TIMPs and MMPs expression in CSF from patients with TSP/HAM

Potent delivery of an MMP inhibitor to the tumor microenvironment with thermosensitive liposomes for the suppression of metastasis and angiogenesis

Metastasis is a major cause of chemotherapeutic failure and death. Degradation of a specific component of the extracellular matrix (ECM) by matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) affects the physical barrier of the tumor microenvironment (TME) and induces metastasis. Here, lysolipid-containing thermosensitive liposomes (LTSLs) were prepared to deliver an MMP inhibitor, marimastat (MATT), to the TME to inhibit MMP activity and expression. LTSLs rapidly released their payloads at 42 °C. Compared with the saline control, MATT-LTSLs exhibited enhanced accumulation in the tumor and a 20-fold decrease in tumor growth in 4T1 tumor-bearing mice; moreover, MATT-LTSLs reduced MMP-2 and MMP-9 activity by 50% and 43%, respectively, and downregulated MMP-2 and MMP-9 expression in vivo by 30% and 43%, respectively. Most importantly, MATT-LTSL treatment caused a 7-fold decrease in metastatic lung nodules and a 6-fold reduction in microvessels inside the tumor. We believe this study provides an effective approach for the suppression of metastasis, and the use of a cytotoxic agent in combination with MATT is a potential strategy for metastatic cancer treatment.

Impact of Elastin-Derived Peptide VGVAPG on Matrix Metalloprotease-2 and -9 and the Tissue Inhibitor of Metalloproteinase-1, -2, -3 and -4 mRNA Expression in Mouse Cortical Glial Cells In Vitro

Degradation products of elastin, i.e. elastin-derived peptides (EDPs), are involved in various physiological and pathological processes. EDPs are detectable in cerebrospinal fluid in healthy people and in patients after ischemic stroke. However, to date, no studies concerning the role of EDP in the nervous system were conducted. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) play important roles during the repair phases of cerebral ischemia, particularly during angiogenesis and reestablishment of cerebral blood flow. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the impact of the specific elastin-derived peptide VGVAPG on Mmp-2, -9 and Timp-1, -2, -3 and -4 mRNA expression in mouse cortical glial cells in vitro. Primary glial cells were maintained in DMEM/F12 without phenol red supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum and the cells were exposed to 50 nM, 1 and 50 μM of the VGVAPG peptide. After 3 and 6 h of exposition to the peptide, expression of Mmp-2, -9 and Timp-1, -2, -3 and -4 mRNA was measured. Moreover, siRNA gene knockdown, cytotoxicity and apoptosis measurement were included in our experiments, which showed that VGVAPG in a wide range of concentrations exhibited neither proapoptotic nor cytotoxic properties in mouse glial cells in vitro. The peptides enhanced mRNA expression of Timp-2 and Timp-3 genes in an elastin-binding protein (EBP)-dependent manner. However, changes in mRNA expression of Mmp-2, Mmp-9 and Timp-4 were partially EBP-dependent. The decrease in mRNA expression of Timp-1 was EBP-independent. However, further studies underlying the VGVAPG peptide’s mechanism of action in the nervous system are necessary.

A drug-delivering-drug strategy for combined treatment of metastatic breast cancer

Treatment of metastatic cancer continues to be a huge challenge worldwide. Notably, drug nanocrystals (Ns) in nanosuspensions clearly belong to a type of nanoparticle. Therefore, a question arose as to whether these drug particles can also be applied as carriers for drug delivery. Here, we design a novel paclitaxel (PTX) nanocrystal stabilized with complexes of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-sensitive β-casein/marimastat (MATT) for co-delivering MATT and PTX and combined therapy of metastatic breast cancer. The prepared Ns (200 nm) with a drug-loading of >50% were potent in treatment of metastatic cancer, which markedly inhibited MMP expression and activity and greatly blocked the lung metastasis and angiogenesis. In conclusion, employing protein-drug complexes as stabilizers, Ns with dual payloads are developed and are a promising strategy for co-delivery. Furthermore, the developed Ns can target the tumor microenvironment and cancer cells and, as a result, enable efficient treatment for breast metastatic cancer.

