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Qiaerxie G, Jiang Y, Li G, Yang Z, Long F, Yu Y, Lu JS, Du P, Cui Y. Design and evaluation of mRNA encoding recombinant neutralizing antibodies for botulinum neurotoxin type B intoxication prophylaxis. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2024; 20:2358570. [PMID: 38853516 PMCID: PMC11168212 DOI: 10.1080/21645515.2024.2358570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2024] [Accepted: 05/18/2024] [Indexed: 06/11/2024] Open
Abstract
Among all natural and synthetic toxins, botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs), produced by Clostridium botulinum in an anaerobic environment, are the most toxic polymer proteins. Currently, the most effective modalities for botulism prevention and treatment are vaccination and antitoxin use, respectively. However, these modalities are associated with long response time for active immunization, side effects, and donor limitations. As such, the development of more promising botulism prevention and treatment modalities is warranted. Here, we designed an mRNA encoding B9-hFc - a heavy-chain antibody fused to VHH and human Fc that can neutralize BoNT serotype B (BoNT/B) effectively - and assessed its expression in vitro and in vivo. The results confirmed that our mRNA demonstrates good expression in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, a single mRNA lipid nanoparticle injection effectively prevents BoNT/B intoxication in vivo, with effects comparable to those of protein antibodies. In conclusion, we explored and clarified whether mRNA drugs encoding neutralizing antibodies prevent BoNT/B intoxication. Our results provide an efficient strategy for further research on the prevention and treatment of intoxication by botulinum toxin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gulisaina Qiaerxie
- School of Medical Device, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
- Protein Engineering Laboratory, Beijing Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing, China
| | - Yujia Jiang
- Protein Engineering Laboratory, Beijing Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing, China
| | - Gege Li
- School of Medical Device, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
- Protein Engineering Laboratory, Beijing Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing, China
| | - Zhixin Yang
- Protein Engineering Laboratory, Beijing Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing, China
| | - Feng Long
- School of Medical Device, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
- Department of Pharmacy, Maternal and Child Health Care Hospital of Zaozhuang, Zaozhuang, Shandong, China
| | - Yunzhou Yu
- Protein Engineering Laboratory, Beijing Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing, China
| | - Jian Sheng Lu
- Laboratory of Advanced Biotechnology, Beijing Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing, China
| | - Peng Du
- Protein Engineering Laboratory, Beijing Institute of Biotechnology, Beijing, China
| | - Yong Cui
- School of Medical Device, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
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2
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Tsai YC, Kozar L, Mawi ZP, Ichtchenko K, Shoemaker CB, McNutt PM, Weissman AM. The Degradation of Botulinum Neurotoxin Light Chains Using PROTACs. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:7472. [PMID: 39000579 PMCID: PMC11242356 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25137472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2024] [Revised: 06/28/2024] [Accepted: 07/02/2024] [Indexed: 07/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Botulinum neurotoxins are some of the most potent natural toxins known; they cause flaccid paralysis by inhibiting synaptic vesicle release. Some serotypes, notably serotype A and B, can cause persistent paralysis lasting for several months. Because of their potency and persistence, botulinum neurotoxins are now used to manage several clinical conditions, and there is interest in expanding their clinical applications using engineered toxins with novel substrate specificities. It will also be beneficial to engineer toxins with tunable persistence. We have investigated the potential use of small-molecule proteolysis-targeting chimeras (PROTACs) to vary the persistence of modified recombinant botulinum neurotoxins. We also describe a complementary approach that has potential relevance for botulism treatment. This second approach uses a camelid heavy chain antibody directed against botulinum neurotoxin that is modified to bind the PROTAC. These strategies provide proof of principle for the use of two different approaches to fine tune the persistence of botulinum neurotoxins by selectively targeting their catalytic light chains for proteasomal degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yien Che Tsai
- Cancer Innovation Laboratory, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, MD 21702, USA (A.M.W.)
| | - Loren Kozar
- Cancer Innovation Laboratory, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, MD 21702, USA (A.M.W.)
| | - Zo P. Mawi
- Cancer Innovation Laboratory, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, MD 21702, USA (A.M.W.)
| | - Konstantin Ichtchenko
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, USA;
| | - Charles B. Shoemaker
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Global Health, Tufts University Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Grafton, MA 01536, USA;
| | - Patrick M. McNutt
- Wake Forest Research Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC 27101, USA;
| | - Allan M. Weissman
- Cancer Innovation Laboratory, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, MD 21702, USA (A.M.W.)
- Women’s Malignancies Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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3
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D’Este G, Fabris F, Stazi M, Baggio C, Simonato M, Megighian A, Rigoni M, Negro S, Montecucco C. Agonists of melatonin receptors strongly promote the functional recovery from the neuroparalysis induced by neurotoxic snakes. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2024; 18:e0011825. [PMID: 38190386 PMCID: PMC10798625 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0011825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2023] [Revised: 01/19/2024] [Accepted: 12/22/2023] [Indexed: 01/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Snake envenoming is a major, but neglected, tropical disease. Among venomous snakes, those inducing neurotoxicity such as kraits (Bungarus genus) cause a potentially lethal peripheral neuroparalysis with respiratory deficit in a large number of people each year. In order to prevent the development of a deadly respiratory paralysis, hospitalization with pulmonary ventilation and use of antivenoms are the primary therapies currently employed. However, hospitals are frequently out of reach for envenomated patients and there is a general consensus that additional, non-expensive treatments, deliverable even long after the snake bite, are needed. Traumatic or toxic degenerations of peripheral motor neurons cause a neuroparalysis that activates a pro-regenerative intercellular signaling program taking place at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ). We recently reported that the intercellular signaling axis melatonin-melatonin receptor 1 (MT1) plays a major role in the recovery of function of the NMJs after degeneration of motor axon terminals caused by massive Ca2+ influx. Here we show that the small chemical MT1 agonists: Ramelteon and Agomelatine, already licensed for the treatment of insomnia and depression, respectively, are strong promoters of the neuroregeneration after paralysis induced by krait venoms in mice, which is also Ca2+ mediated. The venom from a Bungarus species representative of the large class of neurotoxic snakes (including taipans, coral snakes, some Alpine vipers in addition to other kraits) was chosen. The functional recovery of the NMJ was demonstrated using electrophysiological, imaging and lung ventilation detection methods. According to the present results, we propose that Ramelteon and Agomelatine should be tested in human patients bitten by neurotoxic snakes acting presynaptically to promote their recovery of health. Noticeably, these drugs are commercially available, safe, non-expensive, have a long bench life and can be administered long after a snakebite even in places far away from health facilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giorgia D’Este
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Federico Fabris
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Marco Stazi
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Chiara Baggio
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | | | - Aram Megighian
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
- Padua Neuroscience Center, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Michela Rigoni
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
- Myology Center (CIR-Myo), University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Samuele Negro
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
- U.O.C. Clinica Neurologica, Azienda Ospedale-Università Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Cesare Montecucco
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
- CNR Institute of Neuroscience, Padova, Italy
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Leka O, Wu Y, Zanetti G, Furler S, Reinberg T, Marinho J, Schaefer JV, Plückthun A, Li X, Pirazzini M, Kammerer RA. A DARPin promotes faster onset of botulinum neurotoxin A1 action. Nat Commun 2023; 14:8317. [PMID: 38110403 PMCID: PMC10728214 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-44102-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2022] [Accepted: 11/30/2023] [Indexed: 12/20/2023] Open
Abstract
In this study, we characterize Designed Ankyrin Repeat Proteins (DARPins) as investigative tools to probe botulinum neurotoxin A1 (BoNT/A1) structure and function. We identify DARPin-F5 that completely blocks SNAP25 substrate cleavage by BoNT/A1 in vitro. X-ray crystallography reveals that DARPin-F5 inhibits BoNT/A1 activity by interacting with a substrate-binding region between the α- and β-exosite. This DARPin does not block substrate cleavage of BoNT/A3, indicating that DARPin-F5 is a subtype-specific inhibitor. BoNT/A1 Glu-171 plays a critical role in the interaction with DARPin-F5 and its mutation to Asp, the residue found in BoNT/A3, results in a loss of inhibition of substrate cleavage. In contrast to the in vitro results, DARPin-F5 promotes faster substrate cleavage of BoNT/A1 in primary neurons and muscle tissue by increasing toxin translocation. Our findings could have important implications for the application of BoNT/A1 in therapeutic areas requiring faster onset of toxin action combined with long persistence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oneda Leka
- Laboratory of Biomolecular Research, Division of Biology, Paul Scherrer Institut, 5232, Villigen PSI, Switzerland
| | - Yufan Wu
- Laboratory of Biomolecular Research, Division of Biology, Paul Scherrer Institut, 5232, Villigen PSI, Switzerland
| | - Giulia Zanetti
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, 35121, Padova, Italy
| | - Sven Furler
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Zurich, 8057, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Reinberg
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Zurich, 8057, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Joana Marinho
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Zurich, 8057, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Jonas V Schaefer
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Zurich, 8057, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Andreas Plückthun
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Zurich, 8057, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Xiaodan Li
- Laboratory of Biomolecular Research, Division of Biology, Paul Scherrer Institut, 5232, Villigen PSI, Switzerland
| | - Marco Pirazzini
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, 35121, Padova, Italy
| | - Richard A Kammerer
- Laboratory of Biomolecular Research, Division of Biology, Paul Scherrer Institut, 5232, Villigen PSI, Switzerland.
