1
|
Giovarelli M, Serati A, Zecchini S, Guelfi F, Clementi E, Mandò C. Cryopreserved placental biopsies maintain mitochondrial activity for high-resolution respirometry. Mol Med 2023; 29:45. [PMID: 37013473 PMCID: PMC10069067 DOI: 10.1186/s10020-023-00645-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2022] [Accepted: 03/23/2023] [Indexed: 04/05/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND High-resolution respirometry (HRR) of human biopsies can provide useful metabolic, diagnostic, and mechanistic insights for clinical research and comparative medical studies. Fresh tissues analysis offers the potential best condition, the drawback being the need to use them shortly after dissection for mitochondrial respiratory experiments. The development of effective long-term storage protocols for biopsies that allow the assessment of key Electron Transport System (ETS) parameters at later stages is thus a major need. METHODS We optimised a cryopreservation protocol that preserves mitochondrial membranes intactness, otherwise affected by direct tissue freezing. The protocol is based on a gradual freezing step from on-ice to liquid nitrogen and - 80 °C storage using a specific DMSO-based buffer. RESULTS Placenta is a suitable tissue to design and test the effectiveness of long-term storage protocols being metabolically active foetal tissue with mitochondrial dysfunctions contributing to placental disease and gestational disorders. Here we designed and tested the effectiveness of the cryopreservation protocol using human placenta biopsies; we measured the ETS activity by HRR of placenta specimens comparing fresh, cryopreserved, and snap frozen conditions. CONCLUSIONS By this protocol, Oxygen Consumption Rate (OCR) measurements of fresh and cryopreserved placental specimens are comparable whereas snap frozen procedure impairs mitochondrial activity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matteo Giovarelli
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Università Degli Studi Di Milano, Via G.B. Grassi 74, 20157, Milan, Italy.
| | - Anais Serati
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Università Degli Studi Di Milano, Via G.B. Grassi 74, 20157, Milan, Italy
| | - Silvia Zecchini
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Università Degli Studi Di Milano, Via G.B. Grassi 74, 20157, Milan, Italy
| | - Fabiola Guelfi
- Department of Woman Mother and Neonate 'V. Buzzi' Children Hospital, ASST Fatebenefratelli Sacco, 20154, Milan, Italy
| | - Emilio Clementi
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Università Degli Studi Di Milano, Via G.B. Grassi 74, 20157, Milan, Italy
- Scientific Institute, IRCCS Eugenio Medea, Via Don Luigi Monza 20, 23842, Bosisio Parini, Italy
| | - Chiara Mandò
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Università Degli Studi Di Milano, Via G.B. Grassi 74, 20157, Milan, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Giovarelli M, Zecchini S, Catarinella G, Moscheni C, Sartori P, Barbieri C, Roux-Biejat P, Napoli A, Vantaggiato C, Cervia D, Perrotta C, Clementi E, Latella L, De Palma C. Givinostat as metabolic enhancer reverting mitochondrial biogenesis deficit in Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy. Pharmacol Res 2021; 170:105751. [PMID: 34197911 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2021.105751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2021] [Revised: 06/11/2021] [Accepted: 06/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD) is a rare disorder characterized by progressive muscle wasting, weakness, and premature death. Remarkable progress has been made in genetic approaches, restoring dystrophin, or its function. However, the targeting of secondary pathological mechanisms, such as increasing muscle blood flow or stopping fibrosis, remains important to improve the therapeutic benefits, that depend on tackling both the genetic disease and the downstream consequences. Mitochondrial dysfunctions are one of the earliest deficits in DMD, arise from multiple cellular stressors and result in less than 50% of ATP content in dystrophic muscles. Here we establish that there are two temporally distinct phases of mitochondrial damage with depletion of mitochondrial mass at early stages and an accumulation of dysfunctional mitochondria at later stages, leading to a different oxidative fibers pattern, in young and adult mdx mice. We also observe a progressive mitochondrial biogenesis impairment associated with increased deacetylation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma coactivator 1 α (PGC-1α) promoter. Such histone deacetylation is inhibited by givinostat that positively modifies the epigenetic profile of PGC-1α promoter, sustaining mitochondrial biogenesis and oxidative fiber type switch. We, therefore, demonstrate that givinostat exerts relevant effects at mitochondrial level, acting as a metabolic remodeling agent capable of efficiently promoting mitochondrial biogenesis in dystrophic muscle.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- Acetylation
- Animals
- Carbamates/pharmacology
- Disease Models, Animal
- Energy Metabolism/drug effects
- Epigenesis, Genetic
- Histone Deacetylase Inhibitors/pharmacology
- Mice, Inbred mdx
- Mitochondria, Muscle/drug effects
- Mitochondria, Muscle/metabolism
- Mitochondria, Muscle/pathology
- Muscle, Skeletal/drug effects
- Muscle, Skeletal/metabolism
- Muscle, Skeletal/pathology
- Muscular Dystrophy, Duchenne/drug therapy
- Muscular Dystrophy, Duchenne/genetics
- Muscular Dystrophy, Duchenne/metabolism
- Muscular Dystrophy, Duchenne/pathology
- Organelle Biogenesis
- Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor Gamma Coactivator 1-alpha/genetics
- Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor Gamma Coactivator 1-alpha/metabolism
- Promoter Regions, Genetic
- Mice
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matteo Giovarelli