Nanoplatform Assembled from a CD44-Targeted Prodrug and Smart Liposomes for Dual Targeting of Tumor Microenvironment and Cancer Cells

The tumor microenvironment (TME) plays a critical role in tumor initiation, progression, invasion, and metastasis. Therefore, a therapy that combines chemotherapeutic drugs with a TME modulator could be a promising route for cancer treatment. This paper reports a nanoplatform self-assembled from a hyaluronic acid (HA)-paclitaxel (PTX) (HA-PTX) prodrug and marimastat (MATT)-loaded thermosensitive liposomes (LTSLs) (MATT-LTSLs) for the dual targeting of the TME and cancer cells. Interestingly, the prodrug HA-PTX can self-assemble on both positively and negatively charged liposomes, forming hybrid nanoparticles (HNPs, 100 nm). Triggered by mild hyperthermia, HA-PTX/MATT-LTSLs HNPs rapidly release their payloads into the extracellular environment, and the released HA-PTX quickly enters 4T1 cells through a CD44-HA affinity. The HNPs possess promoted tumor accumulation (1.6-fold), exhibit deep tumor penetration, and significantly inhibit the tumor growth (10-fold), metastasis (100%), and angiogenesis (10-fold). Importantly, by targeting the TME and maintaining its integrity via inhibiting the expression and activity of matrix metalloproteinases (>5-fold), blocking the fibroblast activation by downregulating the TGF-β1 expression (5-fold) and suppressing the degradation of extracellular matrix, the HNPs allow for significant metastasis inhibition. Overall, these findings indicate that a prodrug of an HA-hydrophobic-active compound and liposomes can be self-assembled into a smart nanoplatform for the dual targeting of the TME and tumor cells and efficient combined treatment; additionally, the co-delivery of MATT and HA-PTX with the HNPs is a promising approach for the treatment of metastatic cancer. This study creates opportunities for fabricating multifunctional nanodevices and offers an efficient strategy for disease therapy.

Higher levels of circulating TIMP-4 in preeclampsia is strongly associated with clinical parameters and microRNA

BACKGROUND

Preeclampsia results in maternal and fetal complications and some studies have reported the role of MMPs and TIMPs in its pathophysiology. Therefore, the aim of this study was to compare plasma TIMP-4 levels in preeclampsia and healthy pregnant; and to correlate these levels with clinical parameters and expression of Let7a-5p (3´UTR post-transcriptionally regulation) Methods: TIMP-4 was measured by ELISA and miR-Let7a-5p expression by qPCR.

RESULTS

Elevated plasma TIMP-4 levels in preeclampsia compared to healthy pregnant was found 1450 ± 411 vs. 775 ± 210 pg/mL, respectively (p < 0.0001); these levels are correlated positively with serum liver enzymes (ALT, r = 0.84, p = 0.004; and AST, r = 0.51, p = 0.02); and negatively with newborn weight (r = -0.45, p = 0.04) in preeclampsia. Regarding Let7a-5p a negative but not significant correlation was found (r = -0.39, p = 0.06, including both healthy and preeclampsia).

CONCLUSIONS

Preeclampsia present elevated levels of circulating TIMP-4 compared to healthy pregnant and these levels are correlated with clinical parameters of disease.

Tax and Semaphorin 4D Released from Lymphocytes Infected with Human Lymphotropic Virus Type 1 and Their Effect on Neurite Growth

Human lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) is a retrovirus causing HTLV-1-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP), a neurodegenerative central nervous system (CNS) axonopathy. This virus mainly infects CD4(+) T lymphocytes without evidence of neuronal infection. Viral Tax, secreted from infected lymphocytes infiltrated in the CNS, is proposed to alter intracellular pathways related to axonal cytoskeleton dynamics, producing neurological damage. Previous reports showed a higher proteolytic release of soluble Semaphorin 4D (sSEMA-4D) from CD4(+) T cells infected with HTLV-1. Soluble SEMA-4D binds to its receptor Plexin-B1, activating axonal growth collapse pathways in the CNS. In the current study, an increase was found in both SEMA-4D in CD4(+) T cells and sSEMA-4D released to the culture medium of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from HAM/TSP patients compared to asymptomatic carriers and healthy donors. After a 16-h culture, infected PBMCs showed significantly higher levels of CRMP-2 phosphorylated at Ser(522). The effect was blocked either with anti-Tax or anti-SEMA-4D antibodies. The interaction of Tax and sSEMA-4D was found in secreted medium of PBMCs in patients, which might be associated with a leading role of Tax with the SEMA-4D-Plexin-B1 signaling pathway. In infected PBMCs, the migratory response after transwell assay showed that sSEMA-4D responding cells were CD4(+)Tax(+) T cells with a high CRMP-2 pSer(522) content. In the present study, the participation of Tax-sSEMA-4D in the reduction in neurite growth in PC12 cells produced by MT2 (HTLV-1-infected cell line) culture medium was observed. These results lead to the participation of plexins in the reported effects of infected lymphocytes on neuronal cells.