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5
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Rawson AM, Dempster AW, Humphreys CM, Minton NP. Pathogenicity and virulence of Clostridium botulinum. Virulence 2023; 14:2205251. [PMID: 37157163 PMCID: PMC10171130 DOI: 10.1080/21505594.2023.2205251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Clostridium botulinum, a polyphyletic Gram-positive taxon of bacteria, is classified purely by their ability to produce botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT). BoNT is the primary virulence factor and the causative agent of botulism. A potentially fatal disease, botulism is classically characterized by a symmetrical descending flaccid paralysis, which is left untreated can lead to respiratory failure and death. Botulism cases are classified into three main forms dependent on the nature of intoxication; foodborne, wound and infant. The BoNT, regarded as the most potent biological substance known, is a zinc metalloprotease that specifically cleaves SNARE proteins at neuromuscular junctions, preventing exocytosis of neurotransmitters, leading to muscle paralysis. The BoNT is now used to treat numerous medical conditions caused by overactive or spastic muscles and is extensively used in the cosmetic industry due to its high specificity and the exceedingly small doses needed to exert long-lasting pharmacological effects. Additionally, the ability to form endospores is critical to the pathogenicity of the bacteria. Disease transmission is often facilitated via the metabolically dormant spores that are highly resistant to environment stresses, allowing persistence in the environment in unfavourable conditions. Infant and wound botulism infections are initiated upon germination of the spores into neurotoxin producing vegetative cells, whereas foodborne botulism is attributed to ingestion of preformed BoNT. C. botulinum is a saprophytic bacterium, thought to have evolved its potent neurotoxin to establish a source of nutrients by killing its host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander M Rawson
- Clostridia Research Group, BBSRC/EPSRC Synthetic Biology Research Centre (SBRC), School of Life Sciences, The Biodiscovery Institute, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
| | - Andrew W Dempster
- Clostridia Research Group, BBSRC/EPSRC Synthetic Biology Research Centre (SBRC), School of Life Sciences, The Biodiscovery Institute, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
| | - Christopher M Humphreys
- Clostridia Research Group, BBSRC/EPSRC Synthetic Biology Research Centre (SBRC), School of Life Sciences, The Biodiscovery Institute, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
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6
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Williams LE, Frishman WH. Botulinum Toxin: A Potential Cardiovascular Agent? Cardiol Rev 2023:00045415-990000000-00169. [PMID: 37889014 DOI: 10.1097/crd.0000000000000582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2023]
Abstract
Botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) is a toxin with a wide repertoire of well-known applications in cosmetics and medicine, such as treating migraine headaches, spasticity, and achalasia, and it has generally been shown to be safe and well-tolerated. In addition to its current successes in clinical practice, studies have also demonstrated the potential of BoNT to be used as a therapeutic agent for many cardiovascular conditions. Prior investigations, as well as trials currently underway, have showcased the safety and potential efficacy of BoNT in applications such as treating ischemia-reperfusion injury, hypertension, atrial fibrillation, and heart failure. While further study in humans, as well as improved statistical power in efficacy studies, are needed before its prospective use as a treatment for the aforementioned conditions, one might consider BoNT a potential cardiovascular agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren E Williams
- From the Department of Medicine, New York Medical College/Westchester Medical Center, Valhalla, NY
| | - William H Frishman
- Departments of Medicine and Cardiology, New York Medical College/Westchester Medical Center, Valhalla, NY
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7
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Dorner MB, Wilking H, Skiba M, Wilk L, Steinberg M, Worbs S, Çeken S, Kaygusuz S, Simon S, Becher F, Mikolajewska A, Kornschober C, Bütler T, Jourdan-Da-Silva N, An der Heiden M, Schaade L, Stark K, Dorner BG, Frank C. A large travel-associated outbreak of iatrogenic botulism in four European countries following intragastric botulinum neurotoxin injections for weight reduction, Türkiye, February to March 2023. Euro Surveill 2023; 28:2300203. [PMID: 37289431 PMCID: PMC10318948 DOI: 10.2807/1560-7917.es.2023.28.23.2300203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2023] [Accepted: 05/14/2023] [Indexed: 06/09/2023] Open
Abstract
In March 2023, 34 associated cases of iatrogenic botulism were detected in Germany (30 cases), Switzerland (two cases), Austria (one case), and France (one case). An alert was rapidly disseminated via European Union networks and communication platforms (Food- and Waterborne Diseases and Zoonoses Network, EpiPulse, Early Warning and Response System) and the International Health Regulation mechanism; the outbreak was investigated in a European collaboration. We traced sources of the botulism outbreak to treatment of weight loss in Türkiye, involving intragastric injections of botulinum neurotoxin. Cases were traced using a list of patients who had received this treatment. Laboratory investigations of the first 12 German cases confirmed nine cases. The application of innovative and highly sensitive endopeptidase assays was necessary to detect minute traces of botulinum neurotoxin in patient sera. The botulism notification requirement for physicians was essential to detect this outbreak in Germany. The surveillance case definition of botulism should be revisited and inclusion of cases of iatrogenic botulism should be considered as these cases might lack standard laboratory confirmation yet warrant public health action. Any potential risks associated with the use of botulinum neurotoxins in medical procedures need to be carefully balanced with the expected benefits of the procedure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Bernhard Dorner
- Biological Toxins (ZBS3), Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Hendrik Wilking
- Department for Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Martin Skiba
- Biological Toxins (ZBS3), Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Laura Wilk
- Biological Toxins (ZBS3), Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Maximilian Steinberg
- Biological Toxins (ZBS3), Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Sylvia Worbs
- Biological Toxins (ZBS3), Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Sabahat Çeken
- General Directorate of Public Health, Ministry of Health, Ankara, Türkiye
| | - Sedat Kaygusuz
- General Directorate of Public Health, Ministry of Health, Ankara, Türkiye
| | - Stéphanie Simon
- Université Paris Saclay, Commissariat à l'énergie atomique et aux énergies alternatives (CEA), Institut national de recherche pour l'agriculture, l'alimentation et l'environnement (INRAE), Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SPI, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - François Becher
- Université Paris Saclay, Commissariat à l'énergie atomique et aux énergies alternatives (CEA), Institut national de recherche pour l'agriculture, l'alimentation et l'environnement (INRAE), Département Médicaments et Technologies pour la Santé (DMTS), SPI, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Agata Mikolajewska
- Strategy and Incident Response (ZBS7), Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Timo Bütler
- National International Health Regulation (IHR) Focal Point for Switzerland, Swiss Federal Office of Public Health, Division of Communicable Diseases, Bern, Switzerland
| | | | - Maria An der Heiden
- Department for Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Lars Schaade
- Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Klaus Stark
- Department for Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Brigitte Gertrud Dorner
- Biological Toxins (ZBS3), Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
- These authors contributed equally to the work and share the last authorship
| | - Christina Frank
- These authors contributed equally to the work and share the last authorship
- Department for Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
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8
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Hamad G, Hafez EE, Sobhy SE, Mehany T, Elfayoumy RA, Elghazaly EM, Eskander M, Tawfik RG, Hussein SM, Pereira L. Detection of Clostridium botulinum in Some Egyptian Fish Products, Its Control In Vitro Using Citrus Leaves Extracts, and Applicability of Citrus limon Leaf Extract in Tuna. Foods 2023; 12:foods12071466. [PMID: 37048287 PMCID: PMC10093640 DOI: 10.3390/foods12071466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2023] [Revised: 03/24/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 04/14/2023] Open
Abstract
This study aims to detect Clostridium botulinum and its control using natural leaf extracts of Citrus limon, Citrus sinensis, and Citrus unshiu in Egyptian fish products, e.g., canned tuna, canned sardine, canned mackerel, fesikh, moloha, and renga, as well the application of C. limon in tuna. Moreover, the antibacterial activity of the C. limon leaf extract was also estimated. In the water extract, ascorbic acid, total flavonoid content (TFC), and total phenolic content (TPC) were determined by volumetric, aluminum chloride, and Folin-Ciocalteu approaches, respectively. The antioxidant ability of the extract was analyzed in vitro via free radical scavenging (DPPH) and Ferric reducing assays. The results showed variability in the distribution of the total number of positive C. botulinum in fish samples from three different governorates under study, which were (24) Alexandria, (16) Beheira, and (17) Gharbia, out of the 120 tested samples in each governorate. Additionally, the findings revealed that all three Citrus extracts contain an appropriate number of secondary metabolites, with a sustainable presence of saponin and tannins in the C. limon extract. Furthermore, all Citrus extracts inhibited bacterial growth by increasing the inhibition zone, with C. limon being the best extract (25 mm) compared to C. sinensis and C. unshiu. The overall results showed the high antioxidant and anti-Clostridium powers (p < 0.05) of C. limon leaf extract, indicating its preservative activity in fishery products during storage. Finally, C. limon leaf extract can fight off C. botulinum and is considered a promising natural preservation candidate in ensuring safe and fresh fishery products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gamal Hamad
- Department of Food Technology, Arid Lands Cultivation Research Institute, City of Scientific Research and Technological Applications, New Borg El-Arab 21934, Egypt
| | - Elsayed E Hafez
- Department of Plant Protection and Biomolecular Diagnosis, Arid Lands Cultivation Research Institute, City of Scientific Research and Technology Applications, New Borg El-Arab 21934, Egypt
| | - Sherien E Sobhy
- Department of Plant Protection and Biomolecular Diagnosis, Arid Lands Cultivation Research Institute, City of Scientific Research and Technology Applications, New Borg El-Arab 21934, Egypt
| | - Taha Mehany
- Department of Food Technology, Arid Lands Cultivation Research Institute, City of Scientific Research and Technological Applications, New Borg El-Arab 21934, Egypt
| | - Reham A Elfayoumy
- Department of Botany and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Damietta University, Damietta 34511, Egypt
| | - Eman M Elghazaly
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Matrouh University, Matrouh 51511, Egypt
| | - Michael Eskander
- Department of Food Hygiene and Control, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Alexandria University, Alexandria 22758, Egypt
| | - Rasha G Tawfik
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Alexandria University, Alexandria 22758, Egypt
| | - Saleh M Hussein
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Agriculture, Al-Azhar University, Assiut 71524, Egypt
| | - Leonel Pereira
- MARE-Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre/ARNET-Aquatic Research Network, Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, Calçada Martim de Freitas, 3000-456 Coimbra, Portugal
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9
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Ambrin G, Cai S, Singh BR. Critical analysis in the advancement of cell-based assays for botulinum neurotoxin. Crit Rev Microbiol 2023; 49:1-17. [PMID: 35212259 DOI: 10.1080/1040841x.2022.2035315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
The study on botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) has rapidly evolved for their structure and functions as opposed to them being poisons or cures. Since their discoveries, the scientific community has come a long way in understanding BoNTs' structure and biological activity. Given its current application as a tool for understanding neurocellular activity and as a drug against over 800 neurological disorders, relevant and sensitive assays have become critical for biochemical, physiological, and pharmacological studies. The natural entry of the toxin being ingestion, it has also become important to examine its mechanism while crossing the epithelial cell barrier. Several techniques and methodologies have been developed, for its entry, pharmacokinetics, and biological activity for identification, and drug efficacy both in vivo and in vitro conditions. However, each of them presents its own challenges. The cell-based assay is a platform that exceeds the sensitivity of mouse bioassay while encompassing all the steps of intoxication including cell binding, transcytosis, endocytosis, translocation and proteolytic activity. In this article we review in detail both the neuronal and nonneuronal based cellular interaction of BoNT involving its transportation, and interaction with the targeted cells, and intracellular activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ghuncha Ambrin
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Massachusetts, Dartmouth, MA, USA.,Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Massachusetts, Dartmouth, MA, USA
| | - Shuowei Cai
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Massachusetts, Dartmouth, MA, USA
| | - Bal Ram Singh
- Institute of Advanced Sciences, Botulinum Research Center, Dartmouth, MA, USA
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10
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Hendrickx D, Varela Martínez C, Contzen M, Wagner-Wiening C, Janke KH, Hernando Jiménez P, Massing S, Pichler J, Tichaczek-Dischinger P, Burckhardt F, Stark K, Katz K, Jurke A, Thole S, Carbó R, del Pobil Ferré MP, Nieto M, Zamora MJ, Sisó A, Pallares García P, Valdezate S, Schaade L, Worbs S, Dorner BG, Frank C, Dorner MB. First cross-border outbreak of foodborne botulism in the European Union associated with the consumption of commercial dried roach ( Rutilus rutilus). Front Public Health 2023; 10:1039770. [PMID: 36684858 PMCID: PMC9846170 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2022.1039770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2022] [Accepted: 12/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Botulism outbreaks due to commercial products are extremely rare in the European Union. Here we report on the first international outbreak of foodborne botulism caused by commercial salt-cured, dried roach (Rutilus rutilus). Between November and December 2016, an outbreak of six foodborne botulism type E cases from five unrelated households was documented in Germany and Spain. The outbreak involved persons of Russian and Kazakh backgrounds, all consumed unheated salt-cured, dried roach-a snack particularly favored in Easter-European countries. The implicated food batches had been distributed by an international wholesaler and were recalled from Europe-wide outlets of a supermarket chain and other independent retailers. Of interest, and very unlike to other foodborne disease outbreaks which usually involves a single strain or virus variant, different Clostridium botulinum strains and toxin variants could be identified even from a single patient's sample. Foodborne botulism is a rare but potentially life-threatening disease and almost exclusively involves home-made or artisan products and thus, outbreaks are limited to individual or few cases. As a consequence, international outbreaks are the absolute exception and this is the first one within the European Union. Additional cases were likely prevented by a broad product recall, underscoring the importance of timely public health action. Challenges and difficulties on the diagnostic and epidemiological level encountered in the outbreak are highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Hendrickx
- Landesgesundheitsamt Baden-Württemberg, Ministerium für Soziales, Gesundheit und Integration Baden-Württemberg, Stuttgart, Germany
- European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control, European Programme for Intervention Epidemiology Training (EPIET), Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Carmen Varela Martínez
- National Centre of Epidemiology, Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
- CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Matthias Contzen
- Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt Stuttgart, Ministerium für Ernährung, Ländlichen Raum und Verbraucherschutz Baden-Württemberg, Fellbach, Germany
| | - Christiane Wagner-Wiening
- Landesgesundheitsamt Baden-Württemberg, Ministerium für Soziales, Gesundheit und Integration Baden-Württemberg, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Karl-Heinz Janke
- Landesgesundheitsamt Baden-Württemberg, Ministerium für Soziales, Gesundheit und Integration Baden-Württemberg, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Pablo Hernando Jiménez
- Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt Karlsruhe, Ministerium für Ernährung, Ländlichen Raum und Verbraucherschutz Baden Württemberg, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Susanne Massing
- Landratsamt Böblingen, Veterinärdienst und Lebensmittelüberwachung, Böblingen, Germany
| | | | - Petra Tichaczek-Dischinger
- Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt Stuttgart, Ministerium für Ernährung, Ländlichen Raum und Verbraucherschutz Baden-Württemberg, Fellbach, Germany
| | - Florian Burckhardt
- Landesuntersuchungsamt Rheinland-Pfalz, Rhineland-Palatinate, Koblenz, Germany
| | - Klaus Stark
- Department for Infectious Disease Epidemiology, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Katharina Katz
- GE 2.3 Epidemiologie übertragbarer Krankheiten, Landesamt für Gesundheit und Lebensmittelsicherheit, Oberschleißheim, Germany
| | - Annette Jurke
- Landeszentrum Gesundheit Nordrhein-Westfalen, North Rhine-Westphalia, Bochum, Germany
| | - Sebastian Thole
- Landeszentrum Gesundheit Nordrhein-Westfalen, North Rhine-Westphalia, Bochum, Germany
| | - Rosa Carbó
- Servicio de Vigilancia y Control Epidemiológico, Dirección General de Salud Pública, Valencia, Spain
| | | | - Milagros Nieto
- National Food Centre (CNA), Spanish Agency for Consumer Affairs Food Safety (AESAN), Majadahonda, Spain
| | - María Jesús Zamora
- National Food Centre (CNA), Spanish Agency for Consumer Affairs Food Safety (AESAN), Majadahonda, Spain
| | - Ana Sisó
- National Food Centre (CNA), Spanish Agency for Consumer Affairs Food Safety (AESAN), Majadahonda, Spain
| | | | - Sylvia Valdezate
- National Centre of Microbiology, Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Lars Schaade
- Consultant Laboratory for Neurotoxin-Producing Clostridia (Botulism, Tetanus), Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Sylvia Worbs
- Consultant Laboratory for Neurotoxin-Producing Clostridia (Botulism, Tetanus), Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Brigitte Gertrud Dorner
- Consultant Laboratory for Neurotoxin-Producing Clostridia (Botulism, Tetanus), Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Christina Frank
- Landesuntersuchungsamt Rheinland-Pfalz, Rhineland-Palatinate, Koblenz, Germany
| | - Martin Bernhard Dorner
- Consultant Laboratory for Neurotoxin-Producing Clostridia (Botulism, Tetanus), Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
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11
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Advances in Clostridial and Related Neurotoxins. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232214076. [PMID: 36430554 PMCID: PMC9697359 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232214076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2022] [Accepted: 11/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The huge advances in genomics and molecular biology in the past two decades have made now an exciting time to study bacterial toxins, in particular, the most potent bacterial toxin known to humankind, botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) [...].
