Differential response to benzo[A]pyrene in human lung adenocarcinoma cell lines: the absence of aryl hydrocarbon receptor activation

Cigarette smoking enhances the metabolic activation of the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon phenanthrene in humans

Although it is well established that human cytochrome P450 1 family enzymes are induced by cigarette smoking through activation of the Ah receptor, it is not known whether this leads to increased metabolic activation or detoxification of carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), which are present in cigarette smoke and the general environment. We gave oral doses of deuterated phenanthrene ([D10]Phe), a non-carcinogenic surrogate of carcinogenic PAH such as benzo[a]pyrene, to smokers (N = 170, 1 or 10 μg doses) and non-smokers (N = 57, 1 μg dose). Bioactivation products (dihydrodiol and tetraol) and detoxification products (phenols) of [D10]Phe were determined in 6-h urine to obtain a comprehensive metabolic profile. Cigarette smoking increased the bioactivation of [D10]Phe and decreased its detoxification resulting in significantly different metabolic patterns between smokers and non-smokers (P < 0.01), consistent with increased cancer risk in smokers. The Phe bioactivation ratios ([D10]PheT/total [D9]OHPhe) were significantly higher (2.3 (P < 0.01) to 4.8 (P < 0.001) fold) in smokers than non-smokers. With solid human in vivo evidence, our results for the first time demonstrate that cigarette smoking enhances the metabolic activation of Phe, structurally representative of carcinogenic PAH, in humans, strongly supporting their causal role in cancers caused by smoking. The results suggest potential new methods for identifying smokers who could be at particularly high risk for cancer.

Modulation of benzo[a]pyrene-DNA adduct formation by CYP1 inducer and inhibitor

Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) is a well-studied pro-carcinogen that is metabolically activated by cytochrome P450 enzymes. Cytochrome P4501A1 (CYP1A1) has been considered to play a central role in the activation step, which is essential for the formation of DNA adducts. This enzyme is strongly induced by many different chemical agents, including 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD), which binds to the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR). Therefore, AhR activators are suspected to have the potential to aggravate the toxicity of BaP through the induction of CYP1A1. Besides, CYP1A1 inhibitors, including its substrates, are estimated to have preventive effects against BaP toxicity. However, strangely, increased hepatic BaP–DNA adduct levels have been reported in Cyp1a1 knockout mice. Moreover, numerous reports describe that concomitant treatment of AhR activators reduced BaP–DNA adduct formation. In an experiment using several human cell lines, TCDD had diverse modulatory effects on BaP–DNA adducts, both enhancing and inhibiting their formation. In this review, we focus on the factors that could influence the BaP–DNA adduct formation. To interpret these complicated outcomes, we propose a hypothesis that CYP1A1 is a key enzyme for both generation and reduction of (±)-anti-benzo[a]pyrene-7,8-diol-9,10-epoxide (BPDE), the major carcinogenic intermediate of BaP. Conversely, CYP1B1 is thought to contribute only to the metabolic activation of BaP related to carcinogenesis.

Effects of fatty acids on benzo[a]pyrene uptake and metabolism in human lung adenocarcinoma A549 cells

Dietary supplementation with natural chemoprotective agents is receiving considerable attention because of health benefits and lack of toxicity. In recent in vivo and in vitro experimental studies, diets rich in n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids have been shown to provide significant anti-tumor action. In this investigation, the effects of control fatty acids (oleic acid (OA), linoleic acid (LA)) and n-3 PUFA, e.g., docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) on the uptake and metabolism of the carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon, benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) was investigated in A549 cells, a human adenocarcinoma alveolar basal epithelial cell line. A549 cells activate BaP through the cytochrome P450 enzyme system to form reactive metabolites, a few of which covalently bind to DNA and proteins. Therefore, multiphoton microscopy spectral analysis combined with linear unmixing was used to identify the parent compound and BaP metabolites formed in cells, in the presence and absence of fatty acids. The relative abundance of select metabolites was associated with altered P450 activity as determined using ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase activity in cells cultured in the presence of BSA-conjugated fatty acids. In addition, the parent compound within cellular membranes increases significantly in the presence of each of the fatty acids, with the greatest accumulation observed following DHA treatment. DHA treated cells exhibit significantly lower pyrene-like metabolites indicative of lower adducts including DNA adducts compared to control BSA, OA or LA treated cells. Further, DHA reduced the abundance of the proximate carcinogen BaP 7,8-dihydrodiol and the 3-hydroxybenzo[a]pyrene metabolites compared to other treatments. The significant changes in BaP metabolites in DHA treated cells may be mediated by the effects on the physicochemical properties of the membrane known to affect enzyme activity related to phase I and phase II metabolism. In summary, DHA is a highly bioactive chemo-protective agent capable of modulating BaP-induced DNA adducts.