Matrix metalloproteinases and their tissue inhibitors in serum and cerebrospinal fluid of children with Japanese encephalitis virus infection

The expression of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) is tightly regulated at the level of gene transcription, conversion of pro-enzyme to active MMPs, and the action of tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs). The present study aimed to investigate the expression of some specific MMPs (2, 7, 9) and TIMPs (1, 2, 3) in serum and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of children with Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) infection. Serum and CSF levels of MMPs and TIMPs in children with JEV infection and disease control (DC) were compared. The CSF and serum concentrations of MMP-2, TIMP-2 and TIMP-3 were significantly higher in children with JEV infection compared to DC. The concentration of MMP-9 in serum was significantly higher in children with JEV infection than in the DC and healthy control (HC), while in the CSF, no significant difference was observed compared to DC. The MMP-7 serum concentration was significantly higher in children with JEV infection compared to HC, but no significant difference was observed compared to DC. MMP-7 concentration was undetectable in CSF in both groups. The TIMP-1 CSF concentration was significantly higher, while the serum concentration was significantly lower, in children with JEV infection compared to DC. No correlation was found between the levels of each biomolecule measured in CSF and serum, suggesting that the levels in CSF represent local production within the CNS rather than production in the periphery. We also observed leucocytosis, mononuclear pleocytosis and elevated protein concentrations in the CSF of children with JEV infection compared to DC.

Extracellular regulated kinase 1/2 signaling is a critical regulator of interleukin-1β-mediated astrocyte tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 expression

Astrocytes are essential for proper central nervous system (CNS) function and are intricately involved in neuroinflammation. Despite evidence that immune-activated astrocytes contribute to many CNS pathologies, little is known about the inflammatory pathways controlling gene expression. Our laboratory identified altered levels of tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase (TIMP)-1 in brain lysates from human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1 infected patients, compared to age-matched controls, and interleukin (IL)-1β as a key regulator of astrocyte TIMP-1. Additionally, CCAAT enhancer binding protein (C/EBP)β levels are elevated in brain specimens from HIV-1 patients and the transcription factor contributes to astrocyte TIMP-1 expression. In this report we sought to identify key signaling pathways necessary for IL-1β-mediated astrocyte TIMP-1 expression and their interaction with C/EBPβ. Primary human astrocytes were cultured and treated with mitogen activated protein kinase-selective small molecule inhibitors, and IL-1β. TIMP-1 and C/EBPβ mRNA and protein expression were evaluated at 12 and 24 h post-treatment, respectively. TIMP-1 promoter-driven luciferase plasmids were used to evaluate TIMP-1 promoter activity in inhibitor-treated astrocytes. These data show that extracellular regulated kinase (ERK) 1/2-selective inhibitors block IL-1β-induced astrocyte TIMP-1 expression, but did not decrease C/EBPβ expression in parallel. The p38 kinase (p38K) inhibitors partially blocked both IL-1β-induced astrocyte TIMP-1 expression and C/EBPβ expression. The ERK1/2-selective inhibitor abrogated IL-1β-mediated increases in TIMP-1 promoter activity. Our data demonstrate that ERK1/2 activation is critical for IL-1β-mediated astrocyte TIMP-1 expression. ERK1/2-selective inhibition may elicit a compensatory response in the form of enhanced IL-1β-mediated astrocyte C/EBPβ expression, or, alternatively, ERK1/2 signaling may function to moderate IL-1β-mediated astrocyte C/EBPβ expression. Furthermore, p38K activation contributes to IL-1β-induced astrocyte TIMP-1 and C/EBPβ expression. These data suggest that ERK1/2 signals downstream of C/EBPβ to facilitate IL-1β-induced astrocyte TIMP-1 expression. Astrocyte ERK1/2 and p38K signaling may serve as therapeutic targets for manipulating CNS TIMP-1 and C/EBPβ levels, respectively.