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12
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Gazerani P. How Does Botulinum Toxin Inhibit Itch? Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14100701. [PMID: 36287970 PMCID: PMC9610088 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14100701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2022] [Revised: 10/06/2022] [Accepted: 10/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Two decades after reports of the anti-pruritic effects of botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs), there is still no approved product for the anti-itch indication of BoNTs, and most clinical case reports still focus on the off-label use of BoNTs for various itchy conditions. Few randomized clinical trials have been conducted with controversial results, and the beneficial effects of BoNTs against itch are mainly based on case studies and case series. These studies are valuable in presenting the potential application of BoNTs in chronic pruritic conditions, but due to the nature of these studies, they are categorized as providing lower levels of evidence or lower grades of recommendation. To obtain approval for the anti-pruritic indication of BoNTs, higher levels of evidence are required, which can be achieved through conducting large-scale and well-designed studies with proper control groups and established careful and reliable primary and secondary outcomes. In addition to clinical evidence, presenting the mechanism-based antipruritic action of BoNTs can potentially strengthen, accelerate, and facilitate the current efforts towards further investments in accelerating the field towards the potential approval of BoNTs for itchy conditions. This review, therefore, aimed to provide the state-of-the-art mechanisms underlying the anti-itch effect of BoNTs from basic studies that resemble various clinical conditions with itch as a hallmark. Evidence of the neuronal, glial, and immune modulatory actions of BoNTs in reducing the transmission of itch are presented, and future potential directions are outlined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Parisa Gazerani
- Department of Life Sciences and Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, Oslo Metropolitan University, 0130 Oslo, Norway; or
- Department of Health Science and Technology, Faculty of Medicine, Aalborg University, 9220 Aalborg East, Denmark
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13
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Bowe BK, Wentz TG, Gregg BM, Tepp WH, Schill KM, Sharma S, Pellett S. Genomic Diversity, Competition, and Toxin Production by Group I and II Clostridium botulinum Strains Used in Food Challenge Studies. Microorganisms 2022; 10:1895. [PMID: 36296172 PMCID: PMC9611418 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10101895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2022] [Revised: 09/16/2022] [Accepted: 09/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) produced by the bacteria Clostridium botulinum are the causative agent of human and animal botulism, a rare but serious and potentially deadly intoxication. Foodborne botulism is caused by the consumption of foods containing BoNTs, which results from contamination of foods with C. botulinum spores and toxin production by the bacteria during growth within the food. Validation of the safety of food products is essential in preventing foodborne botulism, however, limited guidance and standards exist for the selection of strains used in C. botulinum food challenge studies. Sequencing and genomics studies have revealed that C. botulinum is a large, diverse, and polyphyletic species, with physiologic and growth characteristics studied only in a few representatives. Little is known about potential growth competition or effects on toxin production between C. botulinum strains. In this study, we investigated an applied cocktail of ten C. botulinum strains, seven Group I and three Group II. Whole genome SNP alignments revealed that this strain cocktail encompasses the major clades of the Group I and II C. botulinum species. While growth competition appears to exist between several of the strains, the cocktail as a whole resulted in high levels of BoNT production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brooke Kathryn Bowe
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1550 Linden Dr, Madison, WI 53706, USA
- Food Research Institute, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1550 Linden Dr, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Travis Gwynn Wentz
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1550 Linden Dr, Madison, WI 53706, USA
- Microbiology Doctoral Training Program, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1550 Linden Dr, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Brieana Marie Gregg
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1550 Linden Dr, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - William Howard Tepp
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1550 Linden Dr, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Kristin Marie Schill
- Food Research Institute, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1550 Linden Dr, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Shashi Sharma
- Division of Microbiology, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Food and Drug Administration, College Park, MD 20740, USA
| | - Sabine Pellett
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1550 Linden Dr, Madison, WI 53706, USA
- Food Research Institute, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1550 Linden Dr, Madison, WI 53706, USA
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14
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Dorner MB. Why foodborne botulism cannot be caused by honey. Anaerobe 2022; 77:102631. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2022.102631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2022] [Accepted: 08/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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15
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Fabris F, Šoštarić P, Matak I, Binz T, Toffan A, Simonato M, Montecucco C, Pirazzini M, Rossetto O. Detection of VAMP Proteolysis by Tetanus and Botulinum Neurotoxin Type B In Vivo with a Cleavage-Specific Antibody. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23084355. [PMID: 35457172 PMCID: PMC9024618 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23084355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2022] [Revised: 04/08/2022] [Accepted: 04/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Tetanus and Botulinum type B neurotoxins are bacterial metalloproteases that specifically cleave the vesicle-associated membrane protein VAMP at an identical peptide bond, resulting in inhibition of neuroexocytosis. The minute amounts of these neurotoxins commonly used in experimental animals are not detectable, nor is detection of their VAMP substrate sensitive enough. The immune detection of the cleaved substrate is much more sensitive, as we have previously shown for botulinum neurotoxin type A. Here, we describe the production in rabbit of a polyclonal antibody raised versus a peptide encompassing the 13 residues C-terminal with respect to the neurotoxin cleavage site. The antibody was affinity purified and found to recognize, with high specificity and selectivity, the novel N-terminus of VAMP that becomes exposed after cleavage by tetanus toxin and botulinum toxin type B. This antibody recognizes the neoepitope not only in native and denatured VAMP but also in cultured neurons and in neurons in vivo in neurotoxin-treated mice or rats, suggesting the great potential of this novel tool to elucidate tetanus and botulinum B toxin activity in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federico Fabris
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Via Ugo Bassi 58/B, 35131 Padova, Italy; (F.F.); (C.M.)
| | - Petra Šoštarić
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Šalata 11, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (P.Š.); (I.M.)
| | - Ivica Matak
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Šalata 11, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia; (P.Š.); (I.M.)
| | - Thomas Binz
- Institute of Cellular Biochemistry, Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Straße 1, 30625 Hannover, Germany;
| | - Anna Toffan
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell’Università 10, 35020 Legnaro, Italy;
| | - Morena Simonato
- Institute of Neuroscience, Italian Research Council, University of Padova, Via Ugo Bassi 58/B, 35131 Padova, Italy;
| | - Cesare Montecucco
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Via Ugo Bassi 58/B, 35131 Padova, Italy; (F.F.); (C.M.)
- Institute of Neuroscience, Italian Research Council, University of Padova, Via Ugo Bassi 58/B, 35131 Padova, Italy;
| | - Marco Pirazzini
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Via Ugo Bassi 58/B, 35131 Padova, Italy; (F.F.); (C.M.)
- Interdepartmental Research Center of Myology CIR-Myo, University of Padova, Via Ugo Bassi 58/B, 35131 Padova, Italy
- Correspondence: (M.P.); (O.R.)
| | - Ornella Rossetto
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Via Ugo Bassi 58/B, 35131 Padova, Italy; (F.F.); (C.M.)
- Institute of Neuroscience, Italian Research Council, University of Padova, Via Ugo Bassi 58/B, 35131 Padova, Italy;
- Interdepartmental Research Center of Myology CIR-Myo, University of Padova, Via Ugo Bassi 58/B, 35131 Padova, Italy
- Correspondence: (M.P.); (O.R.)
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16
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Pirazzini M, Montecucco C, Rossetto O. Toxicology and pharmacology of botulinum and tetanus neurotoxins: an update. Arch Toxicol 2022; 96:1521-1539. [PMID: 35333944 PMCID: PMC9095541 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-022-03271-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2021] [Accepted: 02/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Tetanus and botulinum neurotoxins cause the neuroparalytic syndromes of tetanus and botulism, respectively, by delivering inside different types of neurons, metalloproteases specifically cleaving the SNARE proteins that are essential for the release of neurotransmitters. Research on their mechanism of action is intensively carried out in order to devise improved therapies based on antibodies and chemical drugs. Recently, major results have been obtained with human monoclonal antibodies and with single chain antibodies that have allowed one to neutralize the metalloprotease activity of botulinum neurotoxin type A1 inside neurons. In addition, a method has been devised to induce a rapid molecular evolution of the metalloprotease domain of botulinum neurotoxin followed by selection driven to re-target the metalloprotease activity versus novel targets with respect to the SNARE proteins. At the same time, an intense and wide spectrum clinical research on novel therapeutics based on botulinum neurotoxins is carried out, which are also reviewed here.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Pirazzini
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Via Ugo Bassi 58/B, 35131, Padova, Italy.,Centro Interdipartimentale di Ricerca di Miologia, CIR-Myo, University of Padova, Via U. Bassi 58/B, 35131, Padova, Italy
| | - Cesare Montecucco
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Via Ugo Bassi 58/B, 35131, Padova, Italy. .,Institute of Neuroscience, National Research Council, Via Ugo Bassi 58/B, 35131, Padova, Italy.
| | - Ornella Rossetto
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Via Ugo Bassi 58/B, 35131, Padova, Italy.,Centro Interdipartimentale di Ricerca di Miologia, CIR-Myo, University of Padova, Via U. Bassi 58/B, 35131, Padova, Italy.,Institute of Neuroscience, National Research Council, Via Ugo Bassi 58/B, 35131, Padova, Italy
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17
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Wentz TG, Tremblay BJM, Bradshaw M, Doxey AC, Sharma SK, Sauer JD, Pellett S. Endogenous CRISPR-Cas Systems in Group I Clostridium botulinum and Clostridium sporogenes Do Not Directly Target the Botulinum Neurotoxin Gene Cluster. Front Microbiol 2022; 12:787726. [PMID: 35222299 PMCID: PMC8865420 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.787726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2021] [Accepted: 12/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Most strains of proteolytic group I Clostridium botulinum (G1 C. botulinum) and some strains of Clostridium sporogenes possess genes encoding botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT), a potent neuroparalytic agent. Within G1 C. botulinum, conserved bont gene clusters of three major toxin serotypes (bont/A/B/F) can be found on conjugative plasmids and/or within chromosomal pathogenicity islands. CRISPR-Cas systems enable site-specific targeting of previously encountered mobile genetic elements (MGE) such as plasmids and bacteriophage through the creation of a spacer library complementary to protospacers within the MGEs. To examine whether endogenous CRISPR-Cas systems restrict the transfer of bont gene clusters across strains we conducted a bioinformatic analysis profiling endogenous CRISPR-Cas systems from 241 G1 C. botulinum and C. sporogenes strains. Approximately 6,200 CRISPR spacers were identified across the strains and Type I-B, III-A/B/D cas genes and CRISPR array features were identified in 83% of the strains. Mapping the predicted spacers against the masked strain and RefSeq plasmid dataset identified 56,000 spacer-protospacer matches. While spacers mapped heavily to targets within bont(+) plasmids, no protospacers were identified within the bont gene clusters. These results indicate the toxin is not a direct target of CRISPR-Cas but the plasmids predominantly responsible for its mobilization are. Finally, while the presence of a CRISPR-Cas system did not reliably indicate the presence or absence of a bont gene cluster, comparative genomics across strains indicates they often occupy the same hypervariable loci common to both species, potentially suggesting similar mechanisms are involved in the acquisition and curation of both genomic features.
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Affiliation(s)
- Travis G. Wentz
- Microbiology Doctoral Training Program, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI, United States,Division of Microbiology, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Food and Drug Administration, College Park, MD, United States,Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | | | - Marite Bradshaw
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Andrew C. Doxey
- Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
| | - Shashi K. Sharma
- Division of Microbiology, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Food and Drug Administration, College Park, MD, United States
| | - John-Demian Sauer
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Sabine Pellett
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, WI, United States,*Correspondence: Sabine Pellett,
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18
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Abstract
Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) are the most toxic substances known to humankind and are the causative agents of the neuroparalytic disease botulism. Despite the overall importance of BoNTs in public health and safety, as a bioterrorism concern, and in pharmaceutical development, little is known about the molecular mechanisms mediating BoNT stability and degradation in various environments. Previous studies using Clostridium botulinum strain ATCC 3502 revealed that high levels of arginine (20 g/liter) repressed BoNT production approximately 1,000-fold. In the present study, the mechanisms of toxin reduction in arginine-enriched cultures of C. botulinum strain Hall A-hyper, which we have previously genetically manipulated using ClosTron technology, were explored. Cultures were grown in toxin production medium (TPM) and TPM enriched with arginine. Cultures were analyzed for growth (optical density at 600 nm [OD600]), changes in pH, and BoNT formation and stability. Our data indicate that arginine enrichment of C. botulinum strain Hall A-hyper cultures results in a pH shift that induces pH-dependent posttranslational control mechanisms. We further show that independent of arginine, maintenance of an acidic culture pH during growth of C. botulinum strain Hall A-hyper plays a central role in toxin stability and that an extracellular metalloprotease produced by the culture results in BoNT degradation at pH levels between ⁓6.5 and 8.0. IMPORTANCE Botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) is a public health and bioterrorism concern as well as an important and widely used pharmaceutical, yet the regulation of its synthesis by BoNT-producing clostridia is not well understood. This paper highlights the role of environmentally controlled posttranslational regulatory mechanisms influencing processing and stability of biologically active BoNTs produced by C. botulinum. The results of this work will help enhance public health and safety measures and our ability to evaluate safety risks of novel BoNTs and improve production and quality of BoNTs for pharmaceutical use.