Requirement of aryl hydrocarbon receptor overexpression for CYP1B1 up-regulation and cell growth in human lung adenocarcinomas

PURPOSE

CYP1B1 and CYP1A1 expression is up-regulated by activation of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) through binding of ligands such as cigarette smoke components. We examined the association between AhR, CYP1B1, and CYP1A1 expression in noninvasive bronchioloalveolar carcinomas (BAC) and lung adenocarcinomas and investigated the effects of AhR overexpression on cell physiology.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

AhR, CYP1B1, and CYP1A1 expression was examined in 107 lung adenocarcinomas and 57 BAC by immunohistochemistry. AhR expression in lung adenocarcinoma H1355 cells was stably reduced by RNA interference (RNAi). AhR, CYP1B1, and CYP1A1 expression was examined using real-time reverse transcription-PCR. Cell physiology was evaluated by measuring anchorage-independent growth and intracellular reactive oxygen species.

RESULTS

Expression of AhR and CYP1A1 was associated in smoking adenocarcinoma patients, whereas expression of AhR and CYP1B1 was associated regardless of smoking status. The level of CYP1B1, but not CYP1A1, was positively associated with AhR overexpression in BAC. 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorobenzo-p-dioxin-induced CYP1A1/1B1 expression was reduced in AhR RNAi clones. In the absence of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorobenzo-p-dioxin, CYP1B1 mRNA levels were reduced in AhR RNAi clones, whereas CYP1A1 mRNA levels were barely detectable. Furthermore, anchorage-independent growth and intracellular oxidative stress were significantly reduced in AhR RNAi cells.

CONCLUSIONS

In the absence of exogenous AhR ligands (such as cigarette smoke components), AhR overexpression up-regulated the expression of CYP1B1 in the early stage of lung adenocarcinoma. Elevated AhR expression in lung adenocarcinoma cells could increase intracellular oxidative stress and promote cell growth, implying that disrupting AhR expression might prevent the early development of lung adenocarcinomas.

Metabolism and bioactivation of toxicants in the lung. The in vitro cellular approach