An apolipoprotein E4 fragment affects matrix metalloproteinase 9, tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 1 and cytokine levels in brain cell lines

Apolipoprotein (apo) E4 isoform, a major risk factor for Alzheimer disease (AD), is more susceptible to proteolysis than apoE2 and apoE3 isoforms. ApoE4 fragments have been found in AD patients' brain. In the present study, we examined the effect of full-length apoE4 and apoE4 fragments apoE4[Δ(186-299)] and apoE4[Δ(166-299)] on inflammation in human neuroblastoma SK-N-SH and human astrocytoma SW-1783 cells. Western blot and zymography analysis showed that treatment of SK-N-SH cells with apoE4[Δ(186-299)], but not full-length apoE4 or the shorter apoE4[Δ(166-299)] fragment, leads to increased extracellular levels of matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP9) and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 1 (TIMP1). Real-time PCR showed that interleukin (IL)-1β gene expression is also increased in SK-N-SH cells treated with apoE4[Δ(186-299)]. Treatment of SK-N-SH cells with IL-1β leads to increased MMP9 and TIMP1 extracellular levels, suggesting that the induction of IL-1β may be the mechanism by which apoE4[Δ(186-299)] regulates MMP9 and TIMP1 levels in these cells. In contrast to SK-N-SH cells, treatment of SW-1783 cells with apoE4[Δ(186-299)], and to a lesser extent with apoE4, leads to increased TIMP1 extracellular levels without affecting MMP9 levels. Additionally, apoE4[Δ(186-299)] leads to decreased IL-10 gene expression in SK-N-SH cells, whereas both apoE4 and apoE4[Δ(186-299)] lead to decreased TNFα gene expression without affecting IL-1β and IL-10 gene expression in SW-1783 cells. Overall, our findings indicate that a specific apoE4 fragment (apoE4[Δ(186-299)]), with molecular mass similar that of apoE4 fragments detected in AD patients' brain, can influence the level of inflammatory molecules in brain cell lines. It is possible that these phenomena contribute to AD pathogenesis.

Tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases 4 (TIMP4) is involved in inflammatory processes of human cardiovascular pathology

Tissue inhibitors of matrix metalloproteinases (TIMPs) comprise a family of four members, of which TIMP4 is characterized by being primarily restricted to cardiovascular structures. We demonstrate with immunohistochemical analysis of healthy human tissue that TIMP4 is present in medial smooth muscle cells and adventitial capillaries of arteries as well as in cardiomyocytes. Animal studies have suggested a role for TIMP4 in several inflammatory diseases and cardiovascular pathologies. We therefore examined whether TIMP4 is involved in human inflammatory cardiovascular disorders, specifically atherosclerosis, giant cell arteritis and chronic rejection of heart allografts. TIMP4 was most clearly visible in cardiovascular tissue areas populated by abundant inflammatory cells, mainly macrophages and CD3+ T cells. Using western blotting and immunocytochemistry, human blood derived lymphocytes, monocytes/macrophages and mast cells were shown to produce TIMP4. In advanced atherosclerotic lesions, TIMP4 was detected around necrotic lipid cores, whereas TIMP3 and caspase 3 resided within and around the core regions, indicating different roles for TIMP3 and TIMP4 in inflammation-induced apoptosis and in matrix turnover. In conclusion, the data demonstrate upregulation of TIMP4 in human cardiovascular disorders exhibiting inflammation, suggesting its future use as a novel systemic marker for vascular inflammation.

Trophic factors in cerebrospinal fluid and spinal cord of patients with tropical spastic paraparesis, HIV, and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease

HTLV-1-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis (TSP/HAM) is a chronic CNS disease characterized by axomyelinic degeneration of the long axons of corticospinal tracts. Levels of NGF, NT-3, NT-4/5, BDNF, GDNF, CNTF, and FGF-2 were measured in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of 21 TSP/HAM patients and 20 controls. NGF, BDNF, and FGF-2 levels were also determined in 19 patients with HIV motor cognitive motor syndrome, and in 21 subjects diagnosed with Creutzfeldt Jakob disease (CJD). No significant differences were detected in the concentrations of NGF, BDNF, NT-3, NT-4/5, GDNF, and CNTF in the CSF between TSP/HAM patients and controls. FGF-2 was significantly lower in the CSF of the three groups of patients compared with controls; the HIV group exhibited the lowest values. HIV patients differed from TSP/HAM in their significantly higher levels of NGF and lower levels of BDNF and FGF-2, whereas CJD patients differed only in their higher levels of NGF. Immunohistochemical studies were done of trophic factors (NGF and FGF-2) and neurotrophin receptors (trkA and p75) in spinal cord and motor cortical areas from anatomopathological cases of TSP/HAM. Results indicated that NGF is expressed in motoneurons and oligodendrocytes of the posterior column of the spinal cord. FGF-2 was detected in motoneurons and spinal cord vessels. p75 receptor was detected in cortical neurons. The absence of a significant change in the trophic factor levels in TSP/HAM may be attributed to a selective axonal lesion in a slow process.