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19
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Megighian A, Pirazzini M, Fabris F, Rossetto O, Montecucco C. Tetanus and tetanus neurotoxin: From peripheral uptake to central nervous tissue targets. J Neurochem 2021; 158:1244-1253. [PMID: 33629408 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2020] [Revised: 01/28/2021] [Accepted: 02/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Tetanus is a deadly but preventable disease caused by a protein neurotoxin produced by Clostridium tetani. Spores of C. tetani may contaminate a necrotic wound and germinate into a vegetative bacterium that releases a toxin, termed tetanus neurotoxin (TeNT). TeNT enters the general circulation, binds to peripheral motor neurons and sensory neurons, and is transported retroaxonally to the spinal cord. It then enters inhibitory interneurons and blocks the release of glycine or GABA causing a spastic paralysis. This review attempts to correlate the metalloprotease activity of TeNT and its trafficking and localization into the vertebrate body to the nature and sequence of appearance of the symptoms of tetanus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aram Megighian
- Dipartimento di scienze Biomediche, Università di Padova, Padova, Italy.,Padova Neuroscience Center, Università di Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Marco Pirazzini
- Dipartimento di scienze Biomediche, Università di Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Federico Fabris
- Dipartimento di scienze Biomediche, Università di Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Ornella Rossetto
- Dipartimento di scienze Biomediche, Università di Padova, Padova, Italy.,Istituto CNR di Neuroscienze, Università di Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Cesare Montecucco
- Dipartimento di scienze Biomediche, Università di Padova, Padova, Italy.,Istituto CNR di Neuroscienze, Università di Padova, Padova, Italy
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20
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New approach for the rational selection of markers to identify botulinum toxins. Arch Toxicol 2021; 95:1503-1516. [PMID: 33569691 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-021-02996-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2020] [Accepted: 01/28/2021] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
The application of mass spectrometry (MS) to detect unique peptide markers has been widely employed as a means of identifying bacterial proteins. Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) are bacterial proteins that cause the life-threatening disease botulism. BoNTs are divided into several antigenically distinct serotypes and several dozen subtypes. The toxins' molecular heterogeneity makes their detection highly challenging. In this study, we describe a new LC-MS/MS-based platform for the direct identification of proteins derived from various species and subspecies in a single assay, as exemplified by BoNTs. The platform employs a rational down-selection process through several steps based on a combination of bioinformatics, tryptic digestion, and LC-MS, each leads to the final panel of markers. This approach has been demonstrated for all 8 subtypes of botulinum serotype A (BoNT/A). Ab-independent and Ab-dependent assays were developed based on the identification of 4 rationally selected markers or a combination of some of them, which enables full selectivity coverage. The Ab-independent assay, which is highly simple and rapid, has a sample-to-result turnaround time of approximately 40 min and enables the identification of 500 MsLD50/mL (5 ng/mL) BoNT/A in complex environmental matrices. The Ab-dependent assay, which is based on toxin's specific enrichment, has a turnaround time of 100 min, but enables improved sensitivity (50 MsLD50/mL, 0.5 ng/mL). Both assays were verified and validated using various environmental samples. This approach can easily be expanded to other botulinum serotypes and exhibits the potential for even further extension as a highly multiplexed assay for protein-based toxins, viruses, and organisms.
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21
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Andreou AP, Leese C, Greco R, Demartini C, Corrie E, Simsek D, Zanaboni A, Koroleva K, Lloyd JO, Lambru G, Doran C, Gafurov O, Seward E, Giniatullin R, Tassorelli C, Davletov B. Double-Binding Botulinum Molecule with Reduced Muscle Paralysis: Evaluation in In Vitro and In Vivo Models of Migraine. Neurotherapeutics 2021; 18:556-568. [PMID: 33205382 PMCID: PMC8116399 DOI: 10.1007/s13311-020-00967-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
With a prevalence of 15%, migraine is the most common neurological disorder and among the most disabling diseases, taking into account years lived with disability. Current oral medications for migraine show variable effects and are frequently associated with intolerable side effects, leading to the dissatisfaction of both patients and doctors. Injectable therapeutics, which include calcitonin gene-related peptide-targeting monoclonal antibodies and botulinum neurotoxin A (BoNT/A), provide a new paradigm for treatment of chronic migraine but are effective only in approximately 50% of subjects. Here, we investigated a novel engineered botulinum molecule with markedly reduced muscle paralyzing properties which could be beneficial for the treatment of migraine. This stapled botulinum molecule with duplicated binding domain-binary toxin-AA (BiTox/AA)-cleaves synaptosomal-associated protein 25 with a similar efficacy to BoNT/A in neurons; however, the paralyzing effect of BiTox/AA was 100 times less when compared to native BoNT/A following muscle injection. The performance of BiTox/AA was evaluated in cellular and animal models of migraine. BiTox/AA inhibited electrical nerve fiber activity in rat meningeal preparations while, in the trigeminovascular model, BiTox/AA raised electrical and mechanical stimulation thresholds in Aδ- and C-fiber nociceptors. In the rat glyceryl trinitrate (GTN) model, BiTox/AA proved effective in inhibiting GTN-induced hyperalgesia in the orofacial formalin test. We conclude that the engineered botulinum molecule provides a useful prototype for designing advanced future therapeutics for an improved efficacy in the treatment of migraine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna P Andreou
- Headache Research-Wolfson Centre for Age-Related Diseases, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
- Headache Centre, Guy's and St Thomas's NHS Foundation Trust, King's Health Partners, London, UK
| | - Charlotte Leese
- Department of Biomedical Science, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S10 2TN, UK
| | - Rosaria Greco
- Translational Neurovascular Research Unit, IRCCS Mondino Foundation, Pavia, Italy
| | - Chiara Demartini
- Translational Neurovascular Research Unit, IRCCS Mondino Foundation, Pavia, Italy
- Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Eve Corrie
- Department of Biomedical Science, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S10 2TN, UK
| | - Deniz Simsek
- Department of Biomedical Science, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S10 2TN, UK
| | - Anna Zanaboni
- Translational Neurovascular Research Unit, IRCCS Mondino Foundation, Pavia, Italy
- Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | | | - Joseph O Lloyd
- Headache Research-Wolfson Centre for Age-Related Diseases, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Giorgio Lambru
- Headache Research-Wolfson Centre for Age-Related Diseases, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
- Headache Centre, Guy's and St Thomas's NHS Foundation Trust, King's Health Partners, London, UK
| | - Ciara Doran
- Department of Biomedical Science, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S10 2TN, UK
| | - Oleg Gafurov
- Laboratory of Neurobiology, Kazan University, Kazan, Russia
| | - Elizabeth Seward
- Department of Biomedical Science, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S10 2TN, UK
| | - Rashid Giniatullin
- Laboratory of Neurobiology, Kazan University, Kazan, Russia
- A.I. Virtanen Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Cristina Tassorelli
- Translational Neurovascular Research Unit, IRCCS Mondino Foundation, Pavia, Italy
- Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Bazbek Davletov
- Department of Biomedical Science, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S10 2TN, UK.
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Davies JR, Britton A, Liu SM, Acharya KR. High-resolution crystal structures of the botulinum neurotoxin binding domains from subtypes A5 and A6. FEBS Open Bio 2020; 10:1474-1481. [PMID: 32654405 PMCID: PMC7396429 DOI: 10.1002/2211-5463.12931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2020] [Revised: 07/07/2020] [Accepted: 07/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) cause flaccid paralysis through inhibition of acetylcholine release from motor neurons; however, at tiny doses, this property is exploited for use as a therapeutic. Each member of the BoNT family of proteins consists of three distinct domains: a binding domain that targets neuronal cell membranes (HC ), a translocation domain (HN ) and a catalytic domain (LC). Here, we present high-resolution crystal structures of the binding domains of BoNT subtypes/A5 (HC /A5) and/A6 (HC /A6). These structures show that the core fold identified in other subtypes is maintained, but with subtle differences at the expected receptor-binding sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan R Davies
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, Claverton Down, University of Bath, Bath, UK.,Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Stockholm University, Sweden
| | - Amy Britton
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, Claverton Down, University of Bath, Bath, UK
| | - Sai Man Liu
- Ipsen Bioinnovation Limited, Milton Park, Abingdon, UK
| | - K Ravi Acharya
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, Claverton Down, University of Bath, Bath, UK
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Gonzalez-Escalona N, Sharma SK. Closing Clostridium botulinum Group I Genomes Using a Combination of Short- and Long-Reads. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:239. [PMID: 32153532 PMCID: PMC7050642 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.00239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2019] [Accepted: 01/31/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium botulinum is a Gram-positive, spore-forming anaerobic bacterium that produces botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT). Closing their genomes provides information about their neurotoxin clusters' arrangement(s) and their location (e.g., chromosome or plasmid) which cannot be assessed using draft genomes. Therefore, we tested the use of long-read sequencing (nanopore sequencing) in combination with short-read sequencing to close two toxin-producing strains. These genomes could be used by the Public Health Emergency Preparedness and Response staff during botulism outbreaks. The genomes of two toxin-producing C. botulinum strains, one from an environmental sample (83F_CFSAN034202) and the other from a clinical sample (CDC51232_CFSAN034200) were sequenced using MinION and MiSeq devices. The genomes, including the chromosomes and the plasmids, were closed by a combination of long-read and short-read sequencing. They belonged to different C. botulinum sequence types (STs), with 83F belonging to ST4 and CDC51232 to ST7. A whole genome single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) analysis clustered these two strains with strains in lineage 2 (e.g., 6CDC297) and 4 (e.g., NCTC2916) from Group I, respectively. These two strains were also bivalent strains with the BoNTB and BoNTA4 clusters located in the larger plasmid for CDC51232, and the BoNTB and BoNTA1 clusters located both in the chromosome for 83F. Overall, this study showed the advantage of combining these two sequencing methods to obtain high quality closed C. botulinum genomes that could be used for SNP phylogenies (source tracking) as well as for fast identification of BoNT clusters and their gene arrangements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Narjol Gonzalez-Escalona
- Division of Microbiology, Office of Regulatory Science, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Food and Drug Administration, College Park, MD, United States
| | - Shashi K Sharma
- Division of Microbiology, Office of Regulatory Science, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Food and Drug Administration, College Park, MD, United States
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Pellett S, Tepp WH, Johnson EA. Critical Analysis of Neuronal Cell and the Mouse Bioassay for Detection of Botulinum Neurotoxins. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E713. [PMID: 31817843 PMCID: PMC6950160 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11120713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2019] [Revised: 11/12/2019] [Accepted: 11/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Botulinum Neurotoxins (BoNTs) are a large protein family that includes the most potent neurotoxins known to humankind. BoNTs delivered locally in humans at low doses are widely used pharmaceuticals. Reliable and quantitative detection of BoNTs is of paramount importance for the clinical diagnosis of botulism, basic research, drug development, potency determination, and detection in clinical, environmental, and food samples. Ideally, a definitive assay for BoNT should reflect the activity of each of the four steps in nerve intoxication. The in vivo mouse bioassay (MBA) is the 'gold standard' for the detection of BoNTs. The MBA is sensitive, robust, semi-quantitative, and reliable within its sensitivity limits. Potential drawbacks with the MBA include assay-to-assay potency variations, especially between laboratories, and false positives or negatives. These limitations can be largely avoided by careful planning and performance. Another detection method that has gained importance in recent years for research and potency determination of pharmaceutical BoNTs is cell-based assays, as these assays can be highly sensitive, quantitative, human-specific, and detect fully functional holotoxins at physiologically relevant concentrations. A myriad of other in vitro BoNT detection methods exist. This review focuses on critical factors and assay limitations of the mouse bioassay and cell-based assays for BoNT detection.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Eric A. Johnson
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1550 Linden Dr, Madison, WI 53706, USA; (S.P.); (W.H.T.)
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Structural insights into the interaction of botulinum neurotoxin a with its neuronal receptor SV2C. Toxicon 2019; 175:36-43. [PMID: 31783045 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2019.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2019] [Revised: 11/08/2019] [Accepted: 11/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
A dual-receptor interaction with a polysialoganglioside and synaptic vesicle glycoprotein 2 (SV2) is required for botulinum neurotoxin A (BoNT) toxicity. Here, we review what is currently known about the BoNT/A-SV2 interaction based on structural studies. Currently, five crystal structures of the receptor-binding domain (Hc) of BoNT subtypes A1 and A2 complexed to the large luminal domain (LD4) of SV2C have been determined. On the basis of the available structures, we will discuss the importance of protein-protein and protein-carbohydrate interactions for BoNT/A toxicity as well as the high plasticity of BoNT/A for receptor recognition by tolerating a variety of side-chain interactions at the interface. A plausible explanation how receptor-binding specificity of BoNT/A may be achieved without an extensive and conserved side chain-side chain interaction network will be provided.
