphates that respond to receptor activation

This review assimilates information on the regulation of the metabolism of those inositol phosphates and diacylglycerols that respond to receptor activation. Particular emphasis is placed on the regulation of specific enzymes, the occurrence of isoenzymes, and metabolic compartmentalization; the overall aim is to demonstrate the significance of these activities in relation to the physiological impact of the various cell signalling processes.