Lung is a target organ for the toxicity of inhalated compounds. The respiratory tract is frequently exposed to elevated concentrations of these compounds and become the primary target site for toxicity. Occupational, accidental or prolonged exposure to a great variety of chemicals may result in acute or delayed injury to cells of the respiratory tract. Nevertheless, lung has a significant capability of biotransforming such compounds with the aim of reducing its potential toxicity. In some instances, the biotransformation of a given compound can result in the generation of more reactive, and frequently more toxic, metabolites. Indeed, lung tissue is known to activate pro-carcinogens (i.e. polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons or N-nitrosamines) into more reactive intermediates that easily form DNA adducts. Lungs express several enzymes involved in the metabolising of xenobiotics. Among them, cytochrome P450 enzymes are major players in the oxidative metabolism as well metabolic bioactivation of many organic toxicants, including pro-carcinogens. Xenobiotic-metabolising P450 enzymes are expressed in bronchial and bronchiolar epithelium, Clara cells, type II pneumocytes, and alveolar macrophages Individual CYP isoforms have different patterns of localisation within pulmonary tissue. With the aid of sensitive techniques (i.e. reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction, RT-PCR) it has become possible to detect CYP1A1, CYP1B1, CYP2A6, CYP2B6, CYP2E1 and CYP3A5 mRNAs in lung cells. Less conclusive results have been obtained concerning CYP2Cs, CYP2D6 and CYP3A4. CYP3A5 protein appears to be widely present in all lung samples and is localised in the ciliated and mucous cells of the bronchial wall, bronchial glands, bronchiolar ciliated epithelium and in type I and type II alveolar epithelium. Lung cells also express Phase II enzymes such as epoxide hydrolase, UGT1A (glucuronyl transferase) and GST-P1 (glutathione S-transferase), which largely act as detoxifying enzymes. A key question concerning organ-specific chemical toxicity is whether the actual target has the capacity to activate (or efficiently inactivate) chemicals. Results of several studies indicate that the different xenobiotic-metabolising CYPs, present in the human lung and lung-derived cell lines, likely contribute to in situ activation of pulmonary toxins, among them, pro-carcinogens. Some CYPs, in particular CYP1A, are polymorphic and inducible. Interindividual differences in the expression of these CYPs may explain the different risk of developing lung toxicity (possibly cancer), by agents that require metabolic activation. Few cell lines, principally A549, have been used with variable success as an experimental model for investigating the mechanisms of toxicity. Although RT-PCR analysis has evidenced the presence of the major human pulmonary CYP mRNAs, the measurable P450 specific activities are, however, far below those present in human lungs. Detection of the toxicity elicited by reactive metabolites requires the use of metabolically competent cells; consequently, better performing cells are needed to ensure realistic in vitro prediction of toxicity. Genetic manipulation of lung-derived cells allowing them to re-express key biotransformation enzymes appear to be a promising strategy to improve their functionality and metabolic performance.

Glycine N-methyltransferase tumor susceptibility gene in the benzo(a)pyrene-detoxification pathway

Glycine N-methyltransferase (GNMT) affects genetic stability by (a) regulating the ratio of S-adenosylmethionine to S-adenosylhomocystine and (b) binding to folate. Based on the identification of GNMT as a 4 S polyaromatic hydrocarbon-binding protein, we used liver cancer cell lines that expressed GNMT either transiently or stably in cDNA transfections to analyze the role of GNMT in the benzo(a)pyrene (BaP) detoxification pathway. Results from an indirect immunofluorescent antibody assay showed that GNMT was expressed in cell cytoplasm before BaP treatment and translocated to cell nuclei after BaP treatment. Compared with cells transfected with the vector plasmid, the number of BaP-7,8-diol 9,10-epoxide-DNA adducts that formed in GNMT-expressing cells was significantly reduced. Furthermore, the dose-dependent inhibition of BaP-7,8-diol 9,10-epoxide-DNA adduct formation by GNMT was observed in HepG2 cells infected with different multiplicities of infection of recombinant adenoviruses carrying GNMT cDNA. According to an aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase enzyme activity assay, GNMT inhibited BaP-induced cytochrome P450 1A1 enzyme activity. Automated BaP docking using a Lamarckian genetic algorithm with GNMT X-ray crystallography revealed a BaP preference for the S-adenosylmethionine-binding domain of the dimeric form of GNMT, a novel finding of a cellular defense against potentially damaging exposures. In addition to GNMT, results from docking experiments showed that BaP binds readily with other DNA methyltransferases, including HhaI, HaeIII, PvuII methyltransferases and human DNA methyltransferase 2. We therefore hypothesized that BaP-DNA methyltransferase and BaP-GNMT interactions may contribute to carcinogenesis.

Reduction of androgen receptor expression by benzo[a]pyrene and 7,8-dihydro-9,10-epoxy-7,8,9,10-tetrahydrobenzo[a]pyrene in human lung cells