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences "Luigi Sacco" (DIBIC), Università degli Studi di Milano, via G.B. Grassi 74, 20157 Milan, Italy
| | - Silvia Zecchini
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences "Luigi Sacco" (DIBIC), Università degli Studi di Milano, via G.B. Grassi 74, 20157 Milan, Italy
| | - Giorgia Catarinella
- IRCCS, Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome 00142, Italy; DAHFMO, Unit of Histology and Medical Embryology, Sapienza, University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Claudia Moscheni
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences "Luigi Sacco" (DIBIC), Università degli Studi di Milano, via G.B. Grassi 74, 20157 Milan, Italy
| | - Patrizia Sartori
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, via Mangiagalli 31, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Cecilia Barbieri
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences "Luigi Sacco" (DIBIC), Università degli Studi di Milano, via G.B. Grassi 74, 20157 Milan, Italy
| | - Paulina Roux-Biejat
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences "Luigi Sacco" (DIBIC), Università degli Studi di Milano, via G.B. Grassi 74, 20157 Milan, Italy
| | - Alessandra Napoli
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences "Luigi Sacco" (DIBIC), Università degli Studi di Milano, via G.B. Grassi 74, 20157 Milan, Italy
| | - Chiara Vantaggiato
- Scientific Institute, IRCCS Eugenio Medea, Laboratory of Molecular Biology, via Don Luigi Monza 20, 23842 Bosisio Parini, Italy
| | - Davide Cervia
- Department for Innovation in Biological, Agro-food and Forest Systems (DIBAF), Università degli Studi della Tuscia, largo dell'Università snc, 01100 Viterbo, Italy
| | - Cristiana Perrotta
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences "Luigi Sacco" (DIBIC), Università degli Studi di Milano, via G.B. Grassi 74, 20157 Milan, Italy
| | - Emilio Clementi
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences "Luigi Sacco" (DIBIC), Università degli Studi di Milano, via G.B. Grassi 74, 20157 Milan, Italy; Scientific Institute, IRCCS Eugenio Medea, Laboratory of Molecular Biology, via Don Luigi Monza 20, 23842 Bosisio Parini, Italy
| | - Lucia Latella
- IRCCS, Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome 00142, Italy; Institute of Translational Pharmacology, National Research Council of Italy, Via Fosso del Cavaliere 100, Rome 00133, Italy
| | - Clara De Palma
- Department of Medical Biotechnology and Translational Medicine (BioMeTra), Università degli Studi di Milano, via L. Vanvitelli 32, 20129 Milan, Italy.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Schneider DJ, Smith KA, Latuszek CE, Wilke CA, Lyons DM, Penke LR, Speth JM, Marthi M, Swanson JA, Moore BB, Lauring AS, Peters‐Golden M. Alveolar macrophage-derived extracellular vesicles inhibit endosomal fusion of influenza virus. EMBO J 2020; 39:e105057. [PMID: 32643835 PMCID: PMC7429743 DOI: 10.15252/embj.2020105057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2020] [Revised: 06/05/2020] [Accepted: 06/15/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Alveolar macrophages (AMs) and epithelial cells (ECs) are the lone resident lung cells positioned to respond to pathogens at early stages of infection. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are important vectors of paracrine signaling implicated in a range of (patho)physiologic contexts. Here we demonstrate that AMs, but not ECs, constitutively secrete paracrine activity localized to EVs which inhibits influenza infection of ECs in vitro and in vivo. AMs exposed to cigarette smoke extract lost the inhibitory activity of their secreted EVs. Influenza strains varied in their susceptibility to inhibition by AM-EVs. Only those exhibiting early endosomal escape and high pH of fusion were inhibited via a reduction in endosomal pH. By contrast, strains exhibiting later endosomal escape and lower fusion pH proved resistant to inhibition. These results extend our understanding of how resident AMs participate in host defense and have broader implications in the defense and treatment of pathogens internalized within endosomes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Schneider
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care MedicineDepartment of Internal MedicineUniversity of Michigan Medical SchoolAnn ArborMIUSA
| | - Katherine A Smith
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care MedicineDepartment of Internal MedicineUniversity of Michigan Medical SchoolAnn ArborMIUSA
| | - Catrina E Latuszek
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care MedicineDepartment of Internal MedicineUniversity of Michigan Medical SchoolAnn ArborMIUSA
| | - Carol A Wilke
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care MedicineDepartment of Internal MedicineUniversity of Michigan Medical SchoolAnn ArborMIUSA
- Department of Microbiology and ImmunologyUniversity of Michigan Medical SchoolAnn ArborMIUSA
| | - Danny M Lyons
- Department of Microbiology and ImmunologyUniversity of Michigan Medical SchoolAnn ArborMIUSA
- Division of Infectious DiseaseDepartment of Internal MedicineUniversity of Michigan Medical SchoolAnn ArborMIUSA
| | - Loka R Penke
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care MedicineDepartment of Internal MedicineUniversity of Michigan Medical SchoolAnn ArborMIUSA
| | - Jennifer M Speth
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care MedicineDepartment of Internal MedicineUniversity of Michigan Medical SchoolAnn ArborMIUSA
| | - Matangi Marthi
- Department of Microbiology and ImmunologyUniversity of Michigan Medical SchoolAnn ArborMIUSA
| | - Joel A Swanson
- Department of Microbiology and ImmunologyUniversity of Michigan Medical SchoolAnn ArborMIUSA
| | - Bethany B Moore
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care MedicineDepartment of Internal MedicineUniversity of Michigan Medical SchoolAnn ArborMIUSA