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Cenciarelli O, Riley PW, Baka A. Biosecurity Threat Posed by Botulinum Toxin. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11120681. [PMID: 31757074 PMCID: PMC6950065 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11120681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2019] [Revised: 11/03/2019] [Accepted: 11/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The deliberate release of biological agents with terrorist or criminal intent continues to pose concerns in the current geopolitical situation. Therefore, attention is still needed to ensure preparedness against the potential use of pathogens as unconventional weapons. Botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) is one such biological threat, characterized by an extremely low lethal dose, high morbidity and mortality when appropriately disseminated, and the capacity to cause panic and social disruption. This paper addresses the risks of a potential release of the botulinum neurotoxin and summarizes the relevant aspects of the threat.
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Rossetto O, Pirazzini M, Lista F, Montecucco C. The role of the single interchains disulfide bond in tetanus and botulinum neurotoxins and the development of antitetanus and antibotulism drugs. Cell Microbiol 2019; 21:e13037. [PMID: 31050145 PMCID: PMC6899712 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.13037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2019] [Revised: 04/18/2019] [Accepted: 04/30/2019] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
A large number of bacterial toxins consist of active and cell binding protomers linked by an interchain disulfide bridge. The largest family of such disulfide-bridged exotoxins is that of the clostridial neurotoxins that consist of two chains and comprise the tetanus neurotoxins causing tetanus and the botulinum neurotoxins causing botulism. Reduction of the interchain disulfide abolishes toxicity, and we discuss the experiments that revealed the role of this structural element in neuronal intoxication. The redox couple thioredoxin reductase-thioredoxin (TrxR-Trx) was identified as the responsible for reduction of this disulfide occurring on the cytosolic surface of synaptic vesicles. We then discuss the very relevant finding that drugs that inhibit TrxR-Trx also prevent botulism. On this basis, we propose that ebselen and PX-12, two TrxR-Trx specific drugs previously used in clinical trials in humans, satisfy all the requirements for clinical tests aiming at evaluating their capacity to effectively counteract human and animal botulism arising from intestinal toxaemias such as infant botulism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ornella Rossetto
- Dipartimento di Scienze BiomedicheUniversità di PadovaPaduaItaly
| | - Marco Pirazzini
- Dipartimento di Scienze BiomedicheUniversità di PadovaPaduaItaly
| | - Florigio Lista
- Sezione di Istologia e Biologia MolecolareCentro di ricerca Medica e Veterinaria del Ministero della DifesaRomeItaly
| | - Cesare Montecucco
- Dipartimento di Scienze BiomedicheUniversità di PadovaPaduaItaly
- Istituto Neuroscienze del CNRUniversità di PadovaPaduaItaly
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Dima L, Bălan A, Moga MA, Dinu CG, Dimienescu OG, Varga I, Neculau AE. Botulinum Toxin a Valuable Prophylactic Agent for Migraines and a Possible Future Option for the Prevention of Hormonal Variations-Triggered Migraines. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E465. [PMID: 31398813 PMCID: PMC6722780 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11080465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2019] [Revised: 08/02/2019] [Accepted: 08/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In 1989, Botulinum toxin (BoNT) was accepted by the FDA for the management of some ophthalmic disorders. Although it was initially considered a lethal toxin, in recent times, Botulinum toxin A (BoNT-A), which is the more used serotype, has expanded to cover different clinical conditions, primarily characterized by neuropathic pain, including migraines and headaches. Evidence suggests that migraines are influenced by hormonal factors, particularly by estrogen levels, but very few studies have investigated the prevalence and management strategies for migraines according to the hormonal status. The effects of several therapeutic regimens on migraines have been investigated, but the medications used varied widely in proven efficacies and mechanisms of action. BoNT-A is increasingly used in the management of migraine and several placebo-controlled trials of episodic and chronic migraine are currently underway. This paper is a review of the recently published data concerning the administration of BoNT-A in the prevention of chronic migraines. Considering the lack of population-based studies about the effectiveness of BoNT-A in the alleviation of premenstrual and perimenopausal migraines, this study proposes a new perspective of the therapeutic approach of migraine syndrome associated with menopausal transition and the premenstrual period. METHODS We selected the reviewed papers from CrossRef, PubMed, Medline, and GoogleScholar, and a total of 21 studies met our inclusion criteria. RESULTS To date, no specific preventive measures have been recommended for menopausal women with migraines. BoNT-A often reduces the frequency and intensity of migraine attacks per month; the treatment is well tolerated and does not exhibit a significantly higher rate of treatment-related side effects. No population-based studies were conducted in order to highlight the role of BoNT-A in menopause-related migraines, neither in menstrual migraines. CONCLUSION There is a need for further research in order to quantify the real burden of menstrual and perimenopausal migraines and to clarify if BoNT-A could be used in the treatment of refractory postmenopausal and premenstrual migraines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorena Dima
- Department of Fundamental Disciplines and Clinical Prevention, Faculty of Medicine, Transilvania University of Brasov, 500019 Brasov, Romania
| | - Andreea Bălan
- Department of Medical and Surgical Specialties, Faculty of Medicine, Transilvania University of Brasov, 500019 Brasov, Romania.
| | - Marius Alexandru Moga
- Department of Medical and Surgical Specialties, Faculty of Medicine, Transilvania University of Brasov, 500019 Brasov, Romania
| | - Cătălina Georgeta Dinu
- Department of Law, Faculty of Law, Transilvania University of Brasov, 500019 Brasov, Romania
| | - Oana Gabriela Dimienescu
- Department of Medical and Surgical Specialties, Faculty of Medicine, Transilvania University of Brasov, 500019 Brasov, Romania.
| | - Ioana Varga
- Department of Medical and Surgical Specialties, Faculty of Medicine, Transilvania University of Brasov, 500019 Brasov, Romania
| | - Andrea Elena Neculau
- Department of Fundamental Disciplines and Clinical Prevention, Faculty of Medicine, Transilvania University of Brasov, 500019 Brasov, Romania
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Pellett S, Tepp WH, Johnson EA. Botulinum neurotoxins A, B, C, E, and F preferentially enter cultured human motor neurons compared to other cultured human neuronal populations. FEBS Lett 2019; 593:2675-2685. [PMID: 31240706 PMCID: PMC7751886 DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.13508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2019] [Revised: 06/06/2019] [Accepted: 06/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Human-induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC)-derived neurons can be exquisitely sensitive to botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs), exceeding sensitivity of the traditionally used mouse bioassay. In this report, four defined hiPSC-derived neuronal populations including primarily GABAergic, glutamatergic, dopaminergic, and motor neurons were examined for BoNT/A, B, C, D, E, and F sensitivity. The data indicate that sensitivity varies markedly for the BoNTs tested. Motor neurons are significantly more sensitive than other neuron types for all BoNTs except BoNT/D. Examination of SNARE protein levels and BoNT-specific cell surface protein receptors reveals few differences between the cell types except greater expression levels of the receptor protein SV2C and synapsin-IIa in motor neurons. This indicates that differential toxicity of BoNTs for motor neurons compared to other neuronal cell types involves multiple mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabine Pellett
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, WI, USA
| | - William H Tepp
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, WI, USA
| | - Eric A Johnson
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, WI, USA
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Moritz MS, Tepp WH, Inzalaco HN, Johnson EA, Pellett S. Comparative functional analysis of mice after local injection with botulinum neurotoxin A1, A2, A6, and B1 by catwalk analysis. Toxicon 2019; 167:20-28. [PMID: 31181297 PMCID: PMC6688953 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2019.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2019] [Revised: 05/20/2019] [Accepted: 06/03/2019] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) are potent neurotoxins and are the causative agent of botulism, as well as valuable pharmaceuticals. BoNTs are divided into seven serotypes that comprise over 40 reported subtypes. BoNT/A1 and BoNT/B1 are currently the only subtypes approved for pharmaceutical use in the USA. While several other BoNT subtypes including BoNT/A2 and/A6 have been proposed as promising pharmaceuticals, detailed characterization using in vivo assays are essential to determine their pharmaceutical characteristics compared to the currently used BoNT/A1 and/B1. Several methods for studying BoNTs in mice are being used, but no objective and quantitative assay for assessment of functional outcomes after injection has been described. Here we describe the use of CatWalk XT as a new analytical tool for the objective and quantitative analysis of the paralytic effect after local intramuscular injection of BoNT subtypes A1, A2, A6, and B1. Catwalk is a sophisticated gait and locomotion analysis system that quantitatively analyzes a rodent's paw print dimensions and footfall patterns while traversing a glass plate during unforced walk. Significant changes were observed in several gait parameters in mice after local intramuscular injection of all tested BoNT subtypes, however, no changes were observed in mice injected intraperitoneally with the same BoNTs. While a clear difference in time to peak paralysis was observed between BoNT/A1 and/B1, injection of all four toxins resulted in a deficit in the injected limb with the other limbs functionally compensating and with no qualitative differences between the four BoNT subtypes. The presented data demonstrate the utility of CatWalk as a tool for functional outcomes after local BoNT injection through its ability to collect large amounts of quantitative data and objectively analyze sensitive changes in static and dynamic gait parameters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Molly S Moritz
- University of Wisconsin-Madison, Dept. of Bacteriology, USA
| | - William H Tepp
- University of Wisconsin-Madison, Dept. of Bacteriology, USA
| | | | - Eric A Johnson
- University of Wisconsin-Madison, Dept. of Bacteriology, USA
| | - Sabine Pellett
- University of Wisconsin-Madison, Dept. of Bacteriology, USA.
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von Berg L, Stern D, Pauly D, Mahrhold S, Weisemann J, Jentsch L, Hansbauer EM, Müller C, Avondet MA, Rummel A, Dorner MB, Dorner BG. Functional detection of botulinum neurotoxin serotypes A to F by monoclonal neoepitope-specific antibodies and suspension array technology. Sci Rep 2019; 9:5531. [PMID: 30940836 PMCID: PMC6445094 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-41722-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2018] [Accepted: 03/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) are the most potent toxins known and cause the life threatening disease botulism. Sensitive and broad detection is extremely challenging due to the toxins' high potency and molecular heterogeneity with several serotypes and more than 40 subtypes. The toxicity of BoNT is mediated by enzymatic cleavage of different synaptic proteins involved in neurotransmitter release at serotype-specific cleavage sites. Hence, active BoNTs can be monitored and distinguished in vitro by detecting their substrate cleavage products. In this work, we developed a comprehensive panel of monoclonal neoepitope antibodies (Neo-mAbs) highly specific for the newly generated N- and/or C-termini of the substrate cleavage products of BoNT serotypes A to F. The Neo-mAbs were implemented in a set of three enzymatic assays for the simultaneous detection of two BoNT serotypes each by monitoring substrate cleavage on colour-coded magnetic Luminex-beads. For the first time, all relevant serotypes could be detected in parallel by a routine in vitro activity assay in spiked serum and food samples yielding excellent detection limits in the range of the mouse bioassay or better (0.3-80 pg/mL). Therefore, this work represents a major step towards the replacement of the mouse bioassay for botulism diagnostics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura von Berg
- Biological Toxins (ZBS 3), Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, 13353, Germany
| | - Daniel Stern
- Biological Toxins (ZBS 3), Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, 13353, Germany
| | - Diana Pauly
- Biological Toxins (ZBS 3), Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, 13353, Germany
- Department of Ophthalmology, University Hospital Regensburg, Regensburg, 93053, Germany
| | - Stefan Mahrhold
- Institut für Toxikologie, Medizinische Hochschule Hannover, 30625, Hannover, Germany
| | - Jasmin Weisemann
- Institut für Toxikologie, Medizinische Hochschule Hannover, 30625, Hannover, Germany
| | - Lisa Jentsch
- Biological Toxins (ZBS 3), Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, 13353, Germany
| | - Eva-Maria Hansbauer
- Biological Toxins (ZBS 3), Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, 13353, Germany
| | - Christian Müller
- Spiez Laboratory, Federal Office for Civil Protection, Spiez, 3700, Switzerland
| | - Marc A Avondet
- Spiez Laboratory, Federal Office for Civil Protection, Spiez, 3700, Switzerland
| | - Andreas Rummel
- Institut für Toxikologie, Medizinische Hochschule Hannover, 30625, Hannover, Germany
| | - Martin B Dorner
- Biological Toxins (ZBS 3), Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, 13353, Germany
| | - Brigitte G Dorner
- Biological Toxins (ZBS 3), Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, 13353, Germany.