5Alpha-dihydrotestosterone significantly increased cell growth of lung adenocarcinoma cell line H1355. Benzo[alpha]pyrene (BaP) was a pulmonary carcinogen found in cigarette smoke. Treatment with 1microM BaP tremendously reduced constitutive androgen receptor (AR) expression, as determined with Western immunoblotting and the real-time RT-PCR assay, as well as testosterone-induced AR protein levels in H1355 cells. Similarly, 1microM BaP significantly reduced AR mRNA levels in human bronchial epithelial cells BEAS-2B. Although BaP, 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dixin and polychlorinated biphenyl 126 activated aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), which subsequently induced cytochrome P4501A1 (CYP1A1) and P4501B1 (CYP1B1) expression in H1355 cells, unexpectedly, neither TCDD nor PCB126 reduced AR expression. Antagonizing AhR activation and cytochrome P4501 activity with alpha-naphthoflavone, or inhibiting CYP1B1 activity with 2,4,3',5'-tetramethoxystilbene, however, prevented BaP-induced AR reduction. Furthermore, 7,8-dihydro-9,10-epoxy-7,8,9,10-tetrahydrobenzo[alpha]pyrene, a BaP carcinogenic metabolite catalyzed by CYP1A1 and CYP1B1, significantly reduced AR expression in H1355 cells and human lung fibroblasts WI-38. This was the first study that reports that BaP and BPDE reduced endogenous AR expression. These data suggest that metabolically activated BaP may disrupt androgen function by reducing AR levels in androgen-responsive organs.

Increased expression of cytochrome P4501B1 in peripheral leukocytes from lung cancer patients

Aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR)-regulated cytochrome P4501A1 (CYP1A1) and P4501B1 (CYP1B1) have been shown to metabolically activate some carcinogens. In the present study, we utilized the real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) assay to compare AhR, CYP1A1 and CYP1B1 mRNA levels in peripheral leukocytes from 42 lung cancer patients and 59 non-cancer subjects. We found that CYP1A1 and CYP1B1 levels, but not AhR, were significantly higher in patients than in non-cancer subjects. After stratified by gender, CYP1A1 levels were significantly higher in female patients than in female controls. After controlling for age, smoking status and gender, lung cancer patients were more likely to be CYP1B1 high expressers (P < 0.05). Neither AhR nor CYP1A1 levels was associated with lung cancer incidence. Leu-Val polymorphism of CYP1B1 was not associated with lung cancer risk in our study. These data indicated that CYP1B1 mRNA levels were elevated in peripheral leukocytes of lung cancer patients.

A comparative study on the effects of 2,3,7,8,-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin polychlorinated biphenyl126 and estrogen in human bronchial epithelial cells

Epidemiological studies on 2,3,7,8,-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) exposure indicated high incidences of pulmonary dysfunctions and lung cancer. Animal studies also demonstrated lung cancer development in female, but not in male, rats exposed to TCDD. Such effects, however, have not been reported in polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) exposure. In our present study, we have investigated the effects of TCDD and PCB126, with or without cotreatment with 17 beta-estradiol (E2), on a human bronchial epithelial cell line BEAS-2B. We found that treatment with either TCDD or PCB126 alone reduced cell numbers as well as thymidine incorporation. Cell death, however, was only detected in PCB126-, but not TCDD-, treated cultures. The TCDD-induced cell reduction, therefore, could not be contributed to cell death. Meanwhile, because TCDD- and PCB126-enhanced CYP1A1 and CYP1B1 expressions were significantly reduced by the AhR antagonist and CYP1 inhibitor alpha-naphthoflavone (ANF), this indicated that the effects of TCDD and PCB126 were AhR and cytochrome p450 1 dependent. We also found that while E2 itself did not alter CYP1A1 and CYP1B1 expressions, cotreatment of E2 with TCDD or PCB126 would significantly enhance TCDD-, but not PCB126-, induced toxicity. We further demonstrated that in the presence of E2, 1 nM TCDD increased the production of E2 metabolites, 2-methoxyestradiol (2-MeOE2) and 4-methoxyestradiol (4-MeOE2). PCB126, however, only increased 2-MeOE2 formation without significant induction of 4-MeOE2. We believe that these metabolites, especially 4-MeOE2, interacted with TCDD to further suppress cell growth. Our data provided the first demonstration on the enhancement of TCDD-induced toxicity in human lung cells via interaction with estrogen.