- Department of Microbiology and ImmunologyUniversity of Michigan Medical SchoolAnn ArborMIUSA
- Graduate Program in ImmunologyUniversity of Michigan Medical SchoolAnn ArborMIUSA
| | - Adam S Lauring
- Department of Microbiology and ImmunologyUniversity of Michigan Medical SchoolAnn ArborMIUSA
- Division of Infectious DiseaseDepartment of Internal MedicineUniversity of Michigan Medical SchoolAnn ArborMIUSA
- Graduate Program in ImmunologyUniversity of Michigan Medical SchoolAnn ArborMIUSA
| | - Marc Peters‐Golden
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care MedicineDepartment of Internal MedicineUniversity of Michigan Medical SchoolAnn ArborMIUSA
- Graduate Program in ImmunologyUniversity of Michigan Medical SchoolAnn ArborMIUSA
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Geiser DL, Thai TN, Love MB, Winzerling JJ. Iron and Ferritin Deposition in the Ovarian Tissues of the Yellow Fever Mosquito (Diptera: Culicidae). JOURNAL OF INSECT SCIENCE (ONLINE) 2019; 19:5586715. [PMID: 31606748 PMCID: PMC6790249 DOI: 10.1093/jisesa/iez089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2019] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Dengue, yellow fever, and Zika are viruses transmitted by yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti [Linnaeus (Diptera: Culicidae)], to thousands of people each year. Mosquitoes transmit these viruses while consuming a blood meal that is required for oogenesis. Iron, an essential nutrient from the blood meal, is required for egg development. Mosquitoes receive a high iron load in the meal; although iron can be toxic, these animals have developed mechanisms for dealing with this load. Our previous research has shown iron from the blood meal is absorbed in the gut and transported by ferritin, the main iron transport and storage protein, to the ovaries. We now report the distribution of iron and ferritin in ovarian tissues before blood feeding and 24 and 72 h post-blood meal. Ovarian iron is observed in specific locations. Timing post-blood feeding influences the location and distribution of the ferritin heavy-chain homolog, light-chain homolog 1, and light-chain homolog 2 in ovaries. Understanding iron deposition in ovarian tissues is important to the potential use of interference in iron metabolism as a vector control strategy for reducing mosquito fecundity, decreasing mosquito populations, and thereby reducing transmission rates of vector-borne diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dawn L Geiser
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ
| | - Theresa N Thai
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ
| | - Maria B Love
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ
| | - Joy J Winzerling
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Ji J, Ramos-Vicente D, Navas-Pérez E, Herrera-Úbeda C, Lizcano JM, Garcia-Fernàndez J, Escrivà H, Bayés À, Roher N. Characterization of the TLR Family in Branchiostoma lanceolatum and Discovery of a Novel TLR22-Like Involved in dsRNA Recognition in Amphioxus. Front Immunol 2018; 9:2525. [PMID: 30450099 PMCID: PMC6224433 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.02525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2018] [Accepted: 10/12/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are important for raising innate immune responses in both invertebrates and vertebrates. Amphioxus belongs to an ancient chordate lineage which shares key features with vertebrates. The genomic research on TLR genes in Branchiostoma floridae and Branchiostoma belcheri reveals the expansion of TLRs in amphioxus. However, the repertoire of TLRs in Branchiostoma lanceolatum has not been studied and the functionality of amphioxus TLRs has not been reported. We have identified from transcriptomic data 30 new putative TLRs in B. lanceolatum and all of them are transcribed in adult amphioxus. Phylogenetic analysis showed that the repertoire of TLRs consists of both non-vertebrate and vertebrate-like TLRs. It also indicated a lineage-specific expansion in orthologous clusters of the vertebrate TLR11 family. We did not detect any representatives of the vertebrate TLR1, TLR3, TLR4, TLR5 and TLR7 families. To gain insight into these TLRs, we studied in depth a particular TLR highly similar to a B. belcheri gene annotated as bbtTLR1. The phylogenetic analysis of this novel BlTLR showed that it clusters with the vertebrate TLR11 family and it might be more related to TLR13 subfamily according to similar domain architecture. Transient and stable expression in HEK293 cells showed that the BlTLR localizes on the plasma membrane, but it did not respond to the most common mammalian TLR ligands. However, when the ectodomain of BlTLR is fused to the TIR domain of human TLR2, the chimeric protein could indeed induce NF-κB transactivation in response to the viral ligand Poly I:C, also indicating that in amphioxus, specific accessory proteins are needed for downstream activation. Based on the phylogenetic, subcellular localization and functional analysis, we propose that the novel BlTLR might be classified as an antiviral receptor sharing at least partly the functions performed by vertebrate TLR22. TLR22 is thought to be viral teleost-specific TLR but here we demonstrate that teleosts and amphioxus TLR22-like probably shared a common ancestor. Additional functional studies with other lancelet TLR genes will enrich our understanding of the immune response in amphioxus and will provide a unique perspective on the evolution of the immune system.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jie Ji
- Department of Cell Biology, Animal Physiology and Immunology, Institute of Biotechnology and Biomedicine (IBB), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain
| | - David Ramos-Vicente