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Abstract
Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) have proved to be an effective treatment for a large number of neuropathic conditions. BoNTs comprise a large family of zinc metalloproteases, but BoNT/A1 is used nearly exclusively for pharmaceutical purposes. The genetic inactivation of a second BoNT gene in the native strain enabled expression and isolation of a single BoNT/A6 from cultures. Its characterization indicated that BoNT/A subtype A6 has a long duration of action comparable to A1, while it enters neurons faster and more efficiently and remains more localized after intramuscular injection. These characteristics of BoNT/A6 are of interest for potential use of BoNT/A6 as a novel BoNT-based therapeutic that is effective and has a fast onset, an improved safety profile, and a long duration of action. Use of BoNT/A6 as a pharmaceutical also has the potential to reveal novel treatment motifs compared to currently used treatments. Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs), the most potent toxins known to humans and the causative agent of botulism, exert their effect by entering motor neurons and cleaving and inactivating SNARE proteins, which are essential for neurotransmitter release. BoNTs are proven, valuable pharmaceuticals used to treat more than 200 neuronal disorders. BoNTs comprise 7 serotypes and more than 40 isoforms (subtypes). BoNT/A1 is the only A-subtype used clinically due to its high potency and long duration of action. While other BoNT/A subtypes have been purified and described, only BoNT/A2 is being investigated as an alternative to BoNT/A1. Here we describe subtype BoNT/A6 with improved pharmacological properties compared to BoNT/A1. It was isolated from Clostridium botulinum CDC41370, which produces both BoNT/B2 and BoNT/A6. The gene encoding BoNT/B2 was genetically inactivated, and A6 was isolated to greater than 95% purity. A6 was highly potent in cultured primary rodent neuronal cultures and in human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neurons, requiring 20-fold less toxin to cause 50% SNAP-25 cleavage than A1. Second, A6 entered hiPSCs faster and more efficiently than A1 and yet had a long duration of action similar to BoNT/A1. Third, BoNT/A6 had similar LD50 as BoNT/A1 after intraperitoneal injection in mice; however, local intramuscular injection resulted in less systemic toxicity than BoNT/A1 and a higher (i.m.) LD50, indicating its potential as a safer pharmaceutical. These data suggest novel characteristics of BoNT/A6 and its potential as an improved pharmaceutical due to more efficient neuronal cell entry, greater ability to remain localized at the injection site, and a long duration. IMPORTANCE Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) have proved to be an effective treatment for a large number of neuropathic conditions. BoNTs comprise a large family of zinc metalloproteases, but BoNT/A1 is used nearly exclusively for pharmaceutical purposes. The genetic inactivation of a second BoNT gene in the native strain enabled expression and isolation of a single BoNT/A6 from cultures. Its characterization indicated that BoNT/A subtype A6 has a long duration of action comparable to A1, while it enters neurons faster and more efficiently and remains more localized after intramuscular injection. These characteristics of BoNT/A6 are of interest for potential use of BoNT/A6 as a novel BoNT-based therapeutic that is effective and has a fast onset, an improved safety profile, and a long duration of action. Use of BoNT/A6 as a pharmaceutical also has the potential to reveal novel treatment motifs compared to currently used treatments.
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Torgeman A, Schwartz A, Diamant E, Baruchi T, Dor E, Ben David A, Pass A, Barnea A, Tal A, Rosner A, Rosen O, Zichel R. Studying the differential efficacy of postsymptom antitoxin treatment in type A versus type B botulism using a rabbit spirometry model. Dis Model Mech 2018; 11:dmm.035089. [PMID: 30115749 PMCID: PMC6177009 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.035089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2018] [Accepted: 07/30/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) serotypes A, B and E are responsible for most cases of human botulism. The only approved therapy for botulism is antitoxin treatment administered to patients after symptom onset. However, a recent meta-analysis of antitoxin efficacy in human botulism cases over the past century concluded that a statistically significant reduction in mortality is associated with the use of type E and type A antitoxin, but not with type B antitoxin. Animal models could be highly valuable in studying postsymptom antitoxin efficacy (PSAE). However, the few attempts to evaluate PSAE in animals relied on subjective observations and showed ∼50% protection. Recently, we developed a novel spirometry model for the quantitative evaluation of PSAE in rabbits and used it to demonstrate full protection against BoNT/E. In the current study, a comparative evaluation of PSAE in botulism types A and B was conducted using this quantitative respiratory model. A lethal dose of each toxin induced a comparable course of disease both in terms of time to symptoms (TTS, 41.9±1.3 and 40.6±1.1 h, respectively) and of time to death (TTD, 71.3±3.1 and 66.3±1.7 h, respectively). However, in accordance with the differential serotypic PSAE observed in humans, postsymptom antitoxin treatment was fully effective only in BoNT/A-intoxicated rabbits. This serotypic divergence was reflected by a positive and statistically significant correlation between TTS and TTD in BoNT/A-intoxicated rabbits (r=0.91, P=0.0006), but not in those intoxicated with BoNT/B (r=0.06, P=0.88). The rabbit spirometry system might be useful in the evaluation toolkit of botulism therapeutics, including those under development and intended to act when antitoxin is no longer effective. Summary: Here, we used a quantitative rabbit respiratory model to study the human-related, differential antitoxin efficacy observed in type A and type B botulism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amram Torgeman
- Department of Biotechnology, Israel Institute for Biological Research, Ness Ziona 7410001, Israel
| | - Arieh Schwartz
- Department of Biotechnology, Israel Institute for Biological Research, Ness Ziona 7410001, Israel
| | - Eran Diamant
- Department of Biotechnology, Israel Institute for Biological Research, Ness Ziona 7410001, Israel
| | - Tzadok Baruchi
- Department of Biotechnology, Israel Institute for Biological Research, Ness Ziona 7410001, Israel
| | - Eyal Dor
- Department of Biotechnology, Israel Institute for Biological Research, Ness Ziona 7410001, Israel
| | - Alon Ben David
- Department of Biotechnology, Israel Institute for Biological Research, Ness Ziona 7410001, Israel
| | - Avi Pass
- Department of Biotechnology, Israel Institute for Biological Research, Ness Ziona 7410001, Israel
| | - Ada Barnea
- Department of Biotechnology, Israel Institute for Biological Research, Ness Ziona 7410001, Israel
| | - Arnon Tal
- Department of Biotechnology, Israel Institute for Biological Research, Ness Ziona 7410001, Israel
| | - Amir Rosner
- The Veterinary Center for Pre-clinical Research, Israel Institute for Biological Research, Ness Ziona 7410001, Israel
| | - Osnat Rosen
- Department of Biotechnology, Israel Institute for Biological Research, Ness Ziona 7410001, Israel
| | - Ran Zichel
- Department of Biotechnology, Israel Institute for Biological Research, Ness Ziona 7410001, Israel
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Benoit RM. Botulinum Neurotoxin Diversity from a Gene-Centered View. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:E310. [PMID: 30071587 PMCID: PMC6115791 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10080310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2018] [Revised: 07/24/2018] [Accepted: 07/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) rank amongst the most potent toxins known. The factors responsible for the emergence of the many known and yet unknown BoNT variants remain elusive. It also remains unclear why anaerobic bacteria that are widely distributed in our environment and normally do not pose a threat to humans, produce such deadly toxins. Even the possibility of accidental toxicity to humans has not been excluded. Here, I review the notion that BoNTs may have specifically evolved to target vertebrates. Considering the extremely complex molecular architecture of the toxins, which enables them to reach the bloodstream, to recognize and enter neurons, and to block neurotransmitter release, it seems highly unlikely that BoNT toxicity to vertebrates is a coincidence. The carcass⁻maggot cycle provides a plausible explanation for a natural role of the toxins: to enable mass reproduction of bacteria, spores, and toxins, using toxin-unaffected invertebrates, such as fly maggots, as the vectors. There is no clear correlation between toxigenicity and a selective advantage of clostridia in their natural habitat. Possibly, non-toxigenic strains profit from carcasses resulting from the action of toxigenic strains. Alternatively, a gene-centered view of toxin evolution would also explain this observation. Toxin-coding mobile genetic elements may have evolved as selfish genes, promoting their own propagation, similar to commensal viruses, using clostridia and other bacteria as the host. Research addressing the role of BoNTs in nature and the origin of toxin variability goes hand in hand with the identification of new toxin variants and the design of improved toxin variants for medical applications. These research directions may also reveal yet unknown natural antidotes against these extremely potent neurotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roger M Benoit
- Laboratory of Biomolecular Research, Division of Biology and Chemistry, Paul Scherrer Institute, Villigen CH-5232, Switzerland.
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36
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Tehran DA, Pirazzini M. Preparation of Cerebellum Granule Neurons from Mouse or Rat Pups and Evaluation of Clostridial Neurotoxin Activity and Their Inhibitors by Western Blot and Immunohistochemistry. Bio Protoc 2018; 8:e2918. [PMID: 34395747 DOI: 10.21769/bioprotoc.2918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2018] [Revised: 06/12/2018] [Accepted: 06/17/2018] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Cerebellar Granule Neurons (CGN) from post-natal rodents have been widely used as a model to study neuronal development, physiology and pathology. CGN cultured in vitro maintain the same features displayed in vivo by mature cerebellar granule cells, including the development of a dense neuritic network, neuronal activity, neurotransmitter release and the expression of neuronal protein markers. Moreover, CGN represent a convenient model for the study of Clostridial Neurotoxins (CNT), most notably known as Tetanus and Botulinum neurotoxins, as they abundantly express both CNT receptors and intraneuronal substrates, i.e., Soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor activating protein receptors (SNARE proteins). Here, we describe a protocol for obtaining a highly pure culture of CGN from postnatal rats/mice and an easy procedure for their intoxication with CNT. We also illustrate handy methods to evaluate CNT activity and their inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Marco Pirazzini
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
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37
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Bano L, Tonon E, Drigo I, Pirazzini M, Guolo A, Farina G, Agnoletti F, Montecucco C. Detection of Clostridium tetani Neurotoxins Inhibited In Vivo by Botulinum Antitoxin B: Potential for Misleading Mouse Test Results in Food Controls. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:toxins10060248. [PMID: 29921757 PMCID: PMC6024680 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10060248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2018] [Accepted: 06/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The presence of botulinum neurotoxin-producing Clostridia (BPC) in food sources is a public health concern. In favorable environmental conditions, BPC can produce botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) outside or inside the vertebrate host, leading to intoxications or toxico-infectious forms of botulism, respectively. BPC in food are almost invariably detected either by PCR protocols targeted at the known neurotoxin-encoding genes, or by the mouse test to assay for the presence of BoNTs in the supernatants of enrichment broths inoculated with the tested food sample. The sample is considered positive for BPC when the supernatant contains toxic substances that are lethal to mice, heat-labile and neutralized in vivo by appropriate polyclonal antibodies raised against purified BoNTs of different serotypes. Here, we report the detection in a food sample of a Clostridium tetani strain that produces tetanus neurotoxins (TeNTs) with the above-mentioned characteristics: lethal for mice, heat-labile and neutralized by botulinum antitoxin type B. Notably, neutralization occurred with two different commercially available type B antitoxins, but not with type A, C, D, E and F antitoxins. Although TeNT and BoNT fold very similarly, evidence that antitoxin B antiserum can neutralize the neurotoxic effect of TeNT in vivo has not been documented before. The presence of C. tetani strains in food can produce misleading results in BPC detection using the mouse test.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Bano
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, 35020 Legnaro, Italy.
| | - Elena Tonon
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, 35020 Legnaro, Italy.
| | - Ilenia Drigo
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, 35020 Legnaro, Italy.
| | - Marco Pirazzini
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, 35131 Padua, Italy.
| | - Angela Guolo
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, 35020 Legnaro, Italy.
| | - Giovanni Farina
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, 35020 Legnaro, Italy.
| | - Fabrizio Agnoletti
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, 35020 Legnaro, Italy.
| | - Cesare Montecucco
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, 35131 Padua, Italy.
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38
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Tehran DA, Pirazzini M. Novel Botulinum Neurotoxins: Exploring Underneath the Iceberg Tip. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:toxins10050190. [PMID: 29748471 PMCID: PMC5983246 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10050190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2018] [Revised: 05/05/2018] [Accepted: 05/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs), the etiological agents of botulism, are the deadliest toxins known to humans. Yet, thanks to their biological and toxicological features, BoNTs have become sophisticated tools to study neuronal physiology and valuable therapeutics for an increasing number of human disorders. BoNTs are produced by multiple bacteria of the genus Clostridium and, on the basis of their different immunological properties, were classified as seven distinct types of toxin. BoNT classification remained stagnant for the last 50 years until, via bioinformatics and high-throughput sequencing techniques, dozens of BoNT variants, novel serotypes as well as BoNT-like toxins within non-clostridial species have been discovered. Here, we discuss how the now “booming field” of botulinum neurotoxin may shed light on their evolutionary origin and open exciting avenues for future therapeutic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Domenico Azarnia Tehran
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Via Ugo Bassi 58/B, 35131 Padova, Italy.
| | - Marco Pirazzini
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Via Ugo Bassi 58/B, 35131 Padova, Italy.