Longitudinal analysis of metalloproteinases, tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases and clinical parameters in gingival crevicular fluid from periodontitis-affected patients

BACKGROUND

The aim of this work was to improve the assessment of the periodontal disease status through measurements of extracellular matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and their tissular inhibitors (TIMPs) in the gingival crevicular fluid from patients diagnosed with chronic periodontitis.

METHODS

Gingival crevicular fluid samples from patients (n = 13) were taken from 60 sites initially, and from 51 and 41 sites, respectively, 3 and 6 months after scaling and root planing. Gingival crevicular fluid samples were also taken from healthy subjects (n = 11, 24 sites). The presence of MMP-9 and MMP-8 was assessed by zymography and immunowestern blotting, respectively. The actual MMP activity (gelatinase and collagenase) was measured using the fluorogenic substrate assay. TIMP-1 and -2 levels were measured by immunodot blot.

RESULTS

The fluorogenic substrate assay determinations showed higher MMP activity in sites with probing depth > or = 4 mm, with significant reduction post-treatment. Gelatinase activity followed by zymography consisted mainly of MMP-9. A different pattern of MMP-8 in control and patient sites was found. Controls only showed species of a partially active form (69 kDa), whereas patient sites showed a high frequency of the active form (56 kDa), and in some cases the latent form (85 kDa) was also observed. The active form reduced its frequency in sites with probing depth > or = 4 mm. TIMP-1 and -2 levels in patients were significantly lower than in controls, and after treatment the recovery of TIMP-1 level similar to control was observed.

CONCLUSION

Significant correlations between the severity of the periodontal disease and the actual MMP activity, the active form of MMP-8 and the low level of both TIMP-1 and TIMP-2 were found.

Increased acinar damage of salivary glands of patients with Sjögren's syndrome is paralleled by simultaneous imbalance of matrix metalloproteinase 3/tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases 1 and matrix metalloproteinase 9/tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases 1 ratios

OBJECTIVE

Previous findings in labial salivary glands (LSGs) from patients with Sjögren's syndrome (SS) suggest that increased activity and expression of matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9) and MMP-3 trigger the destruction of acinar structures in these glands. Tissue inhibitors of matrix metalloproteinases (TIMPs) tightly control MMP activity, and TIMP expression is an important modulator of effects attributed to MMPs. This study was undertaken to investigate the correlation between the balance of MMPs/TIMPs in the LSGs of SS patients and the degree of inflammatory infiltration and acinar structure integrity.

METHODS

Three groups of SS patients classified according to focus score and residual tissue were studied. The expression of MMP-2, MMP-3, MMP-9, TIMP-1, and TIMP-2 was examined at the messenger RNA and protein levels. The ratio of MMP/TIMP expression (R value) was calculated. Focus score and acinar structure were evaluated by histologic analysis.

RESULTS

In SS patients the MMP-3/TIMP-1 ratio was higher than 1 and the MMP-9/TIMP-1 ratio was much higher than 1 whereas the MMP-2/TIMP-2 ratio nearly equaled 1, suggesting elevated proteolytic activity due mainly to MMP-9. R values were independent of the focus score of inflammatory cells, but correlated well with the dramatic changes observed in morphologic integrity of acini, as revealed mainly by the lack of nuclear polarity. Acinar changes were more evident when R values for both MMP-9/TIMP-1 and MMP-3/TIMP-1 were higher.

CONCLUSION

This study provides evidence that an altered balance between MMPs and their inhibitors is associated with acinar damage. Since salivary gland acinar cells express both MMPs and TIMPs, these cells may play an important role in extracellular matrix destruction and in the LSG pathophysiology in SS.