- Department of Cell Biology, Animal Physiology and Immunology, Institute of Biotechnology and Biomedicine (IBB), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain.,Molecular Physiology of the Synapse Laboratory, Biomedical Research Institute Sant Pau (IIB Sant Pau), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Enrique Navas-Pérez
- Department of Genetics, School of Biology and Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB), University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Carlos Herrera-Úbeda
- Department of Genetics, School of Biology and Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB), University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - José Miguel Lizcano
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Institute of Neurosciences, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Jordi Garcia-Fernàndez
- Department of Genetics, School of Biology and Institute of Biomedicine (IBUB), University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Hector Escrivà
- CNRS, Biologie Intégrative des Organismes Marins, BIOM, Sorbonne Université, Banyuls-sur-Mer, France
| | - Àlex Bayés
- Department of Cell Biology, Animal Physiology and Immunology, Institute of Biotechnology and Biomedicine (IBB), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain.,Molecular Physiology of the Synapse Laboratory, Biomedical Research Institute Sant Pau (IIB Sant Pau), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Nerea Roher
- Department of Cell Biology, Animal Physiology and Immunology, Institute of Biotechnology and Biomedicine (IBB), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
García-Roche M, Casal A, Carriquiry M, Radi R, Quijano C, Cassina A. Respiratory analysis of coupled mitochondria in cryopreserved liver biopsies. Redox Biol 2018; 17:207-212. [PMID: 29704825 PMCID: PMC6006522 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2018.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2018] [Revised: 03/09/2018] [Accepted: 03/13/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of this work was to develop a cryopreservation method of small liver biopsies for in situ mitochondrial function assessment. Herein we describe a detailed protocol for tissue collection, cryopreservation, high-resolution respirometry using complex I and II substrates, calculation and interpretation of respiratory parameters. Liver biopsies from cow and rat were sequentially frozen in a medium containing dimethylsulfoxide as cryoprotectant and stored for up to 3 months at -80 °C. Oxygen consumption rate studies of fresh and cryopreserved samples revealed that most respiratory parameters remained unchanged. Additionally, outer mitochondrial membrane integrity was assessed adding cytochrome c, proving that our cryopreservation method does not harm mitochondrial structure. In sum, we present a reliable way to cryopreserve small liver biopsies without affecting mitochondrial function. Our protocol will enable the transport and storage of samples, extending and facilitating mitochondrial function analysis of liver biopsies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mercedes García-Roche
- Center for Free Radical and Biomedical Research (CEINBIO) and Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de la República, Uruguay; Departamento de Producción Animal y Pasturas, Facultad de Agronomía, Universidad de la República, Uruguay
| | - Alberto Casal
- Departamento de Producción Animal y Pasturas, Facultad de Agronomía, Universidad de la República, Uruguay
| | - Mariana Carriquiry
- Departamento de Producción Animal y Pasturas, Facultad de Agronomía, Universidad de la República, Uruguay
| | - Rafael Radi
- Center for Free Radical and Biomedical Research (CEINBIO) and Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de la República, Uruguay
| | - Celia Quijano
- Center for Free Radical and Biomedical Research (CEINBIO) and Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de la República, Uruguay.
| | - Adriana Cassina
- Center for Free Radical and Biomedical Research (CEINBIO) and Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de la República, Uruguay.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Metabolic flux-driven sialylation alters internalization, recycling, and drug sensitivity of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) in SW1990 pancreatic cancer cells. Oncotarget 2018; 7:66491-66511. [PMID: 27613843 PMCID: PMC5341816 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.11582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2016] [Accepted: 08/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In prior work we reported that advanced stage, drug-resistant pancreatic cancer cells (the SW1990 line) can be sensitized to the EGFR-targeting tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) erlotinib and gefitinib by treatment with 1,3,4-O-Bu3ManNAc (Bioorg. Med. Chem. Lett. (2015) 25(6):1223-7). Here we provide mechanistic insights into how this compound inhibits EGFR activity and provides synergy with TKI drugs. First, we showed that the sialylation of the EGFR receptor was at most only modestly enhanced (by ∼20 to 30%) compared to overall ∼2-fold increase in cell surface levels of this sugar. Second, flux-driven sialylation did not alter EGFR dimerization as has been reported for cancer cell lines that experience increased sialylation due to spontaneous mutations. Instead, we present evidence that 1,3,4-O-Bu3ManNAc treatment weakens the galectin lattice, increases the internalization of EGFR, and shifts endosomal trafficking towards non-clathrin mediated (NCM) endocytosis. Finally, by evaluating downstream targets of EGFR signaling, we linked synergy between 1,3,4-O-Bu3ManNAc and existing TKI drugs to a shift from clathrin-coated endocytosis (which allows EGFR signaling to continue after internalization) towards NCM endocytosis, which targets internalized moieties for degradation and thereby rapidly diminishes signaling.