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39
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Abstract
Botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) is the causative agent of botulism and a widely used pharmaceutical to treat a variety of neurological diseases. BoNTs are 150-kDa protein toxins organized into heavy chain (HC) and light chain (LC) domains linked by a disulfide bond. The HC selectively binds to neurons and aids cell entry of the enzymatically active LC. There are seven immunological BoNT serotypes (A to G); each serotype includes genetic variants, termed subtypes. Only two subtypes, BoNT/A1 and BoNT/B1, are currently used as therapeutics. BoNT serotype A (BoNT/A) subtypes A2 to A8 show distinct potency, duration of action, and pathology relative to BoNT/A1. Specifically, BoNT/A3 possesses shorter duration of action and elicits distinct symptoms in mice at high toxin doses. In this report, we analyzed the roles of LC and HC of BoNT/A3 for duration of action, neuronal cell entry, and mouse pathology by using clostridium-derived recombinant hybrid BoNTs consisting of reciprocal LC and HC (BoNTA1/A3 and BoNTA3/A1). Hybrid toxins were processed in their expression host to a dichain BoNT consisting of LC and HC linked via a disulfide bond. The LC and HC defined BoNT potency in mice and BoNT toxicity for cultured neuronal cells, while the LC defined the duration of BoNT action in cell and mouse models. Protein alignment identified a previously unrecognized region within the LC subtype A3 (LC/A3) relative to the other LC serotype A (LC/A) subtypes (low primary acid homology [LPH]) that correlated to intracellular LC localization. This study shows the utility of recombinant hybrid BoNTs with new therapeutic potential, while remaining sensitive to antitoxins and therapies to native BoNT. Botulinum neurotoxins are the most potent protein toxins for humans and potential bioterrorism threats, but they are also widely used as pharmaceuticals. Within the large family of BoNTs, only two subtypes are currently used as pharmaceuticals, with a large number of BoNT subtypes remaining as untapped potential sources for unique pharmaceuticals. Here, two recombinant hybrid toxins were engineered, consisting of domains from two BoNT subtypes that possess distinct duration of action and activity in human neurons and mice. We define the functional domains responsible for BoNT action and demonstrate creation of functional hybrid BoNTs with new therapeutic potential, while remaining sensitive to antitoxins and therapies to native BoNT.
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40
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Discovery of novel bacterial toxins by genomics and computational biology. Toxicon 2018; 147:2-12. [PMID: 29438679 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2018.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2017] [Revised: 12/23/2017] [Accepted: 02/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Hundreds and hundreds of bacterial protein toxins are presently known. Traditionally, toxin identification begins with pathological studies of bacterial infectious disease. Following identification and cultivation of a bacterial pathogen, the protein toxin is purified from the culture medium and its pathogenic activity is studied using the methods of biochemistry and structural biology, cell biology, tissue and organ biology, and appropriate animal models, supplemented by bioimaging techniques. The ongoing and explosive development of high-throughput DNA sequencing and bioinformatic approaches have set in motion a revolution in many fields of biology, including microbiology. One consequence is that genes encoding novel bacterial toxins can be identified by bioinformatic and computational methods based on previous knowledge accumulated from studies of the biology and pathology of thousands of known bacterial protein toxins. Starting from the paradigmatic cases of diphtheria toxin, tetanus and botulinum neurotoxins, this review discusses traditional experimental approaches as well as bioinformatics and genomics-driven approaches that facilitate the discovery of novel bacterial toxins. We discuss recent work on the identification of novel botulinum-like toxins from genera such as Weissella, Chryseobacterium, and Enteroccocus, and the implications of these computationally identified toxins in the field. Finally, we discuss the promise of metagenomics in the discovery of novel toxins and their ecological niches, and present data suggesting the existence of uncharacterized, botulinum-like toxin genes in insect gut metagenomes.
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Davies JR, Rees J, Liu SM, Acharya KR. High resolution crystal structures of Clostridium botulinum neurotoxin A3 and A4 binding domains. J Struct Biol 2017; 202:113-117. [PMID: 29288126 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsb.2017.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2017] [Revised: 12/20/2017] [Accepted: 12/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Clostridium botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) cause the life-threatening condition, botulism. However, while they have the potential to cause serious harm, they are increasingly being utilised for therapeutic applications. BoNTs comprise of seven distinct serotypes termed BoNT/A through BoNT/G, with the most widely characterised being sub-serotype BoNT/A1. Each BoNT consists of three structurally distinct domains, a binding domain (HC), a translocation domain (HN), and a proteolytic domain (LC). The HC domain is responsible for the highly specific targeting of the neurotoxin to neuronal cell membranes. Here, we present two high-resolution structures of the binding domain of subtype BoNT/A3 (HC/A3) and BoNT/A4 (HC/A4) at 1.6 Å and 1.34 Å resolution, respectively. The structures of both proteins share a high degree of similarity to other known BoNT HC domains whilst containing some subtle differences, and are of benefit to research into therapeutic neurotoxins with novel characteristics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan R Davies
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, Claverton Down, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK
| | - Jay Rees
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, Claverton Down, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK
| | - Sai Man Liu
- Ipsen Bioinnovation Limited, 102 Park Lane, Milton Park, Abingdon OX14 4RY, UK
| | - K Ravi Acharya
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, Claverton Down, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK.
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42
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Carle S, Pirazzini M, Rossetto O, Barth H, Montecucco C. High Conservation of Tetanus and Botulinum Neurotoxins Cleavage Sites on Human SNARE Proteins Suggests That These Pathogens Exerted Little or No Evolutionary Pressure on Humans. Toxins (Basel) 2017; 9:toxins9120404. [PMID: 29257047 PMCID: PMC5744124 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9120404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2017] [Revised: 12/14/2017] [Accepted: 12/15/2017] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The Genome Aggregation Database presently contains >120,000 human genomes. We searched in this database for the presence of mutations at the sites of tetanus (TeNT) and botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) cleavages of the three SNARE proteins: VAMP, SNAP-25 and Syntaxin. These mutations could account for some of the BoNT/A resistant patients. At the same time, this approach was aimed at testing the possibility that TeNT and BoNT may have acted as selective agents in the development of resistance to tetanus or botulism. We found that mutations of the SNARE proteins are very rare and concentrated outside the SNARE motif required for the formation of the SNARE complex involved in neuroexocytosis. No changes were found at the BoNT cleavage sites of VAMP and syntaxins and only one very rare mutation was found in the essential C-terminus region of SNAP-25, where Arg198 was replaced with a Cys residue. This is the P1’ cleavage site for BoNT/A and the P1 cleavage site for BoNT/C. We found that the Arg198Cys mutation renders SNAP-25 resistant to BoNT/A. Nonetheless, its low frequency (1.8 × 10−5) indicates that mutations of SNAP-25 at the BoNT/A cleavage site are unlikely to account for the existence of BoNT/A resistant patients. More in general, the present findings indicate that tetanus and botulinum neurotoxins have not acted as selective agents during human evolution as it appears to have been the case for tetanus in rats and chicken.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Carle
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Ulm Medical Center, Albert-Einstein-Allee 11, 89081 Ulm, Germany.
| | - Marco Pirazzini
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Via Ugo Bassi 58/B, 35131 Padova, Italy.
| | - Ornella Rossetto
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Via Ugo Bassi 58/B, 35131 Padova, Italy.
| | - Holger Barth
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Ulm Medical Center, Albert-Einstein-Allee 11, 89081 Ulm, Germany.
| | - Cesare Montecucco
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Via Ugo Bassi 58/B, 35131 Padova, Italy.
- Institute for Neuroscience, National Research Council, Via Ugo Bassi 58/B, 35131 Padova, Italy.
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43
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Mad'arová L, Dorner BG, Schaade L, Donáth V, Avdičová M, Fatkulinová M, Strhársky J, Sedliačiková I, Klement C, Dorner MB. Reoccurrence of botulinum neurotoxin subtype A3 inducing food-borne botulism, Slovakia, 2015. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017; 22:30591. [PMID: 28816652 PMCID: PMC6373608 DOI: 10.2807/1560-7917.es.2017.22.32.30591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2016] [Accepted: 11/25/2016] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
A case of food-borne botulism occurred in Slovakia in 2015. Clostridium botulinum type A was isolated from three nearly empty commercial hummus tubes. The product, which was sold in Slovakia and the Czech Republic, was withdrawn from the market and a warning was issued immediately through the European Commission's Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (RASFF). Further investigation revealed the presence of botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) subtype BoNT/A3, a very rare subtype implicated in only one previous outbreak (Loch Maree in Scotland, 1922). It is the most divergent subtype of BoNT/A with 15.4% difference at the amino acid level compared with the prototype BoNT/A1. This makes it more prone to evading immunological and PCR-based detection. It is recommended that testing laboratories are advised that this subtype has been associated with food-borne botulism for the second time since the first outbreak almost 100 years ago, and to validate their immunological or PCR-based methods against this divergent subtype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucia Mad'arová
- Regional Authority of Public Health Banská Bystrica, Banská Bystrica, Slovakia
| | - Brigitte G Dorner
- Robert Koch Institute, Consultant laboratory for neurotoxin-producing clostridia (botulism, tetanus), Berlin, Germany.,Robert Koch Institute, Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens, Berlin, Germany
| | - Lars Schaade
- Robert Koch Institute, Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens, Berlin, Germany
| | - Vladimír Donáth
- F. D. Roosevelt Teaching Hospital, Department of Neurology, Slovak Medical University, Banská Bystrica, Slovakia
| | - Mária Avdičová
- Regional Authority of Public Health Banská Bystrica, Banská Bystrica, Slovakia
| | - Milota Fatkulinová
- Regional Authority of Public Health Banská Bystrica, Banská Bystrica, Slovakia
| | - Jozef Strhársky
- Regional Authority of Public Health Banská Bystrica, Banská Bystrica, Slovakia
| | - Ivana Sedliačiková
- Regional Authority of Public Health Banská Bystrica, Banská Bystrica, Slovakia
| | - Cyril Klement
- Regional Authority of Public Health Banská Bystrica, Banská Bystrica, Slovakia.,Slovak Medical University, Faculty of Public Health, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Martin B Dorner
- Robert Koch Institute, Consultant laboratory for neurotoxin-producing clostridia (botulism, tetanus), Berlin, Germany.,Robert Koch Institute, Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens, Berlin, Germany
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44
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Pellett S, Tepp WH, Lin G, Johnson EA. Substrate cleavage and duration of action of botulinum neurotoxin type FA ("H, HA"). Toxicon 2017; 147:38-46. [PMID: 29273248 PMCID: PMC5911199 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2017.12.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2017] [Revised: 12/15/2017] [Accepted: 12/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) type FA is the only known naturally occurring chimeric BoNT of domains of BoNT/A and BoNT/F. BoNT/FA consists of an F5-like light chain (LC), a unique heavy chain (HC) translocation domain, and a HC receptor binding domain similar to BoNT/A1. Previous analyses of purified BoNT/FA have indicated a 5-10-fold greater potency in cultured human or rat neurons as compared to BoNT/A1 and a 400-500-fold greater potency compared to BoNT/B1. However, in vivo potency in mice was about 5-fold lower than BoNT/A1 or/B1. In this report, species specificity was examined by cell-based assays using primary neurons from mice and examining VAMP1 and 2 cleavage. The data indicated similar potency of BoNT/FA in primary mouse spinal cord neurons as previously observed in primary rat and human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC) derived neuronal cell models, and equal enzymatic cleavage of mouse VAMP1 and 2 isoforms. Since the duration of action of BoNTs is due to continuous enzymatic activity of the LC in the neuronal cytosol, BoNT/FA was expected to have a short duration of action due to its F-type LC. In this report the duration of action of BoNT/FA was compared to that of BoNT/F1,/F5, and/B1 in both hiPSC derived neurons and in the in vivo mouse model. The data indicate a duration of action of BoNT/FA similar to BoNT/B1, while BoNT/F5 had a short duration of action similar to BoNT/F1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabine Pellett
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin, 1550 Linden Dr., Madison, WI 53706, USA.
| | - William H Tepp
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin, 1550 Linden Dr., Madison, WI 53706, USA.
| | - Guangyun Lin
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin, 1550 Linden Dr., Madison, WI 53706, USA.
| | - Eric A Johnson
- Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin, 1550 Linden Dr., Madison, WI 53706, USA.