Human extrahepatic cytochromes P450: function in xenobiotic metabolism and tissue-selective chemical toxicity in the respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts

Cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes in extrahepatic tissues often play a dominant role in target tissue metabolic activation of xenobiotic compounds. They may also determine drug efficacy and influence the tissue burden of foreign chemicals or bioavailability of therapeutic agents. This review focuses on xenobiotic-metabolizing CYPs of the human respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts, including the lung, trachea, nasal respiratory and olfactory mucosa, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and colon. Many CYPs are expressed in one or more of these organs, including CYP1A1, CYP1A2, CYP1B1, CYP2A6, CYP2A13, CYP2B6, CYP2C8, CYP2C9, CYP2C18, CYP2C19, CYP2D6, CYP2E1, CYP2F1, CYP2J2, CYP2S1, CYP3A4, CYP3A5, and CYP4B1. Of particular interest are the preferential expression of certain CYPs in the respiratory tract and the regional differences in CYP expression profile in different parts of the gastrointestinal tract. Current research activities on the characterization of CYP expression, function, and regulation in these tissues, as well as future research needs, are discussed.

Overexpression of aryl hydrocarbon receptor in human lung carcinomas

Exposure to polycylic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) has been associated with increased risk of lung cancer. Aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is known to play an essential role in PAH-induced toxicity. The objectives of this study were to identify and evaluate AhR expression in normal human lung tissues and in lung carcinomas. AhR protein and mRNA levels in human lung cell lines were evaluated with immunoblot and quantitative real-time RT-PCR assays, respectively. AhR protein expression was high in cytosol homogenates of adenocarcinoma (AD) cell lines and AhR mRNA levels corresponded well with AhR protein levels in these cell lines. AhR expression in human lung tissues and carcinomas were examined by means of immunohistochemical staining method. In normal lung tissues, immunostaining was found in the cytosol of bronchiolar epithelial cells. AhR immunostaining was more intense in AD than in squamous cell carcinomas. When AhR expression was compared with noral bronchiolar epithelial cells and neoplastic cells in the same specimens, the neoplastic cells, especially those of AD, demonstrated an increased staining. The upregulation of AhR mRNA expression was also demonstrated among 2 of 4 paired tissues with the quantitative real-time RT-PCR assay. Our data indicated that AhR expression was upregulated in lung AD and suggested that AhR and its expression might play an important role in the development of lung AD.

Polymorphisms in the human AH receptor

The AH receptor (AHR) mediates toxicity of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) as well as induction of three cytochrome P450 enzymes and certain Phase II enzymes. In laboratory animals, genetic variations in the AHR lead to substantial differences in sensitivity to biochemical and toxic effects of TCDD and related compounds. Relatively few polymorphisms have been discovered in the human AHR gene; these occur predominantly in exon 10, a region that encodes a major portion of the transactivation domain of the receptor that is responsible for regulating expression of other genes. In human populations there is a wide range of variation in responses regulated by the AHR for example, induction of CYP1A1. Some variation in human responsiveness likely is due to genetically based variations in AHR structure. Thus far, however, only one pair of polymorphisms, those at codons 517 and 570, has been shown to have a clear cut and strong effect on the phenotype of an AHR-mediated response. The search continues for polymorphisms that alter AHR function because this receptor is a central factor in determining responses to important environmental contaminants and also plays a physiologic role in early development in mammals.

Unaltered expression of multidrug resistance transporters in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon-resistant rat liver cells

Rat liver epithelial cells resistant to the chemical carcinogen 3MC, termed F258/3MC cells and generated by long-term exposure of parental F258 cells to the PAH, were characterized, especially with respect to expression of multidrug resistance transporters such as P-glycoprotein, MRP1 and MRP2. F258/3MC cells were found to be cross-resistant to other PAHs such as BP and dimethylbenz(a)anthracene but remained sensitive to known substrates of multidrug resistance efflux pumps such as doxorubicin and vincristine. They did not display either decreased cellular PAH accumulation or increased PAH efflux. In addition, P-glycoprotein and MRP2 mRNA levels were not, or only barely detected, in F258/3MC cells and in their parental counterparts whereas these PAH-resistant and sensitive cells showed closed levels of MRP1 mRNAs and activity. Moreover, P-gp- and MRP1-overexpressing cells were shown to display similar accumulation and efflux of BP than those found in P-gp- and MRP1-negative control cells. These data therefore suggest that multidrug resistance transporters do not contribute to PAH resistance in PAH-selected liver cells.