Collapse
|
8
|
Rubio FJ, Li X, Liu QR, Cimbro R, Hope BT. Fluorescence Activated Cell Sorting (FACS) and Gene Expression Analysis of Fos-expressing Neurons from Fresh and Frozen Rat Brain Tissue. J Vis Exp 2016. [PMID: 27685012 DOI: 10.3791/54358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The study of neuroplasticity and molecular alterations in learned behaviors is switching from the study of whole brain regions to the study of specific sets of sparsely distributed activated neurons called neuronal ensembles that mediate learned associations. Fluorescence Activated Cell Sorting (FACS) has recently been optimized for adult rat brain tissue and allowed isolation of activated neurons using antibodies against the neuronal marker NeuN and Fos protein, a marker of strongly activated neurons. Until now, Fos-expressing neurons and other cell types were isolated from fresh tissue, which entailed long processing days and allowed very limited numbers of brain samples to be assessed after lengthy and complex behavioral procedures. Here we found that yields of Fos-expressing neurons and Fos mRNA from dorsal striatum were similar between freshly dissected tissue and tissue frozen at -80 ºC for 3 - 21 days. In addition, we confirmed the phenotype of the NeuN-positive and NeuN-negative sorted cells by assessing gene expression of neuronal (NeuN), astrocytic (GFAP), oligodendrocytic (Oligo2) and microgial (Iba1) markers, which indicates that frozen tissue can also be used for FACS isolation of glial cell types. Overall, it is possible to collect, dissect and freeze brain tissue for multiple FACS sessions. This maximizes the amount of data obtained from valuable animal subjects that have often undergone long and complex behavioral procedures.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- F Javier Rubio
- Behavioral Neuroscience Research Branch, Intramural Research Program, NIDA, NIH, DHHS
| | - Xuan Li
- Behavioral Neuroscience Research Branch, Intramural Research Program, NIDA, NIH, DHHS
| | - Qing-Rong Liu
- Behavioral Neuroscience Research Branch, Intramural Research Program, NIDA, NIH, DHHS
| | - Raffaello Cimbro
- Division of Rheumatology, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University
| | - Bruce T Hope
- Behavioral Neuroscience Research Branch, Intramural Research Program, NIDA, NIH, DHHS;
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Kishimoto T, Ishitsuka R, Kobayashi T. Detectors for evaluating the cellular landscape of sphingomyelin- and cholesterol-rich membrane domains. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2016; 1861:812-829. [PMID: 26993577 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2016.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2015] [Revised: 02/09/2016] [Accepted: 03/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Although sphingomyelin and cholesterol are major lipids of mammalian cells, the detailed distribution of these lipids in cellular membranes remains still obscure. However, the recent development of protein probes that specifically bind sphingomyelin and/or cholesterol provides new information about the landscape of the lipid domains that are enriched with sphingomyelin or cholesterol or both. Here, we critically summarize the tools to study distribution and dynamics of sphingomyelin and cholesterol. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: The cellular lipid landscape edited by Tim P. Levine and Anant K. Menon.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Reiko Ishitsuka
- Lipid Biology Laboratory, RIKEN, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
| | - Toshihide Kobayashi
- Lipid Biology Laboratory, RIKEN, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan; INSERM U1060, Université Lyon 1, Villeurbanne 69621, France.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Ranjan AK, Joglekar MV, Atre AN, Patole M, Bhonde RR, Hardikar A. Simultaneous imaging of microRNA or mRNA territories with protein territory in mammalian cells at single cell resolution. RNA Biol 2014; 9:949-53. [DOI: 10.4161/rna.20484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
|
11
|
Lee H, Kim H. Membrane topology of transmembrane proteins: determinants and experimental tools. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2014; 453:268-76. [PMID: 24938127 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2014.05.111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2014] [Accepted: 05/27/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Membrane topology refers to the two-dimensional structural information of a membrane protein that indicates the number of transmembrane (TM) segments and the orientation of soluble domains relative to the plane of the membrane. Since membrane proteins are co-translationally translocated across and inserted into the membrane, the TM segments orient themselves properly in an early stage of membrane protein biogenesis. Each membrane protein must contain some topogenic signals, but the translocation components and the membrane environment also influence the membrane topology of proteins. We discuss the factors that affect membrane protein orientation and have listed available experimental tools that can be used in determining membrane protein topology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hunsang Lee
- School of Biological Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-747, South Korea
| | - Hyun Kim
- School of Biological Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-747, South Korea.