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45
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Pirazzini M, Azarnia Tehran D, Zanetti G, Rossetto O, Montecucco C. Hsp90 and Thioredoxin-Thioredoxin Reductase enable the catalytic activity of Clostridial neurotoxins inside nerve terminals. Toxicon 2017; 147:32-37. [PMID: 29111118 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2017.10.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2017] [Revised: 10/21/2017] [Accepted: 10/23/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Botulinum (BoNTs) and tetanus (TeNT) neurotoxins are the most toxic substances known and form the growing family of Clostridial neurotoxins (CNT), the etiologic agents of botulism and tetanus. CNT are composed of a metalloprotease light chain (L), linked via a disulfide bond to a heavy chain (H). H mediates the binding to nerve terminals and the membrane translocation of L into the cytosol, where its substrates, the three SNARE proteins, are localized. L translocation is accompanied by unfolding and, once delivered on the cytosolic side of the endosome membrane, it has to be reduced and reacquire the native fold to be active. The Thioredoxin-Thioredoxin Reductase system (Trx-TrxR) specifically reduces the interchain disulfide bond while the cytosolic chaperone protein Hsp90 mediates L refolding. Both steps are essential for CNT activity and their inhibition efficiently blocks the neurotoxicity in cultured neurons and mice. Trx and its reductase physically interact with Hsp90 and are loosely bound to the cytosolic side of synaptic vesicles, the organelle exploited by CNT to enter nerve terminals and wherefrom L is translocated into the cytosol. Therefore, Trx, TrxR and Hsp90 orchestrate a chaperone-redox molecular machinery that enables the catalytic activity of the L inside nerve terminals. Given the fundamental role of L reduction and refolding, this machinery represents a rational target for the development of mechanism-based antitoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Pirazzini
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Università di Padova, Via U. Bassi 58/B, 35121 Padova, Italy.
| | - Domenico Azarnia Tehran
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Università di Padova, Via U. Bassi 58/B, 35121 Padova, Italy
| | - Giulia Zanetti
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Università di Padova, Via U. Bassi 58/B, 35121 Padova, Italy
| | - Ornella Rossetto
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Università di Padova, Via U. Bassi 58/B, 35121 Padova, Italy
| | - Cesare Montecucco
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Università di Padova, Via U. Bassi 58/B, 35121 Padova, Italy; Istituto CNR di Neuroscienze, Università di Padova, Via U. Bassi 58/B, 35121 Padova, Italy
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46
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Park J, Park HJ. Botulinum Toxin for the Treatment of Neuropathic Pain. Toxins (Basel) 2017; 9:E260. [PMID: 28837075 PMCID: PMC5618193 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9090260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2017] [Revised: 08/18/2017] [Accepted: 08/21/2017] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Botulinum toxin (BoNT) has been used as a treatment for excessive muscle stiffness, spasticity, and dystonia. BoNT for approximately 40 years, and has recently been used to treat various types of neuropathic pain. The mechanism by which BoNT acts on neuropathic pain involves inhibiting the release of inflammatory mediators and peripheral neurotransmitters from sensory nerves. Recent journals have demonstrated that BoNT is effective for neuropathic pain, such as postherpetic neuralgia, trigeminal neuralgia, and peripheral neuralgia. The purpose of this review is to summarize the experimental and clinical evidence of the mechanism by which BoNT acts on various types of neuropathic pain and describe why BoNT can be applied as treatment. The PubMed database was searched from 1988 to May 2017. Recent studies have demonstrated that BoNT injections are effective treatments for post-herpetic neuralgia, diabetic neuropathy, trigeminal neuralgia, and intractable neuropathic pain, such as poststroke pain and spinal cord injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- JungHyun Park
- Department of Anaesthesiology & Pain Medicine, Incheon St. Mary's Hospital, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Incheon 21431, Korea.
| | - Hue Jung Park
- Department of Anaesthesiology & Pain Medicine, Seoul St. Mary's Hospital, College of Medicine, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul 06591, Korea.
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47
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Zanetti G, Sikorra S, Rummel A, Krez N, Duregotti E, Negro S, Henke T, Rossetto O, Binz T, Pirazzini M. Botulinum neurotoxin C mutants reveal different effects of syntaxin or SNAP-25 proteolysis on neuromuscular transmission. PLoS Pathog 2017; 13:e1006567. [PMID: 28800600 PMCID: PMC5568444 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1006567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2017] [Revised: 08/23/2017] [Accepted: 08/03/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Botulinum neurotoxin serotype C (BoNT/C) is a neuroparalytic toxin associated with outbreaks of animal botulism, particularly in birds, and is the only BoNT known to cleave two different SNARE proteins, SNAP-25 and syntaxin. BoNT/C was shown to be a good substitute for BoNT/A1 in human dystonia therapy because of its long lasting effects and absence of neuromuscular damage. Two triple mutants of BoNT/C, namely BoNT/C S51T/R52N/N53P (BoNT/C α-51) and BoNT/C L200W/M221W/I226W (BoNT/C α-3W), were recently reported to selectively cleave syntaxin and have been used here to evaluate the individual contribution of SNAP-25 and syntaxin cleavage to the effect of BoNT/C in vivo. Although BoNT/C α-51 and BoNT/C α-3W toxins cleave syntaxin with similar efficiency, we unexpectedly found also cleavage of SNAP-25, although to a lesser extent than wild type BoNT/C. Interestingly, the BoNT/C mutants exhibit reduced lethality compared to wild type toxin, a result that correlated with their residual activity against SNAP-25. In spite of this, a local injection of BoNT/C α-51 persistently impairs neuromuscular junction activity. This is due to an initial phase in which SNAP-25 cleavage causes a complete blockade of neurotransmission, and to a second phase of incomplete impairment ascribable to syntaxin cleavage. Together, these results indicate that neuroparalysis of BoNT/C at the neuromuscular junction is due to SNAP-25 cleavage, while the proteolysis of syntaxin provides a substantial, but incomplete, neuromuscular impairment. In light of this evidence, we discuss a possible clinical use of BoNT/C α-51 as a botulinum neurotoxin endowed with a wide safety margin and a long lasting effect. The seven established Botulinum Neurotoxins serotypes (BoNT/A to G) and the many BoNT subtypes, the causative agents of botulism, are the most poisonous substances known (lethal doses in the low ng/kg range). Due to their toxicological properties, BoNTs are Janus-faced toxins: potent pathogenic factors and potential bioterrorism agents as well as safe and efficacious therapeutics. BoNTs exert their neuroparalytic action by cleaving SNARE proteins, either SNAP-25 or synaptobrevin/VAMP, which mediate neurotransmitter release at the neuromuscular junction; BoNT/C is the only serotype shown to cleave SNAP-25 and syntaxin-1 in vitro. Our study shows for the first time that this parallel cleavage also occurs in vivo. By using mutated toxins reported to be syntaxin-selective, we found that SNAP-25 proteolysis at the neuromuscular junction is the key determinant of BoNT/C lethality as it completely blocks nerve-muscle transmission. Conversely, syntaxin-1 cleavage only attenuates nerve terminal activity without inactivating the synapse, leading to only a partial decrease of neuromuscular functionality. As a result, the BoNT/C mutants have dramatically reduced lethality, but still modulate neuromuscular junction activity upon intramuscular injection. This aspect is particularly relevant considering the possible use of syntaxin-specific BoNT/C derivatives to improve the present clinical utilization of BoNTs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Zanetti
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Stefan Sikorra
- Institut für Zellbiochemie, Medizinische Hochschule Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Andreas Rummel
- Institut für Toxikologie, Medizinische Hochschule Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Nadja Krez
- Institut für Toxikologie, Medizinische Hochschule Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Elisa Duregotti
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Samuele Negro
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Tina Henke
- Institut für Zellbiochemie, Medizinische Hochschule Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Ornella Rossetto
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Thomas Binz
- Institut für Zellbiochemie, Medizinische Hochschule Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Marco Pirazzini
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
- * E-mail:
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Regulation of Botulinum Neurotoxin Synthesis and Toxin Complex Formation by Arginine and Glucose in Clostridium botulinum ATCC 3502. Appl Environ Microbiol 2017; 83:AEM.00642-17. [PMID: 28455330 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00642-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2017] [Accepted: 04/20/2017] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT), produced by neurotoxigenic clostridia, is the most potent biological toxin known and the causative agent of the paralytic disease botulism. The nutritional, environmental, and genetic regulation of BoNT synthesis, activation, stability, and toxin complex (TC) formation is not well studied. Previous studies indicated that growth and BoNT formation were affected by arginine and glucose in Clostridium botulinum types A and B. In the present study, C. botulinum ATCC 3502 was grown in toxin production medium (TPM) with different levels of arginine and glucose and of three products of arginine metabolism, citrulline, proline, and ornithine. Cultures were analyzed for growth (optical density at 600 nm [OD600]), spore formation, and BoNT and TC formation by Western blotting and immunoprecipitation and for BoNT activity by mouse bioassay. A high level of arginine (20 g/liter) repressed BoNT production approximately 1,000-fold, enhanced growth, slowed lysis, and reduced endospore production by greater than 1,000-fold. Similar effects on toxin production were seen with equivalent levels of citrulline but not ornithine or proline. In TPM lacking glucose, levels of formation of BoNT/A1 and TC were significantly decreased, and extracellular BoNT and TC proteins were partially inactivated after the first day of culture. An understanding of the regulation of C. botulinum growth and BoNT and TC formation should be valuable in defining requirements for BoNT formation in foods and clinical samples, improving the quality of BoNT for pharmaceutical preparations, and elucidating the biological functions of BoNTs for the bacterium.IMPORTANCE Botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) is a major food safety and bioterrorism concern and is also an important pharmaceutical, and yet the regulation of its synthesis, activation, and stability in culture media, foods, and clinical samples is not well understood. This paper provides insights into the effects of critical nutrients on growth, lysis, spore formation, BoNT and TC production, and stability of BoNTs of C. botulinum We show that for C. botulinum ATCC 3502 cultured in a complex medium, a high level of arginine repressed BoNT expression by ca. 1,000-fold and also strongly reduced sporulation. Arginine stimulated growth and compensated for a lack of glucose. BoNT and toxin complex proteins were partially inactivated in a complex medium lacking glucose. This work should aid in optimizing BoNT production for pharmaceutical uses, and furthermore, an understanding of the nutritional regulation of growth and BoNT formation may provide insights into growth and BoNT formation in foods and clinical samples and into the enigmatic function of BoNTs in nature.
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Deubiquitinating enzyme VCIP135 dictates the duration of botulinum neurotoxin type A intoxication. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2017; 114:E5158-E5166. [PMID: 28584101 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1621076114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Botulism is characterized by flaccid paralysis, which can be caused by intoxication with any of the seven known serotypes of botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT), all of which disrupt synaptic transmission by endoproteolytic cleavage of SNARE proteins. BoNT serotype A (BoNT/A) has the most prolonged or persistent effects, which can last several months, and exerts its effects by specifically cleaving and inactivating SNAP25. A major factor contributing to the persistence of intoxication is the long half-life of the catalytic light chain, which remains enzymatically active months after entry into cells. Here we report that BoNT/A catalytic light chain binds to, and is a substrate for, the ubiquitin ligase HECTD2. However, the light chain evades proteasomal degradation by the dominant effect of a deubiquitinating enzyme, VCIP135/VCPIP1. This deubiquitinating enzyme binds BoNT/A light chain directly, with the two associating in cells through the C-terminal 77 amino acids of the light chain protease. The development of specific DUB inhibitors, together with inhibitors of BoNT/A proteolytic activity, may be useful for reducing the morbidity and public health costs associated with BoNT/A intoxication and could have potential biodefense implications.
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50
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Pirazzini M, Rossetto O, Eleopra R, Montecucco C. Botulinum Neurotoxins: Biology, Pharmacology, and Toxicology. Pharmacol Rev 2017; 69:200-235. [PMID: 28356439 PMCID: PMC5394922 DOI: 10.1124/pr.116.012658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 410] [Impact Index Per Article: 58.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The study of botulinum neurotoxins (BoNT) is rapidly progressing in many aspects.
Novel BoNTs are being discovered owing to next generation sequencing, but their
biologic and pharmacological properties remain largely unknown. The molecular
structure of the large protein complexes that the toxin forms with accessory
proteins, which are included in some BoNT type A1 and B1 pharmacological
preparations, have been determined. By far the largest effort has been dedicated to
the testing and validation of BoNTs as therapeutic agents in an ever increasing
number of applications, including pain therapy. BoNT type A1 has been also exploited
in a variety of cosmetic treatments, alone or in combination with other agents, and
this specific market has reached the size of the one dedicated to the treatment of
medical syndromes. The pharmacological properties and mode of action of BoNTs have
shed light on general principles of neuronal transport and protein-protein
interactions and are stimulating basic science studies. Moreover, the wide array of
BoNTs discovered and to be discovered and the production of recombinant BoNTs endowed
with specific properties suggest novel uses in therapeutics with increasing
disease/symptom specifity. These recent developments are reviewed here to provide an
updated picture of the biologic mechanism of action of BoNTs, of their increasing use
in pharmacology and in cosmetics, and of their toxicology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Pirazzini
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Italy (M.P., O.R., C.M.); Neurologic Department, University-Hospital S. Maria della Misericordia, Udine, Italy (R.E.); and Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Institute of Neuroscience, University of Padova, Italy (C.M.)
| | - Ornella Rossetto
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Italy (M.P., O.R., C.M.); Neurologic Department, University-Hospital S. Maria della Misericordia, Udine, Italy (R.E.); and Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Institute of Neuroscience, University of Padova, Italy (C.M.)
| | - Roberto Eleopra
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Italy (M.P., O.R., C.M.); Neurologic Department, University-Hospital S. Maria della Misericordia, Udine, Italy (R.E.); and Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Institute of Neuroscience, University of Padova, Italy (C.M.)
| | - Cesare Montecucco
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Italy (M.P., O.R., C.M.); Neurologic Department, University-Hospital S. Maria della Misericordia, Udine, Italy (R.E.); and Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Institute of Neuroscience, University of Padova, Italy (C.M.)
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