Benzo[g,h,i]perylene synergistically transactivates benzo[a]pyrene-induced CYP1A1 gene expression by aryl hydrocarbon receptor pathway

Although benzo[g,h,i]perylene (BghiP) has been found to promote the carcinogenesis of benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) in animal models, not much is known about this cocarcinogenic mechanism. In this study, human hepatoma HepG2 cells cotreated with BaP and BghiP were used as a model to investigate the cocarcinogenic mechanism of BghiP in BaP-induced carcinogenesis. DNA adduct formation is thought to initiate carcinogenesis, so the effect of BghiP on BaP-DNA adduct formation was evaluated using a (32)P-postlabeling assay. The BaP-DNA adduct levels increased following the addition of BghiP, in a dose-dependent manner. However, no adducts were formed with BghiP alone. Our previous report showed that cytochrome P450 1A1 (CYP1A1) is responsible for the metabolic activation of BaP and the formation of B[a]P adduct in HepG2 cells. Western blot and Northern blot analyses were used to evaluate whether BaP-induced CYP1A1 protein and mRNA levels increased following the addition of BghiP. Our data showed that BghiP enhanced BaP-induced CYP1A1 protein and its mRNA levels. To understand whether BghiP enhances BaP-induced CYP1A1 gene expression through the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) signaling pathway, a gel retardation assay was performed to elucidate the synergistic mechanism of BghiP in BaP-induced CYP1A1 gene expression. The results showed that BghiP causes an increase in the nuclear accumulation of AhR in cells and/or activation of AhR to a DNA-binding form. There was a concordant increase in the transcription activation of CYP1A1 gene and the induction of AhR signal pathway. Our findings demonstrated that BghiP enhances BaP-induced CYP1A1 transcription by AhR activation and suggested that the induction mechanism of CYP1A1 contributes to the cocarcinogenic potential of BghiP in BaP-induced carcinogenesis.

Differential response of cultured human umbilical vein and artery endothelial cells to Ah receptor agonist treatment: CYP-dependent activation of food and environmental mutagens

In the present study, 7-ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase (EROD), 7, 12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA)-hydroxylase, and covalent binding of (3)H-labeled 3-amino-1,4-dimethyl-5H-pyrido[4,3-b]indole ((3)H-Trp-P-1) and (3)H-DMBA were examined in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) and human umbilical artery endothelial cells (HUAEC) exposed to the aryl hydrocarbon (Ah) receptor agonist beta-naphthoflavone (BNF) or vehicle only. The results revealed a marked induction of enzymatic activity in BNF-treated HUVEC compared with vehicle-treated cells, whereas no similar response was observed in BNF-treated HUAEC. EROD, DMBA hydroxylase, and covalent binding of (3)H-Trp-P-1 and (3)H-DMBA in BNF-treated HUVEC were reduced in the presence of the CYP1A inhibitor ellipticine. Addition of other CYP1A inhibitors alpha-naphthoflavone, miconazole, 1-ethynylpyrene, 1-(1-propynyl)pyrene), or the CYP1A substrate ethoxyresorufin to the incubation buffer of BNF-treated HUVEC reduced covalent binding of (3)H-Trp-P-1 by 93-98%. Western blot analysis confirmed an induction of CYP1A1 in BNF-treated HUVEC, but not in BNF-treated HUAEC. CYP1A1 was, however, detected in both vehicle- and BNF-treated HUAEC. The results showed that BNF exposure induced CYP1A1 and metabolic activation of xenobiotics in HUVEC, whereas the catalytic activity remained low in BNF-treated HUAEC. Our results suggest that endothelial lining of human veins may be a target for adverse effects of xenobiotics activated into reactive metabolites by Ah receptor-regulated enzymes. Several studies have detected CYP1A1 in endothelial linings, whereas expression of CYP1A2 and CYP1B1 seems to be negligible at this site. This suggests that the metabolic activation and covalent binding of (3)H-Trp-P-1 and (3)H-DMBA in HUVEC are most likely mediated by CYP1A1.