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Zhao HW, Lv JP, Li SR. Production of Conjugated Linoleic Acid By Whole-Cell ofLactobacillus PlantarumA6-1F. BIOTECHNOL BIOTEC EQ 2014. [DOI: 10.5504/bbeq.2011.0008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
|
13
|
Chen KE, Richards AA, Ariffin JK, Ross IL, Sweet MJ, Kellie S, Kobe B, Martin JL. The mammalian DUF59 protein Fam96a forms two distinct types of domain-swapped dimer. ACTA CRYSTALLOGRAPHICA SECTION D: BIOLOGICAL CRYSTALLOGRAPHY 2012; 68:637-48. [DOI: 10.1107/s0907444912006592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2011] [Accepted: 02/14/2012] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
|
14
|
Abstract
The molecular mechanisms underlying cytoskeleton-dependent Golgi positioning are poorly understood. In mammalian cells, the Golgi apparatus is localized near the juxtanuclear centrosome via dynein-mediated motility along microtubules. Previous studies implicate Cdc42 in regulating dynein-dependent motility. Here we show that reduced expression of the Cdc42-specific GTPase-activating protein, ARHGAP21, inhibits the ability of dispersed Golgi membranes to reposition at the centrosome following nocodazole treatment and washout. Cdc42 regulation of Golgi positioning appears to involve ARF1 and a binding interaction with the vesicle-coat protein coatomer. We tested whether Cdc42 directly affects motility, as opposed to the formation of a trafficking intermediate, using a Golgi capture and motility assay in permeabilized cells. Disrupting Cdc42 activation or the coatomer/Cdc42 binding interaction stimulated Golgi motility. The coatomer/Cdc42-sensitive motility was blocked by the addition of an inhibitory dynein antibody. Together, our results reveal that dynein and microtubule-dependent Golgi positioning is regulated by ARF1-, coatomer-, and ARHGAP21-dependent Cdc42 signaling.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Heidi Hehnly
- Department of Molecular Physiology & Biophysics, Roy J. and Lucille A. Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
Toro AA, Araya CA, Córdova GJ, Arredondo CA, Cárdenas HG, Moreno RE, Venegas A, Koenig CS, Cancino J, Gonzalez A, Santos MJ. Pex3p-dependent peroxisomal biogenesis initiates in the endoplasmic reticulum of human fibroblasts. J Cell Biochem 2009; 107:1083-96. [PMID: 19479899 DOI: 10.1002/jcb.22210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
The mechanisms of peroxisomal biogenesis remain incompletely understood, specially regarding the role of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in human cells, where genetic disorders of peroxisome biogenesis lead to Zellweger syndrome (ZS). The Pex3p peroxisomal membrane protein (PMP) required for early steps of peroxisome biogenesis has been detected in the ER in yeast but not in mammalian cells. Here, we show that Pex3p-GFP expressed in a new ZS cell line (MR), which lacks peroxisomes due to a mutation in the PEX3 gene, localizes first in the ER and subsequently in newly formed peroxisomes. Pex3p bearing an artificial N-glycosylation site shows an electrophoretic shift indicative of ER targeting while en route to preformed peroxisomes in normal fibroblast. A signal peptide that forces its entry into the ER does not eliminate its capability to drive peroxisome biogenesis in ZS cells. Thus, Pex3p is able to drive peroxisome biogenesis from the ER and its ER pathway is not privative of ZS cells. Cross-expression experiments of Pex3p in GM623 cells lacking Pex16p or Pex16p in MR cells lacking Pex3p, showed evidence that Pex3p requires Pex16p for ER location but is dispensable for the ER location of Pex16p. These results indicate that Pex3p follows the ER-to-peroxisomal route in mammalian cells and provides new clues to understand its function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrés A Toro
- Departamento de Biología Celular y Molecular, Centro de Regulación Celular y Patología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, and MIFAB, Chile
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Wang P, Hata S, Xiao Y, Murray JW, Wolkoff AW. Topological assessment of oatp1a1: a 12-transmembrane domain integral membrane protein with three N-linked carbohydrate chains. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2008; 294:G1052-9. [PMID: 18308854 DOI: 10.1152/ajpgi.00584.2007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Organic anion transport protein 1a1 (oatp1a1), a prototypical member of the oatp family of highly homologous transport proteins, is expressed on the basolateral (sinusoidal) surface of rat hepatocytes. The organization of oatp1a1 within the plasma membrane has not been well defined, and computer-based models have predicted possible 12- as well as 10-transmembrane domain structures. Which of oatp1a1's four potential N-linked glycosylation sites are actually glycosylated and their influence on transport function have not been investigated in a mammalian system. In the present study, topology of oatp1a1 in the rat hepatocyte plasma membrane was examined by immunofluorescence analysis using an epitope-specific antibody designed to differentiate a 10- from a 12-transmembrane domain model. To map glycosylation sites, the asparagines at the each of the four N-linked glycosylation consensus sites were mutagenized to glutamines. Mutagenized oatp1a1 constructs were expressed in HeLa cells, and effects on protein expression and transport activity were assessed. These studies revealed that oatp1a1 is a 12-transmembrane-domain protein in which the second and fifth extracellular loops are glycosylated at asparagines 124, 135, and 492, whereas the potential glycosylation site at asparagine 62 is not utilized, consistent with its position in a transmembrane domain. Constructs in which more than one glycosylation site were eliminated had reduced transport activity but not necessarily reduced transporter expression. This was in accord with the finding that fully unglycosylated oatp1a1 was well expressed but located intracellularly with limited transport ability as a consequence of its reduced cell surface expression.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pijun Wang
- Department of Medicine, Division of Hepatology, Marion Bessin Liver Research Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
17
|
Hatle KM, Neveu W, Dienz O, Rymarchyk S, Barrantes R, Hale S, Farley N, Lounsbury KM, Bond JP, Taatjes D, Rincón M. Methylation-controlled J protein promotes c-Jun degradation to prevent ABCB1 transporter expression. Mol Cell Biol 2007; 27:2952-66. [PMID: 17283040 PMCID: PMC1899938 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.01804-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Methylation-controlled J protein (MCJ) is a newly identified member of the DnaJ family of cochaperones. Hypermethylation-mediated transcriptional silencing of the MCJ gene has been associated with increased chemotherapeutic resistance in ovarian cancer. However, the biology and function of MCJ remain unknown. Here we show that MCJ is a type II transmembrane cochaperone localized in the Golgi network and present only in vertebrates. MCJ is expressed in drug-sensitive breast cancer cells but not in multidrug-resistant cells. The inhibition of MCJ expression increases resistance to specific drugs by inducing expression of the ABCB1 drug transporter that prevents intracellular drug accumulation. The induction of ABCB1 gene expression is mediated by increased levels of c-Jun due to an impaired degradation of this transcription factor in the absence of MCJ. Thus, MCJ is required in these cells to prevent c-Jun-mediated expression of ABCB1 and maintain drug response.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- ATP Binding Cassette Transporter, Subfamily B
- ATP Binding Cassette Transporter, Subfamily B, Member 1
- Amino Acid Sequence
- Animals
- Antineoplastic Agents/pharmacology
- Breast Neoplasms/genetics
- Breast Neoplasms/pathology
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Conserved Sequence
- Down-Regulation/drug effects
- Drug Resistance, Multiple/drug effects
- Drug Resistance, Neoplasm/drug effects
- Female
- Gene Expression Regulation, Neoplastic/drug effects
- Golgi Apparatus/drug effects
- Golgi Apparatus/ultrastructure
- HSP40 Heat-Shock Proteins/chemistry
- HSP40 Heat-Shock Proteins/deficiency
- HSP40 Heat-Shock Proteins/genetics
- HSP40 Heat-Shock Proteins/metabolism
- Humans
- Membrane Proteins/chemistry
- Membrane Proteins/deficiency
- Membrane Proteins/genetics
- Membrane Proteins/metabolism
- Models, Biological
- Molecular Sequence Data
- Organic Anion Transporters/genetics
- Organic Anion Transporters/metabolism
- Phylogeny
- Protein Processing, Post-Translational/drug effects
- Protein Transport/drug effects
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-jun/genetics
- Proto-Oncogene Proteins c-jun/metabolism
- RNA, Messenger/genetics
- RNA, Messenger/metabolism
- Transcription, Genetic/drug effects
- Vertebrates
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ketki M Hatle
- Department of Medicine/Immunobiology Program, Given Medical Building D-305, University of Vermont, 89 Beaumont Ave., Burlington, VT 05405, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
Shi X, Kohl A, Léonard VHJ, Li P, McLees A, Elliott RM. Requirement of the N-terminal region of orthobunyavirus nonstructural protein NSm for virus assembly and morphogenesis. J Virol 2006; 80:8089-99. [PMID: 16873265 PMCID: PMC1563826 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00579-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The nonstructural protein NSm of Bunyamwera virus (BUNV), the prototype of the Bunyaviridae family, is encoded by the M segment in a polyprotein precursor, along with the virion glycoproteins, in the order Gn-NSm-Gc. As little is known of its function, we examined the intracellular localization, membrane integrality, and topology of NSm and its role in virus replication. We confirmed that NSm is an integral membrane protein and that it localizes in the Golgi complex, together with Gn and Gc. Coimmunoprecipitation assays and yeast two-hybrid analysis demonstrated that NSm was able to interact with other viral proteins. NSm is predicted to contain three hydrophobic (I, III, and V) and two nonhydrophobic (II and IV) domains. The N-terminal nonhydrophobic domain II was found in the lumen of an intracellular compartment. A novel BUNV assembly assay was developed to monitor the formation of infectious virus-like-particles (VLPs). Using this assay, we showed that deletions of either the complete NSm coding region or domains I, II, and V individually seriously compromised VLP production. Consistently, we were unable to rescue viable viruses by reverse genetics from cDNA constructs that contained the same deletions. However, we could generate mutant BUNV with deletions in NSm domains III and IV and also a recombinant virus with the green fluorescent protein open reading frame inserted into NSm domain IV. The mutant viruses displayed differences in their growth properties. Overall, our data showed that the N-terminal region of NSm, which includes domain I and part of domain II, is required for virus assembly and that the C-terminal hydrophobic domain V may function as an internal signal sequence for the Gc glycoprotein.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaohong Shi
- Centre for Biomolecular Sciences, School of Biology, University of St Andrews, North Haugh, St Andrews KY16 9ST, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
Lorenz H, Hailey DW, Wunder C, Lippincott-Schwartz J. The fluorescence protease protection (FPP) assay to determine protein localization and membrane topology. Nat Protoc 2006; 1:276-9. [PMID: 17406244 DOI: 10.1038/nprot.2006.42] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Correct localization and topology are crucial for the cellular function of a protein. To determine the topology of membrane proteins, a new technique, called the fluorescence protease protection (FPP) assay, can be applied. This assay uses the restricted proteolytic digestibility of GFP-tagged transmembrane proteins to indicate their intramembrane orientation. The sole requirements for FPP are the expression of GFP fusion proteins and the selective permeabilization of the plasma membrane, which permits a wide range of cell types and organelles to be investigated. The FPP assay can be carried out in a straightforward manner to obtain reliable results within minutes. Here we provide a step-by-step protocol for the assay. As an example, we use FPP to determine which terminus of an endoplasmic reticulum (ER) transmembrane protein is lumenal and which one is facing the cytosol.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Holger Lorenz
- Cell Biology and Metabolism Branch, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Building 18T Library Drive, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Acconcia F, Ascenzi P, Bocedi A, Spisni E, Tomasi V, Trentalance A, Visca P, Marino M. Palmitoylation-dependent estrogen receptor alpha membrane localization: regulation by 17beta-estradiol. Mol Biol Cell 2004; 16:231-7. [PMID: 15496458 PMCID: PMC539167 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e04-07-0547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 344] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A fraction of the nuclear estrogen receptor alpha (ERalpha) is localized to the plasma membrane region of 17beta-estradiol (E2) target cells. We previously reported that ERalpha is a palmitoylated protein. To gain insight into the molecular mechanism of ERalpha residence at the plasma membrane, we tested both the role of palmitoylation and the impact of E2 stimulation on ERalpha membrane localization. The cancer cell lines expressing transfected or endogenous human ERalpha (HeLa and HepG2, respectively) or the ERalpha nonpalmitoylable Cys447Ala mutant transfected in HeLa cells were used as experimental models. We found that palmitoylation of ERalpha enacts ERalpha association with the plasma membrane, interaction with the membrane protein caveolin-1, and nongenomic activities, including activation of signaling pathways and cell proliferation (i.e., ERK and AKT activation, cyclin D1 promoter activity, DNA synthesis). Moreover, E2 reduces both ERalpha palmitoylation and its interaction with caveolin-1, in a time- and dose-dependent manner. These data point to the physiological role of ERalpha palmitoylation in the receptor localization to the cell membrane and in the regulation of the E2-induced cell proliferation.
Collapse
|
21
|
Benson KF, Li FQ, Person RE, Albani D, Duan Z, Wechsler J, Meade-White K, Williams K, Acland GM, Niemeyer G, Lothrop CD, Horwitz M. Mutations associated with neutropenia in dogs and humans disrupt intracellular transport of neutrophil elastase. Nat Genet 2003; 35:90-6. [PMID: 12897784 DOI: 10.1038/ng1224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2003] [Accepted: 07/14/2003] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Cyclic hematopoiesis is a stem cell disease in which the number of neutrophils and other blood cells oscillates in weekly phases. Autosomal dominant mutations of ELA2, encoding the protease neutrophil elastase, found in lysosome-like granules, cause cyclic hematopoiesis and most cases of the pre-leukemic disorder severe congenital neutropenia (SCN; ref. 3) in humans. Over 20 different mutations of neutrophil elastase have been identified, but their consequences are elusive, because they confer no consistent effects on enzymatic activity. The similar autosomal recessive disease of dogs, canine cyclic hematopoiesis, is not caused by mutations in ELA2 (data not shown). Here we show that homozygous mutation of the gene encoding the dog adaptor protein complex 3 (AP3) beta-subunit, directing trans-Golgi export of transmembrane cargo proteins to lysosomes, causes canine cyclic hematopoiesis. C-terminal processing of neutrophil elastase exposes an AP3 interaction signal responsible for redirecting neutrophil elastase trafficking from membranes to granules. Disruption of either neutrophil elastase or AP3 perturbs the intracellular trafficking of neutrophil elastase. Most mutations in ELA2 that cause human cyclic hematopoiesis prevent membrane localization of neutrophil elastase, whereas most mutations in ELA2 that cause SCN lead to exclusive membrane localization.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen F Benson
- Division of Medical Genetics/Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, Box 357720, 1705 NE Pacific Street, HSB-K236